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I 





I 











t 






1 












'THE. 



CONTAINING A SYSTEMATIC AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON EVERY SUB¬ 
JECT PERTAINING TO FARM AND HOME LIFE IN AMERICA. 


I 




VOL. II. H-Z. 



(^v>er ©ne Ifllustratlone. 

> « 

> > 

'• > ) 

. ‘ M ^ 



CHAPMAN BROTHERS. 


1882. 


/ 















Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year i88i, by 
CHAPMAN BROTHERS, 


In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, P. C. 






¥ 


J 








ACK, a horse, or coach, or other carriage, 
hackneyed or let out for common hire; a 
hackney coach; also a family horse used in 
all kinds of work as distinguished from hunt- 
and carriage horses. 

T Hackberry, a tree of the elm kind, growing 
j sparingly in all our forests and bearing sweet, 

' edible fruits the size of a small cherry. 

Hackle, an instrument with teeth for separating the 
coarse part of flax or hemp from the fine; a hatchel; 
any flimsy substance unspun, as raw silk; a fly for 
angling, dressed with feathers or silk; a long, shining 
feather on the neck of a cock. 

Hackney, let out for hire, as a coach. 

Hail, a species of snow or snowy rain, which has 
undergone several congelations and superficial melt¬ 
ings, in its passage through different zones of the at¬ 
mosphere, some temperate and others frozen. It is 
generally formed by sudden alternations in fine 
season. Hailstones are often of considerable dimen- , 
sions, exceeding sometimes the length of an inch. 
They sometimes fall with a velocity of 70 feet a 
second, or about 50 miles an hour. Their great mo¬ 
mentum, arising from this velocity, renders them very 
destructive, particularly in hot climates. They not 
only beat down the crops, and strip trees of their leaves, 
fruits and branches, but sometimes kill even large 
beasts and men. The phenomena attending the form¬ 
ation and fall of hail are not well understood. An 
explanation offered is, that they must have been 
originally formed at an altitude in the atmosphere 
where the temperature is greatly below 32'^, and that, 
in consequence of their extreme coldness, they ac¬ 
quired magnitude during their descent by condensing 
on their respective surfaces the vapors contained in 
the electrified cloud and atmosphere through which 
they passed. The difficulty, however, is not alto¬ 
gether obviated by this conjectural explanation. In 
this country hailstorms seldom assume any remark¬ 
able appearance, but in some other countries, espe¬ 
cially in the southern districts of France between the 
Ali)s and the Pyrenees, hailstorms are so violent, and 
the hailstones so large, as frequently to lay waste large 
districts of country. Of late years some very disas¬ 
trous hailstorms have occurred in portions of the 
Western United States and Western Ontario. These 
storms have invariably been accompanied with thun¬ 
der and a violent squall or whirlwind. Individual 
hailstones have been known to weigh as much as five . 


ounces, but there are stories in existence of much 
heavier ones. These large particles of ice are seldom 
globular, but rather of an irregular and angular shape. 
Hailstorms generally occur during the hottest period 
of the year,'and seldom during night or winter. 

Hair. The hair of the human scalp is an import¬ 
ant charge, both in regard to health and to etiquette. 

Fine hair has been, in all ages, considered as a 
beautiful ornament, and the proper management of 
it is well deserving of attention; as this will be assist¬ 
ed somewhat by a knowledge of its structure and 
mode of growth, we shall first describe these. 

Each hair is a hollow tube attached to a root or 
bulb, which grows in the skin. The shaft of the hair 
is of a horny substance, but the bulb is furnished 
with vessels and nerves, as is evident from the pain 
which is felt in pulling the hair by the roots. When 
the roots are pulled out, the hair does not grow again. 
Although the hair is tubular, if it has never been cut 
it is closed at the points, which are sharp, as may be 
seen in the large hairs that form the whiskers of ani¬ 
mals, and from the hair of which camel’s-hair pencils 
are made, which becomes useless if the points are cut 
off". There is probably a circulation of some fluids in 
hair, although, from its minute structure, this cannot 
be ascertained; but it may be inferred from the change 
that takes place in its color. It is well known that 
the hair of the human head is almost always lighter, 
and sometimes of a different tint, in childhood than it 
becomes afterward; and as old age advances, it ex¬ 
periences, in most people who do not become bald, 
the remarkable change into gray. The time at which 
hair turns gray varies remarkably in different persons; 
and it is frequently accelerated by great anxiety of 
mind, of which singular instances have been recorded. 
The turning gray is very different from falling off; the 
latter appears the consequence of some decay at the 
roots, whereas they are only the most permanent hairs 
that ever become gray; the strongest and darkest 
colored are the most liable to the change, and are 
longer in being shed than those which have preserved 
their color. Hair when gray appears to be in some 
degree transparent, and has a remarkable silvery or 
glistening appearance. 

The color of hair is various, but limited within cer¬ 
tain boundaries. It varies from very light flaxen to a 
deep raven black, and goes through the shades of 
yellow or golden, to reddish and red, auburn or light 
brown, and dark brown, and blackish brown. 

The proper management of hair is very simple. It 








634 


I/A/J?. 


should be kept as clean as }X)ssible, by daily brushing 
and removal of the dandruff that forms upon the skin, 
and occasionally washing with pure water, which will 
have no injurious effect on the health, providing the 
hair is not very long, so as to make drying it difficult. 
To assist in drying it thoroughly, dip the brush in a 
very little hair powder, and brush it out again; after 
that a little good perfumed pomatum may be brushed 
in; too much not only makes the hair greasy but in¬ 
jures it. There is a natural oil secreted by the hair, 
which serves to keep it in good order; sometimes this 
is defective, and the hair becomes dry and harsh; it 
is then proper to supply the deficiency by a little po¬ 
matum or oil. The use of these gives to hair a fine 
gloss just in the same way as a mahogany table is 
made to shine by rubbing it with wax, which fills up 
all the minute cavities with a smooth substance. A 
multitude of hair oils are sold by the druggists under 
vafious names, their compositions being kept secret; 
and each of them is said to have extraordinary qual¬ 
ities. Most of those which are advertised are expens¬ 
ive, and persons who have tried them agree that their 
pretended virtues are extravagantly overrated. 

When hair is allowed to grow very long without cut¬ 
ting, it is observed that it splits at the points, which 
injures its growth; an inch or two should then be cut 
off. Curling is best effected in the usual way, by paper¬ 
ing. Using hot irons is apt to injure the hair. 

The plentiful growth and agreeable appearance of 
hair is usually promoted by general health and simple 
management; and more dependence may be placed 
on them than on any arts which the perfumer may 
pretend to. 

The loss of hair which occasions baldness is a usual 
effect of old age; but it takes place not unfrequently at 
early periods of life. Premature loss of hair is indic¬ 
ative of some derangement of the bodily system, by 
which the ordinary functions of the skin are in the de¬ 
fective state. The causes of this may be various, and 
are not easily investigated. Though the hair has be¬ 
gun to come off, this effect will sometimes cease with 
the return of perfect health; and whatever can restore 
the proper action of the skin will contribute most ef¬ 
fectually to preserve the hair. But when baldness 
has actually taken place for some time, it may well 
be doubted whether any application can reproduce 
hair upon the part from which it has disappeared, 
particularly after the person has advanced to a cer¬ 
tain time of life. This defect is almost peculiar to 
men; women at an advanced age, though their hair 
becomes white, are seldom affected with this disease. 
When the hair is observed beginning to come off, the 
defect is frequently owing to a dryness of the skin 
and some want of nourishment at the roots; in that 
case a little good pomatum may check the evil, and 
prevent its extending. 

In the daily papers are seen numerous advertise¬ 
ments of preparations for restoring the hair which has 
fallen off; and we are confidently assured that, through 
their virtues, thousands of persons who had been bald 
are now adorned with luxuriant tresses. It is reallv 


amusing to observe how far impudence can go, and 
credulity can lead to being duped ; and one would 
imagine that the extravagant style and gross ignorance 
displayed in these puffs would be sufficient to expose 
them. The best of these nostrums, that is, those v hich 
contain nothing deleterious, are little more than some 
of the ordinary fats or oils, colored and perfumed, and 
which any person may prepare for himself at one 
twentieth of what they cost in the stores to say noth¬ 
ing of the latter being totally useless as to the pur^xDse 
for which they are recommended. See page 43. 

Although there is a very general idea that the fat 
of the bear, or bear’s grease, promotes the growth of 
hair more than other material, in consequence of the 
extravagant advertisements by which its sale is an¬ 
nounced, yet it is, in fact, no more efficacious than 
common pomatum, which it much resembles. Indeed, 
it is more than probable that the greatest part of that 
which is sold for bear’s grease never came from 
that animal. Real bear’s grease has a very disagree¬ 
able smell; and this is imitated, it is said, by using 
the fat of an old goat, or rancid hog’s lard. The least 
evil is, that the weak and credulous will throw away 
their money ; but there is the greater danger that they 
may be seriously injured by compounds made up by 
persons ignorant of the nature of the ingredients they 
put together, and totally unfit to be trusted when 
health is so much concerned. 

Hair Powder, at one time universally worn, is now 
scarcely used, except for occasionally drying or clean¬ 
ing the hair, and similar purposes. It is merely wheat 
starch powdered very fine. It was fonnerly made of 
various colors, and perfumed. 

To Cleanse the Hair. Ammonia should not be 
used on the hair; it injures the gloss and softness, 
causing the hair to become harsh and dry. The best 
way to cleanse the hair and keep the scalp healthy is 
to beat up a fresh egg and rub it well into the hair, or 
if more convenient, rub it into the hair without beat¬ 
ing. Rub the egg in until a lather is formed; occa¬ 
sionally wet the hands in warm water, softened with 
borax; by the time a lather is formed the scalp is 
clean ; then rinse the egg all out in a basin of warm 
water, containing a table-spoonful of powdered borax; 
after that, rinse in one clear warm water. 

Dandruff may be removed by an application of 
borax and warm water, or the yolk of an egg beaten 
up in warm water. Another good wash consists of 
powdered camphor i ounce, and pulverized borax 2 
ounces, mixed with 2 quarts of boiling water poured 
over it; bottle when cold. 

Hair Dyes are all injurious, no matter what the 
acbvertisers and uneducated fops may say. When gray 
hairs begin to appear, at first awhile they may be 
plucked out, but afterward let nature take its course. 
Gray hairs often have a charming effect, even when 
associated with a comparatively youthful face. 

To Make the Hair Curl, apply a mixture of i 
pound olive oil, i dram of oil of origanum, and 1 
drams oil of rosemary. 

Po.made. Take the marrow out of a beef shank- 












HALTER~HAM. 


635 


bone, and put it into a jam pot; set the pot in a sauce¬ 
pan of water, and boil until the marrow is quite melted. 
Then strain and add scent to liking; ottar of roses is 
nicest. Lard, 5 ounces; olive oil, 2^' ounces; castor 
oil ounce; yellow wax and spermaceti, of each, 
ounce. These ingredients are to be liquefied over a 
water bath; then add, when cool, the following per¬ 
fume : essence of lemon, essence of bergamot, of each, 
60 drops; oil of cloves, 15 drops. 

Making Hair Grow. If the head be perfectly 
bald, nothing will ever cause the hair to grow again. 
If the scalp be glossy and no small hairs are discerni¬ 
ble, the roots or follicles are dead, and you might as 
well cause an arm^to grow again after it has been 
amputated. However, if small hairs are to be seen 
there is hope. Use the following every day: Brush 
well, and bathe the bald spot three or four times a 
week with cold soft water; carbonate of ammonia, 
I dram; tincture of cantharides, 4 drams; bay rum, 4 
ounces; castor oil, 2 ounces. 

. To Restore the Hair after Illness. Equal 
parts of best brandy and strong black tea, shaken well 
together and rubbed well into the roots of the hair 
once daily, will usually restore the hair after long ill¬ 
ness. Be careful not to scratch or irritate the scalp 
with rough combing and brushing. The mixture should 
be made at least once in three days, even in cool 
weather. 

To Keep the Hair from Turning Grey. Take 
the hulls of butternuts, say about 4 ounces, and infuse 
in a quart of water. Then add ounce of copperas. 
Apply with a soft brush every second or third day. 
This preparation is harmless, and, we have reason for 
believing, has never been published. It is far better 
than those dyes made of nitrate of silver. 

The hair should be in good trim. The gentleman 
will keep his hair cut to just such length as will set 
the neatest and most gracefully; will divide it by a 
straight line an inch or a little more to the left (or 
right) of the middle of the forehead, and comb and 
brush thoroughly, until every stubborn lock and hair 
is made to take its place. 

A lady’s hair should be brushed for at least ten min¬ 
utes three times a day,—morning, noon and night, 
with a brush of moderate hardness.- The hair should 
be separated, one lock after another, in order that the 
head itself may be well brushed and the scurf removed. 
In brushing or combing begin at the extreme points; 
in combing, hold the portion of hair just above that 
through which the comb is passing, firmly between 
the first and second fingers, so that, if it becomes en¬ 
tangled, it may draw from that point and not from the 
roots. Jerking the comb violently through tangled 
hair breaks off much of it, rendering it uneven and un¬ 
controllable. About once a month it is well to clip 
off the ends of the hair with shears, to make it even. 

Halter, a loose rope-bridle, or strap, without bits or 
curbs, and used simply for leading a horse or tying 
him up. The plain or common halter is a very sim- 
j)le affair; but when this can be slipped by a tricky 


horse, a halter is used with head-gear, two straps and 
a second throat band. 

Ham, To Cure. Cover the bottom of the cask 
with coarse salt, lay on the hams with the smooth or 
skin side down, sprinkle over fine salt, then another 
layer of hams, and so continue until the cask is full. 
Make a brine in the following proportions: Six gal¬ 
lons v/ater, 9 pounds salt, 4 pounds brown sugar, 3 
ounces salt-peter, i ounce saleratus. Scald and skim, 
and when cold pour the brine into the cask until the 
hams are completely covered. The hams should 
remain in the pickle at least three months, and a little 
longer time would do no harm. A handful each of 
mace and cloves scattered in the brine will greatly 
improve the flavor of the meat. If it is desired to 
give a red coloring to the hams use eight ounces salt¬ 
peter to two pounds salt. 

The following is another method used successfully 
by many; Put a layer of salt on the bottom of the 
cask, and put in the hams, sprinkling salt freely over 
each layer. Make a pickle in proportion of i lbs. of 
salt and i lbs. sugar to a gallon of water; boil, skim, 
and when ccol pour over the hams. In six weeks 
or two months they will be sufficiently salted, when 
they are to be taken out, dried, and smoked. 

In pickling meat, salt and sugar are all that 
are really needed, but saltpeter and potash 
are often added. The only use of saltpeter in pick¬ 
ling meats is to preserve the red color; jwtash is 
thought to make them more tender. 

Besides the method of pickling hams they may be 
cured dry. For this, place a table or platform of 
boards where the drip will do no harm, or so arrange 
cleats as to direct it into a pail. Mix one pound of 
brown sugar with every four pounds of salt; rub the 
hams, etc., with this daily for a week, and afterwards 
every two or three days for two weeks more. Brush 
off and smoke. 

Preservation of Hams. To preserve hams ac¬ 
cording to the commercial method, case each one in 
canvas, after it is smoked, for the purpose of defend¬ 
ing it from the attacks of the bacon beetle (see page 
43), which soon fills the ham with its maggots. The 
canvas should then be whitewashed. This trouble¬ 
some process can be avoided by the use of pyroligne¬ 
ous acid. With a painter’s brush, dipped into the 
liquid, one man, in the course of a day, may effectually 
secure 200 hams from all danger. Care should be 
taken to insinuate the liquid into all the cracks, etc., 
of the under surface. This method is especially 
adapted to the preservation of hams in hot climates. 
For directions concerning smoking hams, see “Bacon.” 

Mutton Hams. To pickle for drying: First take 
weak brine and put the hams into it for 2 days, then 
pour off and apply the following, and let it remain on 
from 2 to 3 weeks, according to size: For each 100 
pounds take salt, 6 pounds; saltpeter, i ounce; sale¬ 
ratus, 2 ounces; molasses, i pint; water, 6 gallons, 
will cover these if closely packed. The saleratus 
keeps the mutton from becoming too hard. 













636 


HAMBURG FOWLS—HARD WATER. 


To Boil a Ham. Put a ham in a boiler, while the 
water is cold; be careful that it boils slowly. A ham 
of 20 pounds takes four hours and a half; larger and 
smaller in proportion. Keep the water well skimmed. 
A green ham wants no soaking, but an old one must 
be soaked 16 hours in a large tub of water. 

To Steam a Ham. If the ham has been hung for 
some time, put it into cold water and let it soak all 
night, or let it lie on a damp stone sprinkled with 
water for two days to mellow. Wash it well, put it 
into a steamer—there are proper ones made for the 
purpose—over a pot of boiling water. Steam it for as 
long a time as the weight requires, the proportion of 
time given above. 

This is by far the best way of cooking a ham. It 
prevents waste and retains the flavor. When it is 
done, skin it and strew bread-raspings over it as usual. 
If you preserve the skin as whole as possible and 
cover the ham when cold with it, it will prevent its 
becoming dr)\ 

Ham and Eggs. Chop finely some cold boiled 
ham, fat and lean together, say a jxiund to 4 eggs; 
put a piece of butter in the pan, then the ham; let it 
get well warmed through, then beat the eggs light; 
stir them in briskly. 

To Bake Ham. Take a medium-sized ham and 
place it to soak for 10 or 12 hours. Then cut away 
the rusty part from underneath, wipe it dry, and cover 
it rather thickly over with a paste of flour and water. 
Put it into an earthen dish and set it into a moderately 
heated oven for 4 hours. When done, take off the 
crust carefully and peel off the skin; put a frill of 
cut paper around the knuckle and raspings of bread 
over the fat of the ham, or serve it glazed and gar¬ 
nished with cut vegetables. 

Hamburg Fowls, a species of domestic fowl: see 
page 5 24. 

Hames, a pair of curved pieces of wood or metal 
in the harness of a draught horse, to which the traces 
are fastened and which lie upon the collar. 

Hampshire Down Sheep, a breed of English 
sheep. See Sheep. 

Hand, a lineal measure of height. It is the usual 
or average breadth of the fist or clenched hand, and 
is commonly reckoned at four inches. This measure 
is used in computing the height of horses; so that a 
horse of five feet in height is technically said to stand 
15 hands high. 

Hand-Drill, a drill sowing implement driven or 
drawn by hand. See page 359. 

Handicap, a race in which the horses carry differ¬ 
ent weights, according to their age and character for 
speed, etc., with a view to equalize the chances as 
much as possible; an allowance of a certain amount 
of time or distance in starting, granted in a race to the 
competitor possessing inferior advantages, or an 
additional weight or other hindrance imposed upon 
the one possessing superior advantages, in order to 


equalize, as much as possible, the means of success; 
as, the “ handicap was five seconds,” “ ten pounds,” 
etc. The term is similarly used in marksmanship. 

Hands. For the prevention and treatment of chap¬ 
ped hands, see Chapping. 

Hand-saw, a saw to be used by one hand. Those 
hand-saws which have teeth slanting forward, or 
downward, for cutting wood in the direction of the 
fiber, are called “ rip-saws,” or “ ripping-saws.” Never 
give a hand-saw a “temporary” filing by merely 
sharpening the ix)ints, as that will almost spoil the 
saw and increase the labor of the regular saw-filer. 
In filing, lay the file evenly upon the whole of one 
side of a tooth, and, with considerable pressure down¬ 
ward, thrust the file steadily out. Two or three cuts 
of this kind are generally sufficient for one side of a 
tooth; sometimes even one thrust is sufficient, if the 
file is good and the work skillfully done, d’o keep the 
saw from rusting, keep it dry and slightly oiled,— 
well rubbed with sweet oil or any grease or oil in which 
there is no salt and out of which all the water has been 
driven by heat. 

Hanging, or Strangling. After taking the cord 
from the neck, proceed with artificial respiration, as 
for drowning, page 362. 

Hard Water. The tear and wear of clothes by 
the system necessary for washing in hard water is 
very important in the economical consideration of the 
question. The difference in this respect between 
hard and soft water is very striking. Hard water 
almost always contains carbonate of lime or chalk, as 
well as selenite. By boiling the water this is separated, 
and forms the fur or crust on the inside of tea-kettles; 
so that hard water is rendered somewhat softer by 
boiling, but not quite soft. For chemical purposes 
this property may be wholly obviated by adding to 
the water a small quantity of barytic solution. It is 
this selenite or g}q:)sum which gives the water its 
hardness. Such water curdles soap, and is therefore 
unfit to wash with. The sulphuric acid of the selenite 
attaches itself to the alkali of the soap whilst the oil 
and lime are separated in flakes, and give the appear¬ 
ance of curdling. It is a common practice to add 
wood-ashes or concentrated lye or potash to hard 
water when it is required for washing purposes; in this 
case the alkali of the ashes or potash decomposes the 
selenite. Peas and vegetables retain their color 
better when boiled in hard than when boiled in soft 
water, but they are not so soft and tender. Soft water 
is best adapted to most manufactories, as brewing, 
dyeing, etc. In dyeing, if hard water is used, the 
selenite, or its earthy part, is deposited in the stuff 
and prevents the coloring particles from penetrating. 
In brewing, or any other process where water is used 
to extract the virtues from vegetables or from animal 
matter, soft water is best, because its solvent ])owers 
are greatest. In making tea, hard water will not 
extract as much as soft, unless the tea be powdered, 
for it has not so much power in softening and opening 
the tea leaves. 










//AJ^.VBSS. 


637 


Harness. The harness of any draught animal, 
whatever be its parts, should in every instance ex¬ 
actly fit the animal and always be in good order. 
The collar and saddle, in particular, ought' to be 
exact in size and shape, and thoroughly adapted to 
ease and comfort; for when they incommode the 
animal, or render him uncomfortable, or especially 
when they gall him, they make him restless and 
reluctant to work, destroy his temper and waste 
his powers. Even an improper adjustment of the 
harness or the girth may greatly distress him, and 
waste much, both of his strength and temper. 

How to select good harness. The great 
difficulty, even to expei'ts, of judging the quality 
of leather when manufactiu'ed, and of the honesty 
of the workmanship, is so great that the onh^ 
safety lies in buying from dealers whose reputa¬ 
tion is above suspicion, and buying nothing for 
which less than a fair price is asked. The follow¬ 
ing hints may probably be of some assistance: 
All good harness leather is made from the hides of 
neat cattle, tanned either with oak or hemlock 
bark, the former being very much the best. 
Leather tanned with oak bark alone has when 
cut a yellowish drab color, without the least tinge 
of red, while that tanned either wholly or in part 
with hemlock bark has a pronounced reddish cast. 
If this reddish hue is very prominent on cutting 
across the end of a strap, etc., do not buy that set 
of harness. When leather has been perfectly 
tanned, it is of the same color throughout its thick¬ 
ness; if in cutting across (as above) and moistening 
the freshly cut surface with the tongue it shows a 
lighter streak in the center, reject. See that the 
wrinkles which are always found on the black 
side of the leather run across, and not lengthwise 
of, the strap. Beware of varnished leather; the 
best quality does not need doctoring. Rotten 
or halfrtanned leather is never so soft or pliable as 
fully tanned and good stock. Where good thread 
is used long stitches are better than short ones. 
The slits made by the dagger-shaped awl should 
not run in the direction of the stitching, as is some¬ 
times done in cheap harness, as it weakens the 
leather by a too continuous line of cutting. With 
proper stitching the end of the slits show on either 
side of the stitches. Never buy harness with 
leather-covered buckles, turrets, etc., as such arti¬ 
cles are apt to be weak. 

Collar. The collar should be soft, spongy 
and elastic, fit snugly, except that there should be 
plenty of room under the throat, so that there be 
no danger of choking when drawing heavy loads 
up hill. The collar should not be too narrow op¬ 
posite the sides of the throat. To fit one to a 
horse, soak it well in water and then let the ani¬ 
mal draw heavy loads with it until dry; but even 
for this process a collar of the proper proportions 
should be selected. Those which are open at the 


top do not afford so firm a resistance to the draft, 
and break sooner than those made solid. The 
best are always lined with leather. Care must 

be taken that they are 
neither so tight as to 
obstruct the breathing, 
nor so loose as to gall the 
shoulders. The breast 
collar, for light work, is 
much better and hand¬ 
somer than the English 
collar. For a horse col¬ 
lar, a good sweat pad 
is a great utility. 

Benoit’s patent sweat 
pad for horse collars, as 
represented by Fig. i,is 
composed of series of 
detachable sections enclosed in a case adapted to 
receive them. The object is to prevent the injury 
or discomfort arising from the pressure of a horse 

collar upon the shoulders of 
the animal, and the bruises 
and sores consequent upon the 
same; and to permit such to 
readily heal after they have 
been produced, by relieving 
the pressure, which is accom¬ 
plished by detaching such sec¬ 
tion or sections as would bear 
upon the affected parts. This 
is the only philosophical the¬ 
ory and common-sense remedy 
known, and this device will 
readily commend itself to ev¬ 
ery one who has the welfare of 
the horse in consideration. 

Hames. Such hames should 
be selected as fit the adjusted 
collar; for otherwise the best 
collar in the world might be 
spoiled. Very often the col¬ 
lar is “blamed” for the mis¬ 
chief which the hames have 
slyly done. As to the mate¬ 
rial, etc., of this article, the 
iron tubular is probably the 
best, such as Hayden’s patent. 
Fig. 2. 

There is also manufactured 
a safety fastener for hames, 
which is a very great improve¬ 
ment in this line (Figs. 3 and 
4). It can be lengthened or 
Fig. shortened, and is particularly 

Homes. Serviceable where the horse 

has fallen down and the unhitching must be done 
instantly. It is as well adapted for light driving 
as well as for the heaviest truck. A good neck- 



Fig. I. —Sweat Pad. 













































638 


BAJ^JVBSS. 





valuable with quick starting, impatient horses, and 
is a great help in preventing that bad habit, 
balking. 


Fig. 6. —/. X. L. Spring Tug Link. 


Fig. Fastener — Opened. 


Fig. 4. — Hame Fastener — Closed. 

yoke adjuster, to go with the hames-strap, is illus¬ 
trated by the two cuts of Fig. 5. 

The “back-band” at 
the present day is uniform¬ 
ly made to work clear of 
the back-bone, so as not to 
gall that part of the ani¬ 
mal. The sweat-pads or 
cushions underneath the 
band have a constant tend¬ 
ency to harden and be¬ 
come foul; hence they need 
frequent cleaning and oil¬ 
ing. In all justice, they 
should be thus renewed 
once for every day’s work 
in warm weather, and once 
or twice for each week’s 
work in cold weather. 

This cleaning and oiling 
should be done when they 
are taken off the horse, 
and while they are warm, 
otherwise it is a difficult task to do the work well. 
Oil or grease should not be left on the pads in 
slovenly quantities, but the surplus should be 
wiped off clean. 

The subjects of the “belly-band,” back-strap 
and of the “martingales” need no remarks. 
Cruppers should be large and soft. To keep 
them soft, however, they require treatment similar 
to that of sweat-pads, described on preceding page. 

Breeching is necessary only when a team is 
required to back a load occasionally, or in a hilly 
country where the wagon is not sufficient!}' pro¬ 
vided with a brake. In all cases, however, it is 
safer to have good breeching, although its appear¬ 
ance is not “ tasteful.” 

Tug. The most important improvement made 
recently with reference to tugs, or traces, is a 
spring link, which, as it works, catches and saves 
the force of a team in starting. It is especialIv 


Reins. Those which are rounded, folded or 
seamed are inclined to become hard or rotten, and 
are therefore not so reliable as those which are flat 
the whole length. Reins should be so strong that 
in case a trace or a whiffle-tree should break the 
team can draw the load by their mouths. 

On the subject of the halter little need be said. 
To prevent that disgusting habit with son ' horses 


Fig. 5. — Barnes' Neck-Toke Adjuster, 

called “ cribbing,” “ stump-sucking,” etc., a kind 

of halter attach¬ 
ment (Fig. 7) has 
been invented, con¬ 
taining needles, 
which pnck the un¬ 
der jaw when the 
animal opens h i s 
mouth very wide. 
The needles are so 
guarded that they 
operate at no other 
time, and cannot be 
Fig. ^.-Cribbing Halter. broken. One o r 

two trials with this arrangement cures the habit. 
See Bridle, Saddle and Horseback-Riding. 

Care of Harness. It is best to have a closet 
or harness room where there is much fine harness 
to be kept, as the ammonia from the stalls consumes 























HARNESS—HARRIER. 


the oil of the leather; at least they should be cov¬ 
ered, if with nothing but a sheet. Dust and moist¬ 
ure should be carefully wiped from harness with a 
woolen cloth when taken from a horse, and the bits 
and plated mountings rubbed with an oiled rag. All 
harness should, two or three times a year, be thor¬ 
oughly overhauled, cleaned, oiled and repaired. Take 
it all apart, soak and wash it thoroughly with a stiff 
brush in strong soap-suds, and then black it with the 
following preparation; equal parts of oil and tallow, 
with sufficient lampblack to give it color; or, what is 
better, Prussian blue, which will give it a new and 
fresh look. The latter should be sparingly applied 
but well rubbed in, with a quick motion. Another 
good harness polish consists of 2 ounces mutton suet, 
6 ounces beeswax, 6 ounces powdered sugar candy, 
2 ounces soft soap, and i ounce indigo or lampblack. 
Dissolve the soap in ^ pint of water, and then add 
the other ingredients; melt and mix together, and add 
a gill of turpentine. Lay it on the harness with a 
sponge, and polish off with a brush. The best water¬ 
proof harness blacking is made by mixing together i 
pound beeswax, i ounce Prussian blue ground in 2 
ounces linseed oil, ^ pound ivory black, 3 ounces 
turpentine, and i ounce copal varnish; warm these 
and form into cakes. .This i; called “ cake blacking.” 
Harness needs special care after they have been in a 
soaking rain on the team. Taken wet from the horse 
after a rain or melting snow upon them, and hung up 
in a careless, twisted shape, it will dry or freeze in 
that shape, become unstitched and persistently out of 
shape for comfortable sitting on the horse. When the 
plated metal becomes tarnished, rub first with whiting 
alone, and then with a woolen cloth moistened with oil. 

Cheap Color for the Edge. Soft water, i gal¬ 
lon; extract of logwood, r ounce; and boil them until 
the extract is dissolved, then remove from the fire and 
add copperas, 2 ounces; bi-chromate of potash and 
gum arabic, of each ^ ounce; all to be pulverized. 

This makes a cheap and good color for shoe or har¬ 
ness edge; but for cobbling or for new work, upon 
which you do not wish to use the “ hot kit,” but finish 
with heel-ball, you will find that if, as you pour this 
out into the bottle to use, you put a tablespoonful of 
lampblack to each pint of it, it will make a blacker 
and nicer finish. It m.akes a good color for cheap 
work, but for fine work nothing will supersede the first. 

The common way of oiling a harness is to apply as 
much neat’s-foot oil containing lampblack as the 
leather will take up, and then to wash off with Castile 
soap and water. 

k most excellent method of coloring and oiling har¬ 
ness is the following: After the harness has been 
thoroughly cleaned, black every part with a dye made 
of one ounce extract of logwood and 12 grains of bi¬ 
chromate of potash, both pounded fine; upon this 
pour 2 quarts of boiling rain-water, and stir it until it 
is all dissolved; when cool it is ready for use. When 
the dye has struck in, apply neat’s-foot oil to every 
part. The traces, breeching and such parts as need 
the most should be oiled again. They should again be 


639 


gone over with a mixture of one-third castor oil and 
two-thirds neat’s-foot oil. A few hours afterward, or 
the next day, wipe the harness thoroughly with a 
woolen cloth, to give a glossy appearance. 'I'he rea¬ 
son for using castor oil for the last coat is because it 
will withstand the effects of the atmosphere and the 
rain much longer than neat’s-foot oil. One pint of 
oil is sufficient for one harness. 

To Restore Old and Stiff Harness. Melt over 
the fire, in a metallic vessel, eight ixiunds of very 
pure beeswax, stirring it until it is all melted ; then 
introduce one pound of litharge, which has been pul¬ 
verized in water, dried, and passed through a fine 
sieve. Leave it on the fire,- and stir it until all of the 
soluble part of the litharge is incorporated with the 
wax; remove the vessel from the fire, and when the 
mixture shall have lost a portion of its heat, incorpo¬ 
rate with it, little by little, one ^xiund and a half of 
very fine ivory black, of the best quality; replace it 
on the fire, and stir it incessantly until the wax com¬ 
mences to boil again; then remove it and allow it to 
get nearly cool. Then add to it spirits of turpentine, 
until it is of the consistency of a paste. More tur¬ 
pentine may from time to time be added, as may 
become necessary. 

Application. If the leather is old and stiff, or cov¬ 
ered with gum, wash it with a brush with weak pot¬ 
ash-water or soap, and then with pure spring-water; 
leave it to dry, and then blacken it with ink. When 
that is well absorbed, wipe it with a cloth, and then 
grease it abundantly with fish oil of good quality. 
Neat’s-foot oil is probably preferable. When the 
grease has been thoroughly imbibed, pass over it a 
sponge moistened with spirits of turpentine, to remove 
the grease from the surface; then give it, with a shoe¬ 
brush, a layer of the above preparation; finish by 
polishing with a soft and dry brush. 

This process will restore the leather to a soft, pli¬ 
able condition, and give it a beautiful appearance. 

A Stitch in Time. The old maxim of the house¬ 
wife that “ a stitch in time saves nine ’* applies to 
harness as well as to garments. It is wise, therefore, 
to have in the carriage or wagon, or even in the field, 
such material and appliances as might be needed 
away from home for the prompt repair of the harness, 
such as strips of leather, strings, a small rope, rivets, 
awl, hammer, screw-driver, a buckle or two of each 
kind, etc. Sometimes a slight alteration of the har¬ 
ness, bridle or collar is necessary to prevent galling or 
fretting the horse. Very seldom a harness fits so 
perfectly but that an occasional slight change in cer¬ 
tain parts will be a great relief; and it is quite an art 
to learn to notice the movements and actions of an 
animal acutely enough to see what is really needed 
at any time. 

Harrier, a sub-variety of the hound division of the 
dog genus, kept specially for hunting the hare. It 
comprises three principal breeds,—the old harrier, 
the modern harrier, and the beagle. It also comprises 
some subordinate breeds, and it has been used, like¬ 
wise, for producing some cross breeds. See article Dog. 







640 


HARROW. 


Harrow, an apparatus consisting of a number 
of teeth, for puh'erizing and stirring the soil. Al¬ 
most anything dragged over the ground, when It 
is not too wet, serves the plants cultivated a good 
purpose; and the main question is, how to pulver¬ 
ize the soil sufficiently and with the greatest ease. 
To solve this problem harrows and “ drags ” innu¬ 
merable have heen invented or improved. Rollers 
with various forms of teeth, disc harrows, with 
their diagonally cutting wheels, and toothed har¬ 
rows in a multitude of forms, have been in the 
market, and have been used. In this article we 
show a few of the best for the various purposes of 
the farmer, calling attention to the good “points” 
one must look for in constructing or purchasing a 
harrrow. 

Fig. I represents a vibrator harrow, with eight 
feet cut, manufactured by Phelps, Bigelow & Co., 
Kalamazoo, Mich. The frame is connected by 
wrought-iron straps with bolt hinges. The teeth are 
so attached to 
it that, with 
simply a com¬ 
mon wrench, 
they can be 
adjusted to cut 
the erround to 
anydepth,fi'om 
two to six inch¬ 
es. This adapts 
it to all kinds of 
work, and the 
fact of the tooth 
beinsr riofid and 
frame vibrato¬ 
ry and adjustable, makes it.adapted to all kinds 
of soil. Each bar in the harrow works inde¬ 
pendently of all the others, which enables it to con¬ 
form to uneven surfaces, such as dead furrows, 
etc., to pass obstructions, and to free itself from 
cornstalks and other trash which have a tendency 



to clog most harrows. It has draw-irons attached 
to both front and rear, and when drawn backward 
has no equal for covering fine seed and smoothing 
the ground. This comes from the peculiar shape 
of the back side of the tooth. When folded for 
shipment or for storage, it is very compact, and 
points of teeth are all turned inward. This is also 


a very easy way of taking the harrow to and from 
the field. 

Fig. 3 Is a cut of a vibrating harrow made by 
Deere & Co., Moline, Ill., and Figs. 3 and 4 show 



Fig. 3 .—Scotch Harrow. 


Other patterns made by the same company. Being 
in sections, these harrows do not skip the low 
places, but reach every point of ground alike, and 
are also easily managed, and easily loaded into a 

wagon a n d 
hauled about, 
shipped, etc. 

The smooth¬ 
ing harrow of 
Deere & Co. 
has the teeth 
swung on pins, 
so that when 
the team is 
hitched at one 
end the teeth 
are straight or 
vertical,asvvith 
other harrows, 
and when the team is hitched at the other end the 
teeth assume just such a slant as is needed to 
smooth the ground nicel}', thus performing the 
work of a cultivating spring-tooth harrow; and it 
is, of course, cheaper and more simple and substan¬ 
tial than the latter. 

A harrow made with the bars nearly parallel 
from front to rear, ]M-shaped, is stronger than any 



other form; for when a tooth catches upon a root 
or stone, the strain is thrown lengthwise upon the 
bar, instead of across it. In obtaining a harrow 
for a rough piece of ground, it is important to ob¬ 
serve this principle. The cheapest smoothing 
harrow, or drag, is one made of brush, which is 
often used in pioneer sections of the country. 



Fig. 1.— Vibrator Harrow. 




































































HARROW. 


641 




Barley’s smoothing harrow also has reversible 
teeth, is made in three sections, and is nine feet 
wide. It has 45 ^-inch round steel teeth, which 
are firmly secured to the frame by means of an 


Fig. S- —Smoothing Harrozo. 


eye-bolt and patent plate in such a manner as to 
change their position as described above. 

All the proper work of the above harrows, as 
may readily be inferred from their lightness and 


Fig. 7. — The "Acme"" Pulverizing Harrow. 


mere sinking of the horses’ feet in the soft and pul¬ 
verulent soil, is frequently so laborious as to render 
it easier for a colt or pony to do the work than an 
ordinary farm horse. 

The “Acme” pulverizing harrow is a superior 
clod crusher and leveler, having adjustable ap¬ 
paratus for these purposes. The leveling bar is 
provided, on its rear edge, with a series of steel coul¬ 
ters, and to the rear of this is another bar with the 
same kind of teeth. These teeth lift, cut and turn 
the soil. They are beveled and ground on the out¬ 
side of the curve. The wear is entirely on the 
inside of the curve (the opposite side of the bevel), 
and they are therefore in a measure self-sharpen¬ 
ing. They can be readily “drawn out” by a 
blacksmith in a short time, or ground; and if occa¬ 
sionally sharpened in this way they will last a 

lifetime. 


Harvest* 
the season 
of reaping 
field crops. 
The earliest 
harvest of 
the year is 
that of the 
forage plants 
made into 
hay; the 
next is that 
of the cereal 
grasses, gen¬ 
erally in the 
order of rye, 
early barley, 
wheat, early 
oats, late 
barley and 
late oats; the 
third is corn; 


from the comparatively slight hold which they 
take of the ground, makes but a very gentle and 
easy load for the horses. Yet the irregularities of 
their motion, the starts and bounds which they 


Fig. 6. — Barley’s Smoothing Harrozv. 

make upon obstructions, and their alternations of 
skimming lightly when free from accumulations of 
weeds and rubbish, and of lumbering heavily 
when incumbered with these accumulations, some¬ 
times occasions considerable labor. And, too, the 


then potatoes, turnips, carrots, mangel-wurzel, and 
other esculent root crops. The succession of the 
cereal grasses, however, is greatly modified by 
soil, climate, exposure, altitude, and the varieties of 
the several grains. 

The season for each crop varies in different 
years, according to the comparative backward¬ 
ness and forwardness of the season. Some¬ 
times the season for the various crops is so 
progressive as to allow them to be reaped in 
regular succession, and sometimes so sudden 
iv.MscKn,Tz.sT.u headlong as to demand the most prompt 
and sweeping exertions. 

Every farmer ought to anticipate the work of 
the harvest, and thoroughly prepare for it. 
Harvesters: see Reapers. 

Hash. Meat minced up, stewed, and sea.soned 
with pepper, and sometimes with onion. Potatoes 






















642 


HA T—HA WTHORN. 


and other vegetables are also sometimes mixed with 
it. To make good hash, put a teacupfiil and a half 
of boiling water into a saucepan; take a tablesix)onful 
of flour, mix it with a little cold water; stir it into the 
warm water and boil it three minutes; add a little 
salt and pepper and a tablespoonful of butter. Chop 
the cold meat into a fine hash, removing all the tough 
and gristly pieces ; put it into a tin pan, pour over the 
gravy and let it heat ten minutes or so, but not cook. 
The reason that many people have poor hash is that 
they cook it too much, making it very hard and un¬ 
palatable; or they use tough pieces of cold meat, or 
they put in too much water and make it too vapid, or 
season it too strongly. If preferred, add equal quan¬ 
tities of chopped boiled potatoes, and if you have the 
gravy of the meat of yesterday’s dinner, you may use 
that instead of the made gravy, and you will need less 
butter. 

Hash Balls of Corned Beef. Prepare the hash 
by mincing with potatoes; make it into flat cakes ; 
heat the griddle, and grease it with plenty of sweet 
butter; brown the balls first on one side and then on 
the other, and serve hot. 

Hat. 'Phe most important feature of a good hat 
is ventilation, and the more ventilation the better, in¬ 
variably. The scalp, naturally, needs no artificial 
covering; and when one does feel the need of it, it is 
because he has diseased his scalp and made it tender 
by the use of non-ventilating hats or caps. Silk 
crowned hats, usually styled “ stove-pipe” or “ plug,” 
are the most unhealthful of all. The best color, as to 
health, is a light one, while taste, as formed by cus¬ 
tom, generally indicates black, especially for winter 
wear. High hats appear better on tall men, and low, 
wide hats on short men. To a man laboring out in 
the hot sun, a “ havelock” is more serviceable than 
even a hat. This protection is simply a handkerchief, 
or a piece of muslin the size of a handkerchief, at¬ 
tached by one edge to the back rim of the hat, and 
permitted to hang down loosely over the upper part of 
the back, to protect the spine against the excess of 
heat. 

Hatch, to produce from eggs by incubation or by 
artificial heat. The natural processes are treated in the 
articles on the respective fowls and on page 382. 
Hatching by artificial heat is done with an apparatus 
called an “incubator;” see page 533. The term 
“ hatch ” has also the following significations : As 
many chickens as are produced at once, or by one in¬ 
cubation ; a brood; the act of exclusion from the egg; 
a door with an opening over it; a half door, some¬ 
times set with spikes on the upper edge; a frame or 
weir in a river for catching fish; a floodgate; a 
lied-frame. 

Hatchel, an instrument formed with long iron teeth 
set in a board, for cleaning flax or hemp from the 
tow, hards or coarse part; a kind of large comb. .To 
“ hatchel ” is to use this instrument. 

Haunch (hanch), the hip, or hind part, of an 
animal. 


Havelock (hav e-lok), a light cloth covering for 
the head and neck, used by soldiers as a protection 
from sunstroke. This is a precaution so important 
that when a field laborer once avails himself of it he 
will never afterward be contented without it on hot, 
sunny days. A handkerchief, with one edge fixed 
underneath the back side of the hat and the rest jjer- 
mitted to hang down over the neck and upper part of 
the back, is sufficient. White is the best color. Al¬ 
most all the stupidity and sense of exhaustion and 
lassitude which a laborer in the field experiences on 
sultry days, especially for an hour or two_ after meals, 
would be" prevented by this simple appliance. It is 
not only unhealthful but even dangerous to exix)se 
one’s back to the hot sun very long, especially after 
eating or drinking heartily. The use of the havelock, 
even in its immediate effects, is far better than whis¬ 
ky, or any other stimulant, to any man. 

Haw, several species of wild fruit. Of the common 
red haw there are several species, found in the books 
under the head of “thorn” and “hawthorn.” Red 
haws flourish throughout the United States,—in 
wooded sections. The black haw is an edible fruit 
of the honeysuckle family; the species prevailing in 
the Northern States is mostly the “ sheepberr}'.” 
The red haws, by cultivation, could be made a fine 
orchard fruit; but as it belongs to the same order as 
nearly all our other fruits, the temptation to add it to 
the already long list is not very great. 

Hawk, one of the largest birds of prey m North 
America, allied to eagles and falcons. (See page 659 
for a cut of a falcon.) Of the hawks proper in this 
country there are Cooper’s, Blue-backed and Sharp- 
shinned ; and several species of falcon, buzzard, etc., 
are also termed “ hawks,” as the Pigeon hawk. Spar¬ 
row hawk, Goshawk, Black, Brown, Red-tailed, Red¬ 
tailed Black, Western Red-tailed, Red-shouldered, 
Red-bellied, Broad-winged, Rough-legged, California, 
California Squirrel, etc. The night-hawk is not a true 
hawk, but a bird akin to the whippoorwill. More than 
any other bird, all parties are agreed upon the total 
destruction of all species of hawk, as they do mankind 
nothing but harm, by their slaughter of insect-eating 
birds as w'ell as of domestic fowls. 

Hawk Moth, the large winged insect, like a num- 
mingbird in appearance, the larve of which is the 
large, green “tomato wonn,” called also “sphinx moth,” 
etc. See pages 885-6. The moth is not injurious, 
but its larve is voracious upon tomato and tobacco. 
However, they are never so numerous as to create 
alarm. 

Hawk-weed, a composite plant, several species of 
which grow in the East, but ver}'- many species in 
Europe. It is of no consequence in this country. 

Hawthorn, several species of small trees'of the 
rose family, as the English hawthorn. Evergreen and 
Washington thorns, and the so-called “ red haws” and 
the “ sugar haw ” of the West. 

















HA r. 


643 


Hay. Timothy, red-top and clover are the 
principal hay products of this country. These 
have been fully treated under head of Grass. To 
prepare good grass land, that is, for timothy and 
clover, first summer-fallow the ground for one sea¬ 
son, destroying all the weeds and wild grasses. In 



Fig. I. — The Tiffin Home Rake, 

the latter part of the season, spread upon it an 
abundance of barnyard manure, and a liberal siipj^ly 
of ashes and gypsum; slightly work these in with 
a cultivator; then, about Sept, i, sow six quarts of 
timothy seed to the acre, 
and in early spring four 
quarts of clover seed to the 
acre; the latter should be 
sown when the ground is 
honeycombed with frost 
and before it is settled. If 
the ground is reasonably 
fertile, wheat may be sown 
or drilled in at the same 
time with <;he timothy seed. 

When the ground is well 
settled in the spring, so 
that a team can be driven 
over it without injury, sow 
the plaster at the rate of 
100 lbs. to the acre. This 
young meadow should not 
be pastured the jli'st season. 

The best time for cutting 
either timothy or clover for 
hay is just at the beginning 
of their blooming season, 
when all the working force 
of the farm should be con¬ 
centrated upon making hay 

until the wo. k is all done. The point of perfection to 
be aimed at is, to cut in the morning as soon as pos¬ 
sible after the dew is off, and quit about ten or eleven 
o’clock; the air should be dry and warm enough 
to sufficiently cure the grass hy the middle of the 
afternoon, when it can be called “hay,” and hauled 


to the mow or stack. If the day be cloudy, with 
this quality of the atmosphere, all the better. 
If too much of this freshly made hay is not put 
into a single mass at once, there will be no danger 
of molding. But this“ perfection” of a day’s hay¬ 
making can scarcely ever be had, and the farmer 

will have to adapt himself 
to more or less ditficult 
situations. In the first place, 
it is important to forecast 
the weather as correctly as 
possible; and when, after all 
his ca-e, a rain threatens 
to come up, he must pro¬ 
tect the mown grass as well 
as he can. For this pur¬ 
pose he should have “ hay 
caps,” of muslin or ducking. 
Partly cured grass should 
not lie on the ground over 
night if it can be avoided; 
and whf'n one is obliored 

o 

to so leave it, it should be 
cocked and covered. The windrow is no protec¬ 
tion. He should have a constant care, therefore, 
not to cut more than he can take care of the same 
day. Some farmers cut the grass late in the after¬ 



Fig. 2. — Bullard's Hay Tedder. 

noon and in early evening, and the earlier part of 
next day it cures evenly and well. Dew or rain 
on freshly cut grass does not injure it so much as 
after it is partly or wholly dried. 

With the modern appliances, as illustrated in 
the accompanying cuts, hay-making is carried on 













































































644 


I I AY. 


with much greater pleasure and profit than it was i 
a few years ago. Unless the crop is very light, i 
the grass should be scattered out and turned ovei, | 
either with a hand-fork or with a hay-tedder, such 
as Bullard’s Hay Tedder, Fig. 2. 

It was at first supposed, when mowers came 
into use, that in consequence of the grass being 
left so evenly spread over the ground, it would 
require nothing more to be done with it. But 
experience has since shown that it lies so much 
more compact than when cut with a scythe that 
only the surface will cure, and the under side 
I'emain for several days as green as when cut: and 
this fact gives rise to the necessity of a machine 
that would toss and turn it with sufficient rapidity, 
otherwise the full \'alue of the mower could not be 
developed. 

For haidiug hay, a rack must be used on the 
wagon. Alauy forms have been devised, hut the 
one shown in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 
3, possesses more desirable qualities than any other: 



71 , 7", are bed-pieces of pine or other straight¬ 
grained light wood, 14 or 16 feet in length, S 
inches wide and 3 inches thick; if of oak'or other 
hard wood, inches thick will give sufficient 
strength. Four cross-pieces, of hard wood, i 
inches thick and 6 inches wide, are mortised and 
firmly secured to the bed-pieces. This constitutes 
the frame or foundation, and is shown in Fig. 4. 


C 


J D e/ T CJ g^C=3 9 


PiQ. 4 ,—Frame or Bed-Pieces. 

It is frequentlv used separately, to haul rails, 
hoards, stones, manure, etc., and is a convenient, 
strong and handy arrangement for the purpose. 
In Fig. 3 is shown the rigging complete, of which 
its four cross-pieces or arms, B, are feet in 

length, 5 inches wide and 2^ inches thick. 

If designed for a “ sectional rigging,” and to 
prevent side movement, a half-inch groove is cut 
into the lower sides of the cross-arms, B. so that 
they' fit closelv upon the bed pieces. To prevent 
a forward or backward movement, eight strong 
iron hooks are attached by staples to the sides of 
the cross-arms, and when placed upon the bed- 



l-'iG. 5-— Positio)! vjlieii loitiied. 


pieces are readilv hooked into the staples. Thus 
arranged, one man can easily place the ligging 
upon or take it from the wagon. Oi', if desiied, 
bolts may he used to fasten all together, by passing 
them through the cross-arms and bed-pieces; there 

is not twenty^-five 
cents difference in 
the expense. 

Standards, 7 ?, can 
be either stationary, 
or hinged so as to 
be quickly' lowered, 
raised or removed, 
by a small bolt, as 
shown in Fig. 3. 
The standards should 
be 6y4 feet high, and 
quite strong, to with¬ 
stand the pressure of 
the load, as well as 
to serve as a ladder. 
The boards A should 
be of the same length 
as the bed-pieces, and 
one inch thick and 
six inches wide, or 
straight-grained light 
wood. Wooden pins 
or stakes. Ay are in¬ 
serted as shown, and 
should be only' slight¬ 
ly sharpened. Should 
the hind wheels pro¬ 
ject above the boards 
A', bridge over them. 
Wash with petro¬ 
leum, and keep 
under shelter when 
not in use. 

In loading and un¬ 
loading hay' with a 
hand-fork it is a great 
convenience to place 
on the wagon the 
forkfuls in some 
regular order, and 
take them off at the 
mow in exactly the 
reverse ortler. Both 
skill and care are re- 
' quired with every 
load, else there will 
be trouble or unnec- 
Fig. t.—Position vjhen unloaded. essai y lifting and tug¬ 
ging in that most severe of all farm work, unload¬ 
ing hay. 

For stacking or mowing away the hay, various 
horse-forks and hav-carriers are devised. We call 
attention to the best. Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate the 








































HAr. 


645 


“ harpoon ” fork, In the two posi¬ 
tions. It has no exposed parts or 
points to be injured by contact with 
beams, etc. It penetrates the hay 
easily and compresses it from top 
to bottom, thus adapting it espe¬ 
cially to the handling of fine, short 
and brittle hay, unbound barley, 
etc. From the manner of its hold 
in the hay, the forkful being wide 
and comparatively shallow, the hay 
is separated from the load with less 
power and is more easily placed in 
the load than with anv' other fork. 

The “grappling” style of fork 
(Figs. 7,8 and 9 ) are in general use, 
the Noyes style claiming the ad¬ 
vantages of both the harpoon and 
the ordinary grapple. It is made 
with either two or four tines, which 
are so protected that they cannot 
catch under the beam or girt. 

Figs. 7 and 9 represent a bay- 
carrier called the “ Chapman’s 
Railway Hay-Conveyor.” The 
fork (Fig. 7 ) and the conveyor are 
both manufactured by Gardner B. 
Weeks, Syracuse, N. Y. 

Porter’s Hay Carrier (Fig. 12), 
made by Bristol & Co., Chicago, 
Ilk, is designed for a wood track. 

Figs. 10 and ii, from the U. S. 
Wind Engine and Pump Co., Ba¬ 
tavia, Ilk, explain themselves. Car¬ 
riers can be put up in almost any 
barn, but the larger the structure 
the better will it pay to furnish it 
with a hay-carrier. 

The cut. Fig. 13, shows a 
method of using the fork in stack- 
ing by employing stacking irons 
with ropes, pulleys and grapples. 




Fork as it returns 
to the load. 


Fork when the hay is 
discharged. 


Fig. 8 . — The Noyes Grapple Fork. 



Fig. 9. —Railway Hay Conveyor. 


The entire cost of the outfit, poles and 
ropes included, with the attaching grap¬ 
ples, stacking irons and fork, need rarely 
reach forty dollai's, while twice that 
sum has often been expended on a sin¬ 
gle derrick only for working a fork. A 
second method of stacking would be to 
construct a strong permanent or tempo- 
rarv frame work to which the wooden 
rails could be attached and the car and 
fork used same as in barn. 

Stacks of hay may be ventilated by 
making a hole perpendicularly through 
the center, with apertures through the 
base and top of the sides, to admit a cur¬ 
rent of air. This open shaft through the 


I 

























































































































































646 


I I A} 



Fig. 10 .—Arranffement of track for taking hay in at one end ofharn. Fig. 11 .—Arrangement of track for taking hay in at center of barn. 




FiO. T 4 . —The Noyes Field Pitching Apparatus. 



















































































































































































































































HAl 


647 


center of the stack tan be easily made by filling a 
bag of the requisite size with bay or straw, placing 
it upright in the center of the stack, and drawing 
it upward as the stack rises. Some farmers set up 
three poles near each other, fasten them together 
at the top, and build the stack around them. By 
either method a chimney will be formed in the 
center of the stack, which will carry off the vapor 
and prevent molding. The top of this “chimney” 
should be protected by a roof to keep out rain. 

Protection of hay-stacks by thatching, as prac¬ 
ticed in old countries, is too tedious a process for 
United States economy. 

In haiding hay to the main stack, rick or barn, 
sometimes much labor can be saved in those sec- 


The frame of the stack consists of two square 
pens with a passage way between them. The 
passage is covered by a peak roof framed or tied, 
the rafters being formed of fence rails or thick 
poles, wilh their lower ends set a small distance in 
the ground. The hay is placed in the spaces en¬ 
closed by the fences and upon the rafters, and the 
stack is built up to the ordinary height. Very 
long stacks can be provided with two passage ways 
if desired. It is considered advisable to construct 
the frames of these hay-stacks as permanent struct¬ 
ures. 

Salting Hay. As to the use of salt or lime 
on the hav in the mow or stack, there is a differ¬ 
ence of opinion, owing mainly, perhaps, to experi- 



Fig, 14 .—Sheltering Hay Rick. 


tions where they are sure to have sleighing during 
the winter, by building small stacks upon runners 
and platform in the hay-field, and hauling them 
in at the most favorable time during the sleighing 
season. These sleigh foundations may last for 
years. Indeed, stacks may be made upon them, 
of one to two tons, covered wirh caps, and hauled, 
when there is snow enough, to any part ot the 
farm where they may be needed, or even to a near 
market. 

Sheltering Hav Rick, Fig. 14. A straw 
or hay rick that can be used as a shelter for cattle, 
horses, etc., is shown in the annexed engraving. 


ments under varying circumstances. It is well 
known that both salt and lime absorb moisture 
and appear wet, thus drying the hay instead of 
moistening it, as it seems to do; and, furthermore, 
it is also well known that salt in any substance 
coaxes stock to eat it more; things unfit to eat will 
be often swallowed because ot the salt in it. On 
this subject, as well as on the question of the time 
for cutting hay, there is difference of opinion, 
some declaring that their cattle fatten better on one, 
and some on the other, kind ot hay. One party or 
the other must surely attribute the good condition 
of their stock to the wrong cause. Generally any 

























648 


HAY. 


given effect is not due to any single cause, but to a 
combination of causes. 

Hay pressing or baling is comparatively a new 
feature in most parts of the country, and even in the 


most flourishing hay sections. Only a few years ago 
the markets were filled with loose hav, and barges 
stowed with it in the same condition for transporta¬ 
tion. To supply the large cities thus now would be 


advantages of baled hay are well'known, and consum¬ 
ers are also beginning to recognize the fact that hay, 
after baling, loses that dusty, dry and harsh nature, 
and becomes soft and pliable, more like newly cured 

hay; hence sweeter and 
more nutritious, occasioned, 
we presume, by the damp¬ 
ness the bales appear to al)- 
sorb from the atmosphere. 

Economy in the prepara¬ 
tion and marketing of crops 
is of more than ordinary' im- 
lX)rtance, when they are of 
such loose and bulky nature 
as to limit its transportation 
in consequence of excessive 
freights, which is the case 
with unbaled hay. Therefore, 
if the farmers of any location 
are far distant from market, 
and subject to heavy freights, 
it will pay to purchase ma¬ 
chines for baling. When this 
has been decided upon, and 
the farmer intends to bale 
his own hay, and perhaps go 
into the business by baling 
that of his neighbors, too 
much care cannot be exer¬ 
cised to have everything 
convenient, and in securing presses adapted to the 
work required. Properly conducted, such business is 
safer and more remunerative than ordinary business 
investments, and may always be increased to any ex- 





Fig. I. —Belt Perpetual Hay Press. 



Fig. 2. —Railway Hay Press. 


hardly practicable, if possible. It is not difficult now to 
see the advantage^ of baling hay preparatory to mar¬ 
keting. Indeed, it has become a necessity to bale 
hay, for many reasons. For economy in room, clean¬ 
liness, neatness, and as a precaution against fire, the 


tent, or closed at pleasure, without the usual loss 
incurred in closing almost any other business. Making 
bales alone is not all that is required, but they should 
be of the proper size and shape to load or stow well, 
and at the same time so proportioned as to look well, 

























































HAY^COCK—HAY TEDDER. 


'649 


so smoothly and nicely packed as to show the quality 
to the best advantage—and if hay, the sooner marketed 
after bailing the better, as the outside of the bales 
soon become faded and bleached by contact with light 
and air—also, soon loses the smooth and neat appear¬ 
ance peculiar to newly baled hay, when properly put 
up. In consequence of all of which, such hay is rated 
much under its real quality. Indeed, the merchant 
frequently makes it profitable, and passes rough and 
faded bales as a much better grade by re-baling. It 
should always be borne in mind that consumers in 



Fig. 3 —Bale Ties. 


most of our large cities are but indifferent judges of 
the quality of hay, and that their selections are based 
much upon the appearance of the bales. 

We give in this connection illustrations of several 
styles and sizes of Dederick’s hay presses. These are 
regarded as the best made in the country. They aie 
manufactured by P. K. Dederick & Co., Albany, N. 
Y. By Fig. I we give the Belt Perpetual Press. The 
Perpetual presses are all continuous in operation, and 
bale right along without stopping to tie or remove the 
bale. By Fig. 2 we give the Railway Hay Press in 
operation. By Fig. 3 we show the style of Dederick’s 
patent dimension and adjustable bale ties, and by Fig. 
4 wood-hoop stretchers. These stretches not only 
prevent expansion, but draw the hoops so nearly even 
that they are much less liable to break. 



Fig. 4. — Wood-Hoop Stretchers. 


Measuring Hay. The weight of hay cannot be 
.determined with accuracy by measuring; but some 
'experience or a few trials will enable the owner to 
ascertain approximately without great deviation. Fine, 
flexible hay will pack closer than coarse, stiff hay, and 
that which is cut early will become more solid than 
dry, stiff, late-cut hay. The degree of dryness when 


the hay is drawn in, also affects the result. The com¬ 
pactness will, of course, vary with the height of the 
mow or stack. As a general average, however, under 
a pressure of ten feet or more, and with a medium 
degree of the other influences we have mentioned, 
about 500 cubic feet of timothy will weigh a ton. More 
strictly, of new-mown hay 675 cubic feet will be re¬ 
quired; on an average, 400 to 5 00 of well settled hay, 
and 275 of baled hay. To find the cubic feet of hay 
in a mow is very easy; to find the cubic contents of a 
circular stack, multiply the square of the circumference 
by .04 of the height. Six or seven hundred feet, or 
even more sometimes, are required for clear clover. 

TABLE SHOWING THE VALUE, IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, 
OF HAY BY THE HUNDRED POUNDS, AT 
GIVEN PRICES PER TON. 


Prick 
Per Ton. 

50 lbs. 

X 

8 

200 lbs. 

1 

in 

X 

8 

in 

X 

8 

in 

X 

8 

600 lbs. 

8 

ts. 

800 lbs. 

900 lbs. 

cn 

X 

in 

X 

8 

M 

$ 4.00 . 

10 

20 

.40 

.60 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.40 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

2.20 

S-oo . 

12 

25 

-.50 

■75 

1.00 

1-25 

1.50 

1-75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2-75 

6.00. 

IS 

30 

.60 

.90 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

2.10 

2.40 

2.70 

3.00 

3-30 

7.00 . 

17 

35 

-70 

1.05 

1.40 

I- 7 S 

2.10 

2-45 

2.80 

3 -iS 

3 - 5 ° 

3-85 

8.00. 

20 

40 

.80 

1.20 

1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

2.80 

3.20 

3.60 

4.00 

4.40 

9.00 . 

22 

45 

.90 

1-35 

1.80 

2-25 

2.70 

3-15 

3-6o 

^4-05 

4 - 5 ° 

4-95 

10.00. 

25 

50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3-50 

4.00 

4-50 

5.00 

5-50 

II. 00. 

27 

55 

1.10 

1 - 6,5 

2.20 

2-75 

3 - 3 ° 

3-85 

4.40 

4-95 

5-50 

6.00 

12.00. 

30 

tiO 

1.20 

1.80 

2.40 

3-00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.80 

5-40 

6.00 

6.60 

13-00. 

32 

65 

1.30 

I -95 

2.60 

3-25 

3-90 

4-55 

5-20 

5-85 

6.50 

7-15 

14.00. 

35 

70 

1.40 

2.10 

2.80 

3 - 5 ° 

4.20 

4.90 

5.60 

6.30 

7.00 

7.70 

15-00.- 

37 

75 

1.50 

2.25 

3-00 

3-75 

4-50 

5-25 

6.00 

6.75 

7-50 

8.25 


Hay-Cock, a small, conical pile of hay, generally 
comprising about 100 pounds. 

Hay Fever, a catarrh to which certain persons are 
subject in summer, characterized by sneezing, head¬ 
ache, weeping, snuffling and cough, sometimes at¬ 
tended with fever and general discomfort. In England 
the cause was formerly said to be the effluvium of hay; 
but this has proved to be an error. The latest theory 
is that the cause is the inhalation of the ]X)llen of rag¬ 
weed. Persons subject to it are generally relieved by 
going to some cool resort where neither hay-making 
is carried on nor the ragweed grows. For treatment, 
see Fever, page 450. 

Hay Knife, a knife for cutting packed hay, either 
baled, stacked, or in the mow. 

Hay Mow, an apartment in a bam, generally over¬ 
head, in which hay is stored. 

Hay Press, an apparatus or machine for pressing 
hay into bales. See page 648. 

Hay Rack, an arrangement to contain hay, straw 
or other fodder for the immediate use of stock. 

Hay Rake, an implement for gathering and accu¬ 
mulating hay, in the process of hay-making. See page 
643 - 

Hay Rick, along stack of hay. See pages 646-7. 

Hay Tedder, a machine for sureading and turning 
hay. See Fig. 2, page 643. 









































































650 


HAZEL—HEAPS. 



Hazel, a familiar shrub, bearing edible nuts. The 

English filbert belongs to 
this genus. The witch ha¬ 
zel belongs to an entirely 
different order. The en¬ 
graving gives a magnified 
view of a weevil, the lar- 
Long-snoiited Xut M ^ eevil , (Bal- Va of wllicll ISofteilfoUnd 
aninus nasicus). hazelnut, a Wrig¬ 

gling, maggoty worm. 


Head, the part of the animal body which con¬ 
tains the brain and the higher organs of sense. In 
many animals, it is connected with the trunk by a 
neck, and is more or less movable ; in some animals, 
however, it is immovable, and is merely a prolongation 
of the trunk. The head in animals is more distinct 
in proportion as the brain is more fully developed as 
the center of the nervous system. It is entirely want¬ 
ing in the lowest classes of animals, which, therefore, 
from the intestinal worms downward, form a third 
class, in the system of Latreille, under the name of 
Acephala (headless animals), while those provided 
with heads are divided into two classes,—the vertebral 
animals, having distinct and proper heads, and the 
Cephalidia, having small and less distinctly formed 
heads. In this part the mouth, as the opening of the 
oesophagus, is always situated. In the second class 
of animals, in which the head is less distinct, that 
part of the body which is provided with the mouth, 
may be called the head end. In the vertebral ani¬ 
mals (mammalia, birds, reptiles and fish), the head 
has a bony basis (cartilaginous only in the cartilagin¬ 
ous fishes). In fishes the bones of the head are not 
united with each other, and the formation of the sepa¬ 
rate bones are various. In cartilaginous fishes the 
head is more or less oblong and angular ; in osseous 
fishes, it is less flattened, and composed of a consid¬ 
erable number of bones connected in various ways; 
in all fishes the cavity of the brain is very small and 
oblong. Eciually various is the formation of the head 
in the different classes of reptiles. In general the 
head is comixised of but few bones, and more round¬ 
ed in proportion as the brain is well developed. In 
birds, the bones of the head are more closely formed 
into one whole, constituting a skull more or less round, 
which contains the brain, and to the fore part of which 
the beak is attached. But the head is most perfect 
in the mammalia, and resembles the human head 
more nearly, as the animal approaches more nearly to 
man. In general, the • human head’may be consid¬ 
ered as the standard, which may be traced with grad¬ 
ual deviations through the different classes until it 
entirely ceases in the lower order of animals. No¬ 
where is its proper office to serve for the reception of 
the nervous system so distinct as in the human head, 
the cavity of the skull containing the principal organ 
of sensitive life—the brain. The great cavities of 
the trunk contain—the chest the organs of irritable 
life (the heart and lungs), and the abdominal cavity— 
the organs of reproductive life (the organs of diges¬ 
tion and generation). The superiority of the head 


over the other two parts just mentioned, appears also 
from the circumstances, that whilst it is pre-eminently 
the seat of the nervous system, it also contains organs 
essential for functions of the irritable and reproductive 
system, as the inspiration and expiration of the air 
are effected through the nostrils and mouth, and the 
entrance of food into the abdominal cavity, as well as 
the preparation of it for digestion, by mastication and 
Induction of saliva, is effected by the mouth; and 
these organs appear more prominent in the heads of 
animals as their sensitive system sinks lower in the 
scale. It must not be forgotten that the head also 
contains the tongue, an organ not only important in 
respect to nourishment, but also communicating the 
desires and thoughts, until it becomes in man the or¬ 
gan of oral intercourse, of language and of finest 
music singing. 7 Te human head, and more or less 
the head of other animals, is divided into two 
chief parts, the- skull and the face. The importance 
of the head as the noblest part of the animal system 
has occasioned it to be used metaphorically in all 
languages to denote that which is chief. 

Headache. The most sensible cure of any head¬ 
ache is to remove the cause, and there are so many 
causes that we cannot ev'en enumerate them here. 
Bathing the feet in hot water will relieve more cases 
than any other one thing. Warm hip-baths and cool 
head-baths come next in rec^uisition. An emetic is 
sometimes just the thing, and very often such manip¬ 
ulations and passes as the “ magnetic healers ” ad¬ 
minister are the best. Lying down is the proper 
relief of that which is caused by a lack of blood circu¬ 
lation in the brain, which is often taken for a “ rush 
of blood ” to the head, or a “ fullness of blood” in the 
brain. 'raking medicines into the stomach, even 
“ herb teas,” is the very last thing to do. 

Head-cheese, a dish made of jxirtions of the head 
and feet of swine, cut up fine and pressed into the 
form of a cheese. After thorough boiling, take the 
flesh and skin clean from the bones, and mince it up 
with salt, pepper and vinegar, and when cold, press 
It as solidly as convenient. Keep in a cool place. 

Header, a reaper that cuts the heads only, leaving 
most of the stalk standing. 

Head-gear, covering or ornament of the head. 

Heading, material for the heads of casks or bar¬ 
rels. 

Head-land, the strip or border of unplowed land 
left at the ends of the furrows. 

Head-louse. See Insect. 

Head-stall, that portion of the bndle or halter 
which encompasses the head. 

Health ; See Hygiene. 

Heaps, to measure. If the bottom of the heap be 
square or rectangular, multiply the length by the 
breadth, and the product by one-third the height. If 
the bottom be circular, multiply the square of the 
















HEARING—HE A T. 


diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third the 
height. For ordinary purix)ses .7854 may be consid¬ 
ered Hence, to estimate the heaped bushels in 
a round heap, square the diameter, in feet, divide by 
6 and multiply by the height. 

Hearing, the perception of sounds. The hearing 
of the horse is so acute as to receive vivid impressions 
from vibrations of the air too slight and faint to be 
possibly detected by the keenest human ear. The 
hunting horse, for example, hears the ciy of the hounds, 
and erects his ears, and becomes excited and impa¬ 
tient a considerable time before his rider detects even 
the faintest sound. The fine condition of this sense 
in so useful an animal, like the keenness of smelling 
in the dog, and the peculiar development of the senses 
altogether in the species of animals which subject 
themselves to domestication, is a very palpable evi¬ 
dence of the bounty of the Creator to man. 

Heart, Palpitation of the. This affection is a 
very strong pulsation of the heart, sometimes only 
occasional, but often continual. It arises from morbid 
irritability of the heart; it is often purely nervous, 
caused, in some cases, by the disordered state of the 
stomach and bowels, by alcoholic drinks, by excessive 
venery, by extreme grief, and disappointments preying 
uj^xin the spirits, all tending to weaken the nervous 
system. It is sometimes a symptom of other diseases, 
as indigestion, hysteria. The beating is frequently so 
violent as to be heard at a considerable distance, and 
sometimes the tremor of the increased action of the 
heart may be seen on the outside of the clothes. The 
pulse at the same time is very irregular, and often in¬ 
termittent. Palpitation of the heart is not to be neg¬ 
lected, as it may lead to serious consequences. The 
treatment of this disease is much similar to that for 
indigestion. The treatment must depend on the state 
of the body; for. palpitation maybe the effect of in¬ 
creased vitality, or fullness, or of debility and relaxa¬ 
tion, etc. If the system be in a plethoric state (full¬ 
ness) aperients and a spare diet must be enjoined. ' 
Avoid all stimulants. When it arises from disease of 
the heart, or of the large vessels, then avoid plethora, 
much bodily exertion, full meals, and excesses of every 
kind. After the cessation of palpitation, take tonics, 
sponge the breast with tepid or cold water, and gentle 
exercise in the open air. 

Heartburn, a burning indigestion, caused by eat¬ 
ing food too highly seasoned with pepper, vinegar, or 
other strong condiments, or too severe labor after a 
full meal. A dose of magnesia or carbonate of soda 
generally gives immediate relief, and afterward the 
causes here indicated should of course be abstained 
from. 

Hearth (harth), the pavement or floor of brick or 
stone in a chimney, on which a fire is made; the floor 
of a fire-place, and from which is a jiassage for smoke 
to ascend. Figuratively, the house itself, as the abode 
of comfort to its inmates and of hospitality to strangers. 

Heart’s-ease, pansy. 


651 


Heart-wood, the central, old, and colored wood 
of trees ; it is the most durable. 

Heat. Heat is recognized as a principle rather 
by its effects than by any knowledge we possess of its 
essential nature. Every one experiences the presence 
or absence of it in the sensations of warmth and of 
cold; and we all witness the changes produced by it 
on other bodies, in causing them to expand or to melt; 
and likewise in the process of combustion. But if we 
inquire. What is this heat, the effects of which are so 
evident.^ the answer is not so easy. 

By some, heat has been considered as an extremely 
subtile fluid, capable of insinuating itself between the 
particles of all bodies; of remaining there in a dor¬ 
mant and inactive state, or of being put in motion or 
activity, by which only it is rendered sensible. This 
supjxjsed fluid has been named caloric. 

By others, the existence of any such peculiar fluid 
is denied, and heat is said to consist merely in a rapid 
motion of the solid particles of bodies that are heated. 
The prevailing theory among modern scientists is that 
heat depends upon the rapid vibrations or waves of an 
inconceivably subtile fluid, or ether, which fills all 
space, and is quite independent of the ordinary matter 
appreciable by our senses. 

Most substances are capable of being melted and 
vajxirized by the application of heat; and most prob¬ 
ably all would be so were we able to excite a sufficient 
degree of heat. By abstracting the heat, we again re¬ 
duce all vajxjrs to their fluid state, and fluids to 
that of solids. Pressure aids in condensation; and 
the gases are reduced to liquids by the application of 
intense pressure and the abstraction of heat at the 
same time. It is only when the temperature 
is raised to a certain degree that solids begin to 
melt, or fluids to be vaporized, and this degree is dif¬ 
ferent for every different substance, but is always pre¬ 
cisely the same for the same substance, provided no 
other circumstances are similar. Thus ice always 
melts when heated above 32*^, as water always freezes 
when cooled below 32“ ; and water is always converted 
into vajxir when its temperature is raised to 212'’, 
provided the pressure of the atmosphere is the same. 
Wax has another degree at which it is melted, lead 
another, silver another, and gold another. The degree 
of heat at which spirits boil, or begin to be converted 
into vapor, which is the same thing, is lower than 
the boiling ix)int of water, and that at which ether 
boils is a great deal lower still. 

The point at which salt water freezes is lower 
than the freezing point of fresh water, and in the act 
of congelation its salt is deposited, and the ice is sep¬ 
arated and melted and affords fresh water. Some of 
our navigators have observed this fact with great joy, 
and obtained a supply of fresh water where they but 
little expected to meet with it. The mountains ofice 
met with at sea in the polar regions are wholly of fresh 
water, and pools and basins of fresh water are often 
found on them from the partial melting of the ice. 
Although all these substances have their fixed ixiints 








652 


HEAT. 


at which they boil under similar circumstances, yet 
the pressure of the atmosphere has a very consider¬ 
able influence in determining the point. The greater 
the pressure the greater the degree of heat requisite 
for making the liquor boil; and the more we can 
diminish the pressure of the atmosphere, as is done by 
the air-pump, the less js the degree of heat that is re¬ 
quired to convert it into vapor. In this way ether, 
spirits, and even water are made to boil at the usual 
temperature of the air, when the pressure of the atmos¬ 
phere is removed by means of the air-pump. So much 
is the boiling facilitated by this means that philoso¬ 
phers have gone so far as to assert that, if all pressure 
was removed from the earth, eveiy^ substance, solid as 
well as liquid, would immediately be volatilized, or con¬ 
verted into vapor. Water, upon an average, is found 
to boil at 212", and this is generally considered its 
boiling point; but in this country there is a consider¬ 
able difference at different times in the weight of the 
atmosphere. In the barometer, which is the instru¬ 
ment for measuring this pressure, the height of the 
mercury varies as much as three inches, and a rise 
of one inch makes the water require two degrees more 
of heat to boil it. There is, therefore, in this countrj^ 
a variation of six degrees of heat in the temperature 
of boiling water at different times. When the barom¬ 
eter is at the lowest, water will boil at 209®; and when 
it is at the highest, it will not boil till it is heated to 
215®. The more elevated the situation, the less is the 
pressure of the air, and consequently water will boil 
with less heat on the top of a mountain than in the 
valley. An amusing experiment, easy to be perfomied, 
shows this effect of pressure on the boiling water as 
well as any experiments with the air-pump. Half fill 
a Florence flask or other glass vessel with boiling 
water, and cork it tightly. The water is now at rest; 
but ix)ur a little cold water on the upper part of the 
flask, and it will begin to boil; then pour hot water upon 
it, and it will cease; pour the cold water again, and it 
will boil, and so on for a considerable time. The ex¬ 
planation of the experiment is this. When you cork 
the flask the upper part of it is filled with vaix)r from 
the boiling water, and the cold water poured upon this 
part condenses the vapor. Now, as the air cannot get 
in, there is a partial vacuum—that is, the pressure of 
air on the surface of the water is considerably dimin¬ 
ished. This being the case, the water will boil at a 
lower temperature, and the heat which it retains is 
sufficient for the purpose. In the next place, by pour¬ 
ing hot water upon it, that within is partly converted 
into vapor, which affords the same pressure as the air 
would do; the water, therefore, ceases to boil because 
its heat is insufficient under that pressure to make it 
boil. It has been said that by increasing the pressure 
on the surface of the water you retard its boiling. It 
is on this principle that what are called digesters are 
formed. When ice is melted it absorbs heat from all 
surrounding bodies, which heat has not the effect of 
increasing its temperature, but becomes latent. The 
water is not hotter to the feeling or to the thermome- i 
ter than the ice was before it was melted, but it has I 


absorbed and contains more heat. The same happens 
when a fluid is converted into vapor, and the same 
quantity of heat that is thus absorbed is again extri¬ 
cated when the vapor is condensed into a fluid, or 
the fluid frozen into a solid. The application of 
this fact assists us in explaining a variety of phenom¬ 
ena that, without the knowledge of it, would be inex¬ 
plicable. Put a vessel of snow or of ice before a fire, 
and although it is all the time receiving heat from the 
fire, a thermometer immersed in it shows no increase 
of temperature; all the heat that is received being 
necessary to convert the snow into water; but as soon 
as it is all melted the thermometer begins to rise. 
Were it not for this circumstance, all the snow and ice 
would be instantly melted when the temperature of 
the air is above 32^, the consequence of which would 
be dreadful inundations after every winter. So much 
heat is absorbed when a solid becomes a fluid, that if 
we can suddenly effect the conversion we produce a 
great degree of cold; and on this depends the effects of 
freezing mixtures. When snow and salt mixed are 
melted in a warm room, so much heat is absorbed by 
them that a vessel of water immersed in the mixture 
becomes frozen notwithstanding the warmth of the 
room. In this way confectioners prepare different 
kinds of ices in the summer. Various mixtures of 
salts, when dissolved in water, produce the same 
effect without the addition of ice. Eleven parts of 
sal ammoniac, ten of saltpeter, and sixteen of Glau¬ 
ber’s salt, mixed with thirty-two parts of water, will 
produce cold sufficient to freeze water. By dissolving 
chloride of lime in nitrous acid even mercury may be 
frozen. The heat that is given out when water is 
frozen tends to moderate the intensity of our winters, 
and accounts for the increase of warmth that is fre¬ 
quently observable after a fall of snow. When ether, 
spirits, or water are exposed to the air they are grad¬ 
ually evaporated, and in this process absorb heat as 
well as when they are made to boil, and are thus vajxjr- 
ized. To prove this, dip the bulb of a thermometer 
in ether and expose it to the air, and you will find the 
mercury fall considerably; or dip your hand into the 
same liquor, or into spirits, or even water, and then 
expose it to the air, and you will feel a degree of in¬ 
tense cold, in consequence of its absorbing heat from 
your hand to convert it into vapor. In warm climates 
the inhabitants cool water and other liquors for drink¬ 
ing by wrapping the vessels in wet flannels and sus¬ 
pending them in the air; or by keeping the water in 
porous earthen vessels, through which a part, gradu¬ 
ally oozing, is evaporated, and cools the rest. It is 
this eva|X)ration that makes a person feel so cold when 
his clothes are wet, although he is perhaps sitting near 
the fire; and it is the cold thus produced that injures 
the health much more than being exposed to a cold, 
sharp air. It is the absorption of heat by the vapor 
that prevents water from acquiring a greater degree 
of heat than 212°. If you boil water ever so violently 
or apply to it ever so intense a heat, it never increases 
in temperature, the heat that you communicate all 
going to the conversion of it into vaix)r. In cooking. 








HEA T—HEDGE. 


653 


therefore, it is useless to apply additional heat to water 
that is boiling, to make it, as many call it, foil fast. 
If you keep the water just boiling, that is quite suffi¬ 
cient ; and in many cases, indeed, articles will be as 
well done, and as soon done, by a heat considerably 
less than that of boiling. Having observed that va¬ 
lors contain more heat than fluids, and fluids than 
solids, when their temperature is the same, we must 
now add, that among fluids, among solids, or among 
vapors, one kind contains more heat than another. 
Thus a pound of water contains more heat than a 
pound of mercury, and a pound of iron more than a 
pound of tin, and a cubic foot of common air more 
than the same cpiantity of inflammable air. 


TABLE, SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF HEAT UPON CERTAIN 

BODIES. 

Designation. Fahrenheit- 

Tin melts. 421° 

Water boils. 212® 

Alcohol ". 175® 

Ether. 93® 

Heat of human blood. 98° 

Water freezes. 32° 

Strong wine freezes. 20® 

Brandy “ 7® 

Mercury “ .—39® 

Greatest cold ever produced.—220® 
Snow and salt, equal parts.- o® 
Acetous fermentation begins 78® 
“ “ ends.. 88° 

Phosphorus burns. 68® 


Designation. Fahrenheit. 

Gold melts.1983° 

Silver “ 1850“ 

Copper “ 2160® 

Brass “ 1900° 

Iron, red hot in daylight.1077® 

“ “ twilight.884® 

Common fire. 790® 

Zinc melts. . 740° 

Quicksilver boils. 630° 

Linseed Oil “ 600° 

Lead melts. 594° 

Bismuth melts. 476® 

Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, 
melts. 283® 


Heat, as a health agency: see Hygiene. 


Heating Power. The following figures show 
the comparative heating ix)wer of substances of equal 
weight: Peat, 32 ; oak wood, seasoned, 46; oak dried 
on a stove, 59; pine, seasoned, 54; anthracite, 95; 
alcohol, no; olive oil, 145; tallow, 150. Twelve 
pounds of fresh water water have been evaporated in 
tubes with one pound of anthracite. 


Heaves, a disease of horses, characterized by diffi¬ 
cult and laborious breathing. 

Hectic, affected with hectic fever. The latter is 
characterized by a circumscribed flush of the cheek, 
debility and emaciation. It generally accompanies 
the advanced stage of an exhausting disease, as con¬ 
sumption. There is no remedy for it, except in the 
cure of the principal disease, of which it is symptom¬ 
atic; and this is hardly ever qxissible. 

Hedge, a fence of living plants. It serves 
the purpose of separation, shelter, or defense, and con¬ 
sists of plants which grow densely and ramify from 
the ground upward, and interweave their branches, 
and readily grow in a line from seeds or plants and 
admit of being cut and pruned into the form and com¬ 
pactness of a wall, to any width and height which the 
purposes of shelter and defense require. In most 
parts of the United States there is not stone enough 
convenient for building fences, and if barbed wire 
should fail on some account, the hedge will yet be the 
fence of the future,—that of Osage orange (Madura) 
in most parts of the Union, and honey locust in the 
extreme North. It is a well-known fact that a large 
majority of those who have purchased hedge plant? 
have failed in growing live fences. Some have failed 


from ignorance, not having been furnished with proper 
instructions, while some have failed from mere neg¬ 
ligence, not having carried out the instructions fur¬ 
nished. Farmers, who are such practically, and who 
live on their farms, can grow their own hedge much 
cheaper than, hedge companies, who have to travel 
from farm to farm. But if you prefer to have your 
hedge grown by others, be very careful with whom you 
contract, as some of those self-styled hedge companies 
have no practical knowledge of hedge-growing; neither 
are they responsible, as many who have been “ taken 
in” can testify. A perfect stand the first season is the 
important point. This obtained, you will have but 
few difficulties to contend with, unless you live among 
gophers. 

In starting from the seeds, soak them thoroughly 
in water, then plant them where it will be con¬ 
venient to keep them thoroughly watered, in rich soil, 
an inch apart and covered one and a half to two 
inches. But with inexperienced hands there is so 
much risk in raising from the seed that it is best to 
purchase the plants in the fall of some honest nurs¬ 
eryman. 

To Keep Plants over Winter, select a dry and 
rolling piece of ground. Open a trench, spade deep, 
and 10 or 12 feet long. Put in a layer of plants, 2 or 
3 inches thick, and at an angle of about 50°. Cover 
by taking a spade of dirt from the front, and at the 
same time opening a trench for the next layer, and 
pressing the dirt firmly upon each layer with your foot. 
Repeat the operation until all the plants are trenched 
in. Next, dig a trench around the bed, about 3 feet from 
it, throwing the dirt on the bed, covering i foot above 
the top of the plants, and extending 2 feet beyond 
them. Let it remain till the ground has'frozen from 4 
to 6 inches deep, and then cover 2 feet with straw, 
and weigh it down with frozen crusts of earth, suffici¬ 
ent to hold it to its place. Should you use fresh 
manure from the stable instead of straw, it will not 
recpiire to be so thick, the object being to keep the 
plants as near the freezing ixiint as possible, without 
letting them freeze. Be sure that the covering ex¬ 
tends at least 2 feet beyond the border of the plants. 
Plants may be kept in a cellar, packed down in moist 
but not wet dirt or sand. 

When plants are received in the spring, they should 
be immediately trenched out, just as you trench in 
the fall, omitting, however, the additional covering. 

Cultivation. The hedge-row should be plowed 
out the fall before the hedge is to be set, and finished 
with a deep “dead-furrow” on the line where the 
plants are to be set. In the spring, before setting, 
“ back-furrow,” slightly ridging the ground where the 
plants are to stand, and pass the harrow over it two 
or three times. On wet or sprouty ground do not open 
a furrow on the line in the fall plowing, but “back- 
furrow” each time the ground is plowed, thereby 
ridging up the bed where the plants are to stand. 
Plants set on low, wet ground are liable to be heaved 
out by the first winter frost. In. dr}’ ground the plants 
may be set out in the fall. 


































^54 


HEDGE. 


As soon as the cold weather is over, remove the 
straw from the beds. When the frost is out of the 
ground, and before the buds begin to swell, the dirt 
should be thrown off, and the plants taken out and 
carefully assorted into two or three classes according 
to size, all doubtful plants being thrown to one side. 
The plants should average lo inches in length, 8 
of this to be the yellow part, or root. As they are 
assorted they should be trenched in, each lot by it¬ 
self, leaving 2 or 3 inches of the tops exposed to the 
sun, in which condition they may remain till they are 
wanted for planting. Should the plants at any time 
become partially dried, the/ can be revived by soak¬ 
ing in water or being buried so that each plant shall 
come in contact with the moist earth. 

The best time to set the hedge is when the buds 
have started; though, if the season is favorable, it 
will do as late as the 15th or 20th of June. The buds 
may be kept back for late planting by leaving the 
winter covering on the beds until near the time the 
plants are wanted for the hedge-row. Hedge set 
early can be re-set the same season by reserving a few 
of the best plants until a seasonable time in June, 
when those that have failed to grow can be replaced 
by such as you know to be good. 

Though a good hedge may be grown by using any 
number of plants from 16 to 50 per rod, a long series 
of experiments in hedging, in which the plants have 
been set from 4 to 16 inches apart, demonstrates that 
about 8 inches apart, or 25 plants to the rod, is the 
desired distance at which to set them in order to 
secure the most reliable fence. Some recommend 
from 12,000 to 16,000 plants per mile. 

An even, perfect stand and uniformity of growth, 
in a beautiful straight line, are the things most essen¬ 
tial to success. When the plants are taken to the 
field they should be distributed first along the line 
about 100 in a place, and heeled in until wanted, and 
never left exposed to the sun or frost. Procure a 
strong cord from 10 to 15 rods long, marked plainly 
with red yarn, 8 inches, or the distance you want 
your plants apart. There are two methods of setting. 
One is, to set with the hedge-spade (the blade of 
which is longer and narrower than the common spade), 
which you thrust in to its full length, slanting. You 
then raise the handle slightly, letting a boy push the 
plant down at least 3 inches deeper than it stood 
in the nursery, tramping the dirt firmly to the plant 
with your foot. If the ground is wet, omit the tramp¬ 
ing, as it will cause the ground to bake. The other 
method of setting is that known as “ setting in the 
furrow.” In either mode the line should be carefully 
staked, but twice the number of stakes are required 
in the latter. In opening the furrow, use a good 
strong team and good plow, in the hands of an ex¬ 
perienced plowman. Any slight crook may be 
straightened with the spade. After the furrow is 
opened and line stretched, take a bundle of assorted 
plants, and placing them against the “land” side, fill 
in a little dirt with a hoe, pressing it to the roots, and 
when the plants are all in, fill up the furrow with a 


plow. But be very careful not to disturb the plants 
with the singletree, nor allow the horse to misplace 
them with his feet. The roots of a sound, healthy 
plant, when cut, present a bright, white appearance; 
those of a yellow, dingy cast between the bark and 
wood, should be rejected as doubtful. A good heavy 
coat of mulching, applied immediately after the plants 
are set, will be of great advantage in keeping back 
the weeds, preventing injury by drouth and furnish¬ 
ing protection to the hedge the first winter. 

If you fail in getting a perfect stand the first sea¬ 
son, procure enough extra strong plants the second 
season, and fill up all gaps as soon as the buds begin 
to swell. Re-setting after the second season is of 
little use. 

If well mulched, the hedge will require but little 
further attention the first year ; otherwise it should be 
kept clean and free from all weeds and grass, and 
covered up with a furrow from each side before the 
ground freezes, a two-horse plow being used. In the 
spring uncover, and cultivate as you would a row of 
j corn, which cultivation should be repeated every sea¬ 
son until the hedge is five or six years old. Manure 
should be used in all places in the hedge-row where 
the soil is too thin to give a good yield of corn under 
good treatment. 

The treatment for the second year is simply to cut 
off in the spring all above one or two buds on each 
branch, and to leave all level on top to the height of 
some two or three feet. The trimming is done by 
using hedge shears. The treatment for the second 
year is the same in cultivation. No weeds or grass 
sods are allowed to interfere, in order to have the 
growth of all the trees alike. The reason that it is 
necessary to leave a bud at starting of the growth for 
the second year, is that the small tree wants leaves 
wherewith to draw support from the atmosphere. 
Each of these buds will throw out a lateral or limb. 

In the spring of the third year treatment is similar. 
Clean culture is strictly observed. No trimming is 
needed this year. 

In the spring of the fourth year some of the limbs 
are six to eight feet high. With the use of the hedge 
shears cut them back. For the fourth year’s growth, 
in August, as soon as some of the limbs are eight to 
ten feet high, too high to reach with the shears, use a 
hedge knife. The handle is some three feet long, the 
blade a foot or more long and two to two and a half 
inches wide, tapering to a point at the end. The 
edge is curved a little to prevent the limbs from mov¬ 
ing away from the operator on being struck. At this 
trimming we only cut away limbs of the most rampant 
growth and crooked snarls. 

In the spring of the fifth year’s growth we find it as 
in Fig. I, trimmed to Fig. 2. From this (Fig. 2) we 
start for the fifth year. By this time our trees are six 
or seven feet high, and from one to two inches in di¬ 
ameter at the ground. In August of the fifth year we 
head in by taking off all side limbs up to six or seven 
feet high, when the hedge will resemble Fig. 3. 

We now have a row of trees resembling a row of 















HEDGE. 


655 


cornstalks stripped of leaves with the tassels all com¬ 
plete. During the next spring after the four years’ 
growth, with trees two to three inches in diameter, 
we are prepared to commence and to convert it into a 
liedge. With heavy buckskin mittens and with a 




sharp hatchet commence at one end of the row by 
hacking a tree half off or more, close to the ground, 
and bending it over in a straight -line with the row, so 
that the top will be about three feet froiii the ground. 
As fast as the work is done, stakes are driven into the 
ground in the hedge row, from four to five feet apart; 
and as the trees are bent over they are braided alter¬ 
nately on each side of the stakes. In this way every 
tree is directly over the others. After all is laid and 
carefully woven, and each at a uniform distance apart, 
the few straggling top limbs are cut away. As these 
small stakes are unsightly to some, every fifth or sixth 
tree is allowed to stand to braid by, and keep the 
hedge true in place. This cut off on a level with the 
top of the hedge row. In this way the standing stump 
grows very vigorously. Of the two modes many pre¬ 
fer the stump way, as it adds more to the beauty of the 
hedge, and is more firm than a stake. Where stakes 
are used they can be taken out after the first year, as 
the new limbs are very compact, and as they grow 
they lap by and grow up between the bodies, some¬ 
what resembling a willow basket. It is not uncom¬ 
mon to count fifty limbs sprouting out of a single tree 



Fig. 4. — Laying- ike Trees. 


the first year after being lopped. No trimming is 
needed after the first year, but clean culture is im¬ 
portant. Each yearafter the first lopping cutback with¬ 
in about six inches of the previous year’s growth. After 
carefully lopping and properly weaving every tree, we 
have a hedge that is a beauty, and when in leaf, skirt¬ 
ing our fields, doubly so. 


Fig. 4 sufficiently represents the hedge after being 
lopped and mode ready for the sixth year’s growth. 
Fig. 5 is in the fall of the sixth year’s growth. 

From each stub near the ground several sprouts will 
come up. They too will, as they grow, weave in be¬ 
tween the slanting tree bodies. As the roots of 
the Osage naturally grow deep in the ground, care 
must be taken to have the hedge row well under¬ 
drained on land that is inclined to be wet. No out¬ 
side sprouts away from the base of the tree, from the 
roots, ever appear, as some have erroneously sup¬ 
posed. When the hedge is built as described above, 
it occupies no more land for a few years than a com¬ 
mon post and board fence. In August or the first of 
September of each year, shear the sides and keep the 
top level. 

With a little care a hedge can be grown close to a 
gate post. Hedges made in this way have no gaps, 
and are found a perfect barrier to all domestic animals. 

Cost of Hedge. The cost of growing an Osage 
hedge to five years, when ready to plash, is shown by 
the following figures; 

The cost of preparing the ground is very little where 



Fig. 5.— The FinisJud Hedge. 


there are no stones to hinder the plowing. If there 
are they must all be taken away, at least-where the 
line is drawn, by the side of which the plants are 
placed at the time of setting out. Where there are 
no stones to be disposed of and a stubble ground is 
used, one plowing, by turning to the left and leaving 
the last furrow exactly on the desired line, will be suf¬ 
ficient, and the furrow should be a foot deep or there¬ 
abouts, as a deep, mellow bed is needed for the young 
plants. This work can be done in the spring; if de¬ 
layed till the fall, which is a better time for the first 
plowing, the frost pulverizes and makes the ground 
mellow. Just before setting the plants in the spring, 
commence to plow by throwing the furrows back by 
turning to the right. Passing twice may be needed 
to form a slight ridge. Twelve feet is wide enough 
for the ridge, which should be finely harrowed. If a strip 
is desired, now occupied by sod, fall plowing is the best, 
as the sod will fairly rot if stirred up early in the 
spring, in lime to set the hedge row. We think that 160 
rods of ground, free from stones, can be put in the 
best order by one man and his team in one day’s 
work—all told, say $3. One day’s work with the hoe 
in cleaning and straightening the furrow made by the 
shovel plow, ready to draw the line for setting the 
plants, $1.50. Total first year, 160 rods, $4.50. 

Second Year—Cost of Plants and Setting. Usually 
nurserymen buy the seeds of seed dealers, who in 


42 





























656 


HEDGE. 


the West buy largely from Texas, the home of the Osage. 
There the oranges are gathered from the native 
trees, rotted and the seeds washed out from the pom¬ 
ace, dried and made ready for the market. The 
drills are prepared to receive the seeds as a gardener 
drills for raising peas. The rows are two feet apart, 
so as to be cultivated with a horse-hoe or cultivator 
geared for the purpose. The growth of the first year 
varies from two to three feet high. After the leaves are 
off in the fall, with a scythe or shears cut off within 
about four or five inches of the ground, as a nursery¬ 
man does his seedling apple roots for grafting. Assort 
and tie into bundles of one hundred each, and bury 
in pits to keep moist during the winter, or in boxes of 
soil placed in cellars. In the spring these are sold to 
customers. During the last fifteen years or more the 
price has varied from $2 to ^3 per 1,000. After the 
ground is made ready in the spring, and the plants as¬ 
sorted so as to have equal size and equal vitality, a man 
with a boy to place the plants at the side of .the line, 
as previously described, can put in a row of one- 
half mile (160 rods), and do it well in one day. Six¬ 
teen plants to the rod, 160 rods, is 2,560 plants, cost¬ 
ing, at $3.00 per 1,000, $7.68; labor for man and boy, 
$2.25 ; total cost for the second year, ^9.93. 

Cost of Cultivation each Year for Five Years. A 
little more cultivation than for a row of corn is re¬ 
quired, as the space is six feet each side of the hedge 
row. Cultivating and hoeing twice during the season 
will be—two days’ work with a man and his hoe, one 
with horse and cultivator, $4, 

Cost of Trinwiing. This is stated in the table in the 
next column. 

Cutting Back., Staking and Plashing. If the stems 
and trunks have been kept free from limbs, as pre¬ 
viously described, two men being employed to bend 
the tree, the other using the hatchet, or a light, thin- 
bladed, sharp axe, they will plash or properly 
weave in between the stakes, or where one tree in five 
is allowed io remain uncut at the ground to use as a 
stake, 40 rods in a day, at $3.00—four days for 160 
rods, $12.00. 

Eighth Year. After the hedge has finished in¬ 
creasing in height, etc., it is kept in form by side and 
top trimming for many years. We know of many that 
are ten years after plashing, fifteen years in all, that 
remain perfect barriers. As yet we have seen none re¬ 
quiring a second plashing. Two careful trimmings a 
year will keep all right. 

Fifteen or 20 years ago this mode of plashing was 
introduced, and now all our best hedges are of this 
pattern. A good cattle fence can be made without 
plashing, and do very well. Butin the old way more 
or less of the plants, or trees even, will be harmed. 
The weaker are overcrowded and die out, leaving 
open places_, soon made larger by the passage of cattle 
and hogs. By the plashing system the hog is master¬ 
ed, for once at least. At the time of plashing the 
trees may be eight or ten feet high even, and will bet¬ 
ter weave in between the stakes. 

Recapitulation. Total cost for 1,60 rods for first five 


years, including plashing and weaving for the sixth 
year’s growth: 


Tilling the ground for planting in perfect order .$ 3.00 

One day's work in cleaning out and straightening furrow. 1.50 

Cost of plants and setting them out. 9-35 

Cultivating five years, $4 each year. 20.00 

Trimming the second year, 160 rods, two days’work. 3.00 

do. third do. do. three do. 4-50 

do. fourth do. do. four do. 6.00 

do. fifth do. do. five do. 7-50 

Cutting back, starting and plashing. 12.00 


$66. 85 

It must be understood that all this w ork has been 
done in its proper season. If not done then, as in 
most other things, more work is needed to repair 
delays. 

It must be remembered this hedge should be pro¬ 
tected on one side by a wooden fence (not a stone wall, 
as that would shade it too much), and neither cattle 
nor hogs allowed to pass over it by getting between 
the hedge and wood fence while growing, ready to 
plash. After plashing they may try it at their pleas¬ 
ure, if pleasure it be. 

Ever after the completion of the hedge, it should 
be trimmed every summer and fall. 

Honev-Eocust Hedge. To make a good hedge of 
the honey locust, it is essential, in the first place, to 
procure plants with good roots, and if these vary in 
size they should be assorted, placing those of equal 
size together, so that the line may be even, and not 
with large and small plants mixed together. Secondly, 
the ground must be well prepared, giving a deep and 
mellow soil. With care in setting out there need not 
be any gaps, and the trees will be uniform in size. 
Thirdly, the soil, for some feet on each side, must for 
some years be kept clean and well cultivated, and not 
allowed to grow up with weeds and grass. The hedge 
should be as well treated as a row of potatoes or corn, 
of which no farmer would expect to yield a crop in a 
grass sod. Fourthly, the young trees must be cut 
back sufficiently to give a broad, dense mass of hori¬ 
zontal shoots at the bottom. This cutting should be 
done early in the spring, and at no other time. If 
deferred till the buds have swollen, or the leaves have 
opened, a severe if not fatal check will be given to 
the hedge. 

It is usually best to allow the hedge plants to grow 
a year or two, to become well established before cut¬ 
ting back, then to cut down in the first place to within 
three inches of the ground; this will cause numerous 
shoots below the cut. The second year the cuts 
should not be more than three or four inches higher; 
the third about six inches, and so on, increasing the 
height bach successive year until the hedge has 
reached the desired height. It will require several 
years to make a good hedge. Many prefer to make 
longer cuts, or about a foot each year, so as to have a 
hedge in half the time we have indicated, and in doing 
so they never get one deserving the name, but merely 
the skeleton or shadow. 

The importance of cutting back in spring before 
the buds swell, will be well understood by any one 
who will leave a small portion of his hedge until the 




















HEEL IN—HELLEBORE. 


f >57 


leaves have opened. The result will be that the 
growth, instead of being strong and vigorous, will be 
feeble and thin, with only a few small shoots. 

Evergreen Hedges are much admired on account 
of keeping green through the entire year. Perfect 
barriers may be made of them by enclosing barbed 
wires along their whole length. These wires are 
placed in position by stretching along the line on 
light, temporary ix)sts, in successive years, so that the 
growth of the hedge may enclose them and hold them 
among its numerous branches where they cannot be¬ 
come displaced. When the plants are about 20 inches 
high, stretch the first wire, just resting on their tips or 
upper forks. The hedge soon grows and encloses it. 
Additional wires, as may be needed, are placed in 
position in successive years. Two wires will be quite 
enough in most cases. One alone would exclude 
nearly all intruders. Three might be needed for in¬ 
closing fruit gardens. These wires, wfiren once cov ered, 
cannot be bent or thrust aside; they are stiffly held 
by innumerable branches. Such a fence has not the 
objection of being invisible to animals. Nomay 
spruce is the strongest-growing evergreen; hemlock 
and arbor vitae may be made efficient by the enclosed 
barbs. Among deciduous plants the buckthorn would 
doubtless prove the best, as it is easily raised from 
seed, is transplanted with great facility, is perfectly 
hardy, has a natural hedginess, and, except on rich 
ground, has a very moderate growth. The wire used 
for these purposes should be galvanized, and not 
painted, as it is to remain many years. 

In starting an evergreen hedge, the young plants of 
Norway spruce are placed about two feet apart. The 
distances might be greater if longer time could be 
allowed for the branches to meet and fill the spaces 
betw'een. If placed two feet apart, and the line of the 
hedge is kept properly cultivated^ the spaces would 
be well filled in three or four years; if three feet apart, 
five or six years might be required. It may not be 
necessary to cut back evergreens like deciduous plants, 
but if the Norways, after they are fairly started, are 
pinched back early in summer, so that no side shoots 
shall be over six inches long, and no leaders more 
than a foot, the hedge will be more compact and 
beautiful. 

A hedge should never be sheared, so as to form a 
smooth wall of verdure. It should be cut back by 
taking off every longer shoot at a fork, leaving no 
stump. This work may be performed rapidly after 
some practice, either with a knife or with shears. 
When the exterior is smoothly sheared, a close, dense 
stratum of foliage is formed, shutting out the light 
from the interior, which in a few years becomes a 
mass of bare branches. Such a hedge, usually left 
broad at the top, causes the lower branches gradually 
to die, and the whole hedge perishes sooner than if 
properly pruned. If simply cut back with a knife or 
with shears, leaving an irregular surface, the interior 
foliage will be fresh a? .d dense for a long time, and 
the hedge itself will live longer. Norway spruce 
trees, if planted eight feet apart, will meet and form 


a continuous screen in eight or ten years. I'hese 
will answer well for some of the subdivisions of the 
farm, and for the windward boundaries of barnyards. 

The cost of evergreen hedges and of screens may 
be readily ascertained by procuring from nurserymen 
their wholesale prices and calculating the length of 
line reached by a thousand. If two and a half feet 
apart, a thousand will extend about half a mile. The 
prices vary much in different seasons, and with differ¬ 
ent dealers, according to the supply or surplus on hand. 
In some years, when nurseries were overstocked, trees 
a foot and a half high could be purchased for ^30 or 
$40 a thousand, or even less; but more commonly the 
price is double or triple this sum. Smaller trees 
may be had at lower rates. 

It is not probable that hedges of any kind will ever 
be generally adopted as farm barriers; the labor of 
keeping them cut back will deter farmers generally 
from planting them extensively, but they will answer 
well for enclosing fruit gardens, and the taller screens 
will be valuable for cattle yards. 

Other Hedge Plants. The buckthorn, although 
of slender growth, forms a tolerably good hedge. It 
has a glossy and lively green foliage, which it retains 
until very late in the fall. The common English 
maple makes a beautiful hedge, being compact in its 
habit of growth and requiring very little pruning. It 
is neat, hardy and free from insects. The European 
hornbeam is a good hedge plant; dense, of slow growth 
and recpiiring but little or no pruning. The purple¬ 
leaved barberr)'^ makes an ornamental hedge, when 
well cultivated and trimmed. But for rapid growth, 
easy propagation and an ample foliage of a shining 
deep-green color, no plant is superior to the Japan 
privet. This is not the common privet; it retains its 
beautiful green foliage until very late; it is almost an 
evergreen. For sheltering gardens and orchards, the 
best deciduous trees are Osage orange, white birch, 
English bird cherry, honey locust, English maple, 
European larch, English alder, and some of the willows. 
But the best screen hedge is of course one consisting 
of evergreens, such as the Norway spruce, arbor 
vitre, the white and the Austrian pines. 

Heel In, to lay trees or shrubs (which have 
been taken up) in a trench at an angle of about 45® 
and covering with earth up to about the middle of the 
tree. The tops of the trees should be laid toward the 
south to prevent sunburn. 

Heifer (hef' r), a young cow; a female calf, which 
bears the name until her fourth year, after which time 
she is called a cow. 

Height of tree or other tall object, to measure; 
see Tree. 

Helix, a genus of shell animals, including the garden 
snails; they are injurious to herbage, and may be 
kept off by sprinkling with lime, or destroyed by hand 
picking. 

Hellebore (hel'le-bore), a medicinal plant, of which 
there are several species. They are all acrid and 












658 


HEMLOCK—JIEMF. 


poisonous, and are used in medicine as cathartics and 
alteratives. The white hellebore is often called vera- 
trum. Medicinal preparations from these plants are 
too dangerous for unprofessional hands to deal with. 
It is recommended for poll-evil in horses, whereapiece 
of the root is inserted in the fistulous opening. Some 
veterinarians discard it. When one is poisoned with 
hellebore he experiences an acrid, biting, bitter taste, 
choking sensation, dryness of the throat, retching, 
vomiting, purging, pains in the stomach and bowels, 
and difficult breathing. As antidotes, give emetics of 
camomile, mustard, or sulphate of zinc; large draughts 
of warm milk, or other bland fluids; foment and leech 
the belly if necessary, and give strong infusion of 
coffee. 

Hemlock, an herb and a tree. i. An annual herb 
of the parsley (or parsnip) order, with perennial roots, 
flowering in July, and growing sparingly in the United 
States, especially in old settlements along roadsides 
and in waste grounds. It is poisonous, yields a fetid 
odor like that of mice or cat’s urine, and as a medicine 
it is a sedative in small doses and narcotic in large 
doses. It was formerly recommended by veterinarians 
for inflammation in horses and cattle. It is undoubt¬ 
edly of benefit, in the form of a poultice, to cancerous 
sores. 2. An evergreen tree of the spruce family, 
ornamental, not jx>isonous, growing abundantly in 
some parts of the Lake region. The bark is much 
used in tanning, and the wood is useful for various 
puriX)ses. 

Hemp, a genus of hardy, cultivated annual plants 
of the nettle family. The soil and climate of the United 
States are favorable to the production of hemp, and 
the reason we have not in this country manufactured 
it in its various forms as extensively as the people of 
Europe, is the absence of pauper labor and competi¬ 
tive struggle for existence which exist to so high a de¬ 
gree in the old country. We are justified therefore in 
describing here its cultivation, and giving everything 
that may be of practical value to the farmers. 

Cultivation. The best ground in which to raise 
hemp is an alluvial or vegetable loam; but it will 
thrive in a moderately tenacious clay if it is rich, 
drained and well pulverized. It does well on re¬ 
claimed muck beds when properly treated. New 
land is not suited to it until after two or three years 
of cultivation. A grass sod or clover field is best ad¬ 
apted to it when plowed in the fall or early winter. 
This secures through pulverization by frost and the 
destruction of many insects, especially the cut-worm, 
which is very injurious to it. The land should be re¬ 
plowed in the spring, if not already sufficiently mellow, 
as fine and deep tilth is essential to the vigor of 
the crop. 

Sow as early as will be out of danger of severe 
freezing; but where a large quantity is to be raised it 
is well to make two or three plantings, so that time 
will be found to harvest it all. It is very important 
that all the seed be good, as too thick sowing required 
by the suspicion that the seed is poor, may cause too 


many to take possession of the ground at once and 
thus smother themselves. At the same time it is im¬ 
portant to have the ground well covered. Sow, of the 
last year’s crop of seed, four to six pecks to the acre. 
'I'he best seed is indicated by its bright color and good 
weight. In sowing broadcast, harrow lightly both 
ways, and roll the ground. Itis better to plant in drills, 
as that method reijuires less seed and allows of better 
cultivation. If the soil be dry, plant deeper. 

Harvestinu, etc. In properly prepared ground no 
after cultivation is necessary ; and as soon as the blos¬ 
soms turn a little yellow and the leaves begin to drop 
wliich usually occurs three to three and a half 
months after sowing, it is time to cut the hemp. But 
if It stands a week or ten days longer than this, no 
injury will follow except that it will not rot so 
evenly and thus become more laborious to break. If 
the hemp is not above six feet high it can be cut with 
strong cradle scythes made for the purpose, at the 
rate of an acre per day; if the crop is stouter, a brush 
scythe is recpiired, in which case a half acre per day is 
good work. As fast as cut, spread the hemp on the 
ground where it was grown, taking care to keep the 
butts even, when, if the weather be dry and warm, it 
will be cured in three days. As soon as dry, bind into 
convenient sheaves and stack it in a dry place near 
the ])ools where it is to be rotted by the water process; 
build it in round stacks and thatch them. It de¬ 
signed for dew-rotting, stack it in large ricks in the 
field where grown. The idea is to expose as little of 
the hemp as possible to the weather, and thus secure 
it from decay of the fiber. The ricks may be 30 to 50 
feet long and 15 to 20 feet wide. Make the founda¬ 
tion of large rails or logs, laid six feet apart, and 
across these, rails about a foot apart. As the hemp is 
bound in sheaves, let it be thrown into two rows, with 
sufficient space for a wagon to pass between them. 
While the picking up and binding are going on, a 
wagon and three hands, two to pitch and one to load, 
are engaged in hauling the hemp to the rick and 
stacking it. The rick may be in a central place, so 
as to save distance in hauling. In this way five hands 
will put up a stout rick in two days and cover it. The 
roof may be made of long hemp, with the leaves 
beaten off. 

In laying down the hemp, begin with the top ends 
of the bundles inside; and if they do not fill up fast 
enough to keep the inside of the rick level, add, as 
occasion may require, whole bundles. Give it a 
rounded elliptical form at each end, and as it rises 
it must be widened so as to make the top courses 
shelter the bottom ones; after reaching a height of i 2 
feet, commence for the roof, by laying the bundles 
cross-wise, within a foot of the edges of the rick, carrj'- 
ing up the roof at an angle of about 45°. 'Then 
cover by laying up the bundles at right angles to its 
length, the butt ends down and the first course resting 
on the rim of the rick as left all around, one foot in 
width. Lap the bundles in covering the roof in 
courses, precisely as if in shingling a house. The 
first shingling thus finished, commence the second by 






































































66 o 


HEMORRHAGE. 


reversing the bundles, placing the top ends down, and 
then proceed lapping them as before. The third course 
of shingling begin with the butt ends down again, let¬ 
ting the first course hang at least one foot below the 
edge of the roof as eaves to shed off the rain. Unbind 
the bundles, and lay the covering at least one foot 
thick with the loose hemp, lapping well shingle fash¬ 
ion as before; and for a weather board let the top 
course come up above the peak of the roof about 
three feet, and be then bent over it, toward that point 
of the compass from which the wind blows the least. 
The roofing is then finished. If possible, the rick 
should be made when the weather is settled and rain¬ 
less. It is better to employ ten hands, on the plan 
above described, so that a rick can be finished in 
one day. 

The best time for spreading hemp for dew-rotting 
is in December; but in case of a large crop it is often 
desirable to commence breaking in January, and then 
the spreading out for rotting may be done as early as 
the middle of October; earlier than this is too warm. 
To test the friable condition of the stalk, try it in a 
break. When sufficiently watered, the stalk loses 
that hard, sticky feel which they retain till the process 
is completed. The lint also begins to separate from 
the stalk, and the fibers will show themselves some¬ 
what like the strings of a fiddle-bow attached to the 
stalk at two distant points and separate at the middle. 
This is a sure indication that the hemp has had a 
good rot. 

When the hemp is ready to be taken up, it should 
be immediately put in shocks, without binding, of 
suitable size. If dry, the shocks should at once be 
tied with a hemp band by drawing the tops as close 
together as possible, in order to prevent the ram from 
wetting the inside. If carefully put up and tied, they 
will turn rain completely. Each shock should be 
large enough to produce 50 to 6o pounds of lint. If 
the hemp is damp when taken up leave the tops of the 
shocks open until dry. 

For hemp-breaking, cool, frosty weather is prefer¬ 
able. When conditions are favorable a man will break 
and clean 200 pounds per day, but an ordinaiy^ task 
is about 100 pounds. The hand hemp-break is niade 
precisely like that for breaking flax, but is much 
larger. The under slats are 16 to 18 inches apart at 
the hinder end, and at the fore end they approach to 
within three inches of each other. After breaking out 
the hemp it is twisted into bunches and sent to the 
press house to be baled, and afterward transfxjrted to 
market. 

Water-rotting is done in vats under cover, where the 
water is kept at an equable temperature. Seven to 
ten days are a sufficient time for the process, when 
the weather is not too cold, after which, when the 
hemp is dried, it is of a bright greenish, flaxen color. 
These vats are easily constructed and managed, and 
where a company of planters join together the expense 
to each is comparably inappreciable. Before putting 
into the vats the hemp is first broken by a steam or 
horse ]X)wer machine; but this is not essential. If it 


be rotted in spring or river water, artificial pools or 
vats must be formed for this purpose, and should not 
be more than three feet deep, else the hemp will be 
liable to unequal rot. Keep it well under water by 
stones upon planks. 

To raise hemp-seed requires a somewhat different 
mode of cultivation. The best ground is an old pas¬ 
ture or meadow, heavily manured and plowed in the 
fall, and well pulverized in the spring. The seed 
should be planted like corn, either in hills or drills, 
allowing but two stalks to the hill. Soon after the 
I hemp is up, a small shovel plow should be run through 
both ways, once in a row; but if the ground is not foul 
the plowing may be delayed till the hemp is a few 
inches high, and then the young grass and weeds can 
be covered up by the plow. The hoe should follow the 
second plowing, and cultivation should be so strict 
during the growing season as to keep out all the weeds 
and grass. When the hemp has so far advanced as 
to distinguish readily the male from the female plants, 
let all the “blossom ” or male hemp be cut out, except 
one stalk in every other hill and every other row. 
This will leave one stock of male hemp for every four 
hills; and after fertilization has taken place, remove 
the remaining male plants. Some farmers top the 
seed plants when five or six feet high, to make them 
branch more freely; but this is not necessary where 
but one or two seed-bearing plants are allowed to each 
hill. 

A seed-bearing hemp crop is a great exhauster of 
land. 'I’he seed yields an oil of inferior value, and 
when cooked it affords a fattening food for animals. 

Hemorrhage, a morbid or accidental flow of blood 
from an animal. Hemorrhages from deep or lacerated 
wounds, or from the cutting or rupture of moderate 
arteries, have far less morbid power in cattle and horses 
than in the human subject; and often are attended 
with no danger whatever in the former when they 
would be fatal in the latter; for, in consequence of 
the elasticity of the external tunic, the ends of the cut 
or ruptured vessel retract within the cellular substance 
and close their orifices, and the flow of blood, though 
at first coi)ious and alarming, soon becomes slow, and 
eventually forms a coagulum or clot, which plugs up 
the wound and prevents all further flow. Yet hem¬ 
orrhage in cattle and horses may frequently be serious 
enough to make a great reduction of both condition 
and strength; and in every case, therefore, it ought, 
with all possible speed, to be artificially stopped. 

Styptics, such as flour, puff-ball, alum, vitriol, and 
other finely pulverulent or powerful astringent or cor¬ 
rosive substances, where applicable in the form of 
])Owder or in that of lotion, act either by mixing the 
blood into a thick paste or by astringing it into a co- 
agulum, but have little or no effect upon a hemorrhage 
of either ox, cow or horse. Compression by means of 
a tassel of lint, or a pledget of tow, or a piece of soft 
six)nge, made fast with a bandage, is often effectual 
m any ordinary case of hemorrhage, and is peculiarly 
suitable when the place of discharge is beyond the 











HEMORRHOIDS—HERBS. 


661 


reach of more special manipulation; and even when 
the application but partially closes the bleeding orifice, 
it may occasion the speedy formation of a firm clot 
upon the hole. The passing of a ligature of waxed 
silk or thin twine around the bleeding vessel, is still 
more successful; and this may often be effected by 
means of a tenaculum, or of any small hooked instru¬ 
ment which can lay hold of the vessel, and draw it a 
little from its place; or it may be effected by seizing 
the ends of the vessel by a pairof small forceps (see 


- CO 


Forceps. 

figure) or, in the least practicable case, it may be 
managed by taking up some of the flesh or cellular 
membrane in two or three places around the vessel 
with a crooked needle, having a waxed silk thread 
attached to it, and closing the included vessel by the 
constriction of the ligature upon the flesh. The tour¬ 
niquet is seldom applicable to the horse; yet in the 
form of twisted ligature it may sometimes be advan¬ 
tageously used in cases of docking and of wounds in 
the legs. The cautery may be applied when a bleed¬ 
ing artery or vein is not broken or cut asunder; for it 
readily stops the hemorrhage either by searing up the 
tubular cavity of the vessel, or by plugging up the ori¬ 
fice with a coagulum ; but it ought to be applied at 
such a temperature as nearly to sear the part and not 
to destroy its vitality; for a part made dead by it will 
afterwards drop off, so as to re-open* the orifice and 
renew the hemorrhage. Yet, in the horse, the seem¬ 
ingly mischievous act of completely separating a par¬ 
tially divided artery, will stop the hemorrhage; for the 
ends of the separate:d vessel retract within the cellular 
substance, and close up their orifices with coagulum; 
and hence the safety of tearing out the testicles in 
castration. But when a large vein is divided, it re¬ 
quires to be secured by one ligature above and by 
another below; and even when any very large artery 
is divided, both ends should, in prudence, if not in 
necessity, be secured with ligatures. 

Hemorrhage from the navel-string of calves is some¬ 
times stubborn and dangerous. Blue vitriol, oil of 
vitriol, or some other powerful corrosive styptic is fre¬ 
quently recommended, but ought never to be used; 
yet, when the ligature already in use is so near the 
belly as not to allow another to be passed above it, a 
styptic becomes necessary, and one of the best is a 
pledget of lint dipped in a decoction of galls and 
made fast with a bandage, so as to combine the styp- 
tical action with the compressionalone. But a simple 
ligature above the original one, whenever there is 
space for it, is decidedly preferable. Much swelling 
and inflammation generally follow, and these must be 
reduced by a sedulous and persevering course of 
fomentation, and eventually, if necessary, by poulticing 
and by artificial discharge of morbid secretions. See 
the article Bleeding, page 94. 


Hemorrhoids (hem'o-roids). Piles, which see. 

Hen, the female of the domestic fowl. See page 
413 - 

Henbane, a poisonous plant of the nightshade 
order, generally known as hyoscyamus (hi-o-si'a-mus) 
among medical men. It is a narcotic, anodyne, and 
soporific, to be used only by skillful hands. It is oc¬ 
casionally given to horses to relieve cough and irrita¬ 
tion of the throat, the dose for this purpose being i to 
2 drachms of the extract rubbed down in a 
little cold water, and repeated several times 
a day; but better drugs are now used. As a 
poison the symptoms are stupor, numbness, 
nausea, dilated pupil, delirium, convulsions 
paralysis, etc.; and the antidotes are the same as for 
Aconite, page 10. 

Hen-House: see page 535. 

Herbaceous (her-ba'shus), having the nature of an 
herb or annual plant. 

Herbarium, a systematic collection of dried plants 
for botanical study. White blotting paper in sheets 
by 16 inches in size is used, one sheet to each 
specimen. The plants should be fastened down with 
a small drop of mucilage here and there, or with 
“ gummed slips” of writing paper. Plants should be 
spread out before they are wilted, to dry, between 
sheets of porous paper, as newspaper, or blotting 
paper that is made purjxjsely for this work, and can 
be had by ordering of the establishments East that 
deal in it. Of fleshy plants and fleshy parts of all 
plants only a thin slice need be taken that will show, 
in outline, the structure of the specimen. Change the 
drying sheets twice a day for three or four days; 
and then once a day a few days longer, and the 
specimens will be dry enough for their permanent 
place in the herbarium. To prepare sheets for trans¬ 
ferring figures of leaves (or embroidery), take lard oil, 
or sweet oil, mixed to the consistence of cream, with 
either of the following paints, the color of which is 
desired ; Prussian blue, lampblack, Venetian red or 
chrome green, either of which should be rubbed with 
a knife on a plate or stone until smooth. Use rather 
thin but firm paper: put on with a sponge and wipe 
off as dry as convenient; then lay them on col¬ 
ored paper or between newspapers, and press by 
laying books or some other flat weight upon them 
until, the surplus oil is absorbed, when it is ready for 
use. 

Herbivorous (her-biv'o-rus), subsisting exclusively 
on herbs, as cattle and horses in a state of nature. 

Herbs. This term is used in the restricted sense 
of medicinal and savory herbs, of which the most 
popular in garden cultivation have been caraway, 
coriander, dill, sweet fennel, lavender, parsley, cress, 
saffron, sage, summer s^avory, sweet marjoram, thyme, 
rue, wormwood, chamomile, hop, spearmint, anise, 
balm, horehound, rosemary, tansy, sweet basil, pei> 















662 


HERD—HERDING. 


permint, elecampane. See each of these in their re¬ 
spective alphabetical order. In the largest and most 
proper sense, however, herbs comprise all kinds of 
plants, except trees, shrubs and aphyllous crypto¬ 
gams; but it is generally used, by many at least, to 
mean only annuals and annual-stemmed perennials; 
and others still mean by them only such plants as 
are supposed to possess medicinal properties. For 
medicinal purposes herbs should be cut on a dry day 
when they are in flower, and spread in a dry, shady 
place. The medicinal part, when dry, may be pul¬ 
verized, passed through a hair-sieve, and packed in 
tin boxes. To preserve them for distillation and per¬ 
fumery, see Flowers, page 503. 

Herd, a number of grazing animals feeding on one 
pasture, housed on one farm, or congregated under 
one owner. 

Herding is the taking care of a number of cattle, 
horses, or sheep in herds or flocks. It is most gener¬ 
ally resorted to in States and Territories sparsely 
settled and noted for their numerous acres of wild 
grasses. The wild and nutritious grasses of Texas, 
Kansas, New Mexico, Nebraska, Colorado, California 
and other States and Territories, together with their 
mild climate, are the great inducements which the 
capitalists accept as positive assurance for the safe 
and profitable investment of their means in cattle or 
herding business. A large majority of the cattle 
herded in the Southwestern States and Territories are 
the “Texas cattle,” elsewhere described in this work; 
although in Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska and some of 
the Territories, may be found numerous herds of Cali¬ 
fornia cattle. Texas may, nevertheless, be considered 
as the cattle-supplying State. Many thousands of 
these are yearly driven from Texas north into Kansas, 
Colorado and Nebraska, and there sold. They begin 
to arrive about the first of May and are purchased by 
parties for the purpose of “herding” and increasing 
them in flesh preparatory for the market; yet many 
of them, on arriving at a railroad, are immediately 
shipped to some Eastern market. In the latter case 
the meat is poor and contains none of the juice im¬ 
parted by the rich and nutritious grasses where the 
cattle are herded. 

Before Texas cattle are started on the drive, the 
owner is compelled to brand each and every one of 
them with what is known as a road brand. This is 
for the purpose of distinguishing the cattle. Their 
owners, during the drive north, are confined to certain 
limits, regulated by legislative enactment, on account 
of a contagious disease which Texas cattle invariably 
impart to domestic stock. Those who purchase for 
the purpose of herding and increase generally—in fact 
hardly without an exception—select yearlings, two- 
year-olds, or young cows with calves. Immediately 
on “cutting out ” the cattle purchased are placed in 
a corral and the brand of the purchaser, previously 
recorded, put on them. This is done l)y lassoing 
each of them and applying a red-hot iron, made to 
represent the brand of the owner, to a certain part of 


the animal, and held there until the hide is burnt en¬ 
tirely through. The cattle are then turned loose and 
driven to the best grass by men called “herders,” and 
herded until fall. Four or five men are sufficient to 
herd from two to three thousand cattle. The 
herding is always done on horseback; and it is a fact 
well known to the Texas herdsman that a wild Texas 
steer, which is always ready to run a man down and 
horn him when on foot, is perfectly docile when the 
man is on horseback. To an inexperienced man, 
herding Texas cattle is very dangerous. Often the 
herd is stampeded by fright, and then it requires 
great nerve as well as knowledge to prevent them 
from being scattered for hundreds of miles. There is 
but one way to stop the stampede; and that is by rid¬ 
ing, with all possible speed, until you are ahead of 
them, when you must continue riding in the same way 
they are going until they stop. Sometimes, however, 
the herdsman is compelled to kill the leader before 
the herd is stopped; therefore, a reason for the “cow¬ 
boy” or herdsman always having a pistol hanging to 
his saddle. Should the “cow-boy’s” horse stumble or 
fall, he is certain to be run over by the herd. Even 
this is not certain death to the herdsman, for if he lie 
perfectly still the cattle will either jump over or shy 
from him and pass on; yet he generally gets numer¬ 
ous bruises, and oftentimes is killed. The cattle are 
herded, kept together, until the fall, when, the grass 
having been burnt by the prairie fires, it is imjx)ssible 
to find a place with sufficient grass to supply any con¬ 
siderable number, and the cattle are turned loose to 
find their own sustenance. Then the festive “cow¬ 
boy” takes his vacation, and spends his accumulated 
wages in drinking and carousing in the frontier 
towns. 

In the early spring, the general “round-up” com¬ 
mences. Every owner of cattle who has a recorded 
brand, sends a number of men, generally two to four, 
to the different States and Territories to assist in the 
collection of the cattle. These men scour the coun¬ 
try, and collect all cattle which are branded, and'drive 
them to a certain point previously agreed uix)n. 
When they are all collected, then commences the 
work of “cutting out,” that is, separating. Each brand 
is “cut out” by itself until the brands are all by them¬ 
selves, and each owner has his cattle. The young 
calves, and they will always be found with their moth¬ 
ers, are then branded with the owner’s brand, and the 
cattle are herded on green grass, as before, for a few 
months, when they are either shipped to the Eastern 
market or held tor still further improvement in flesh. 
Texas cattle are never fed at any time, and acquire 
their flesh altogether from the nutrition contained in 
the wild grasses; in fact, their wild, untamable dis¬ 
positions will not permit their prospering in small en¬ 
closures, or when treated as domestic cattle. 

The herdingof sheep in the United States is mostly 
confined to New Mexico, although California, Arizona 
and portions of other States' and Territories are ex¬ 
tensively adapted and used for that ])urpose. Mexi¬ 
can sheep are purchased in New Mexico in the early 









HERDSMAN—HICKOR Y. 


663 


spring, at from 50 cents to and driven to the 

States and Territories for the same reason that cattle 
are driven, namely, improvement and increase. The 
rapid increase of sheep is inducing many of our fron¬ 
tier farmers, where wild grass and good, cool water are 
abundant, to invest in them and resort to herding. 
In the herding of sheep it is necessar)% for protection 
from wolves as well as inclement weather, to have a 
corral, in which the sheep should be placed at night. 
The herd is turned out in the morning and driven by 
the herder to the best grass, which must not be too 
far away, and returned to the corral just before dark. 

The Spanish sheep dog is equal, if not superior, to 
a half-dozen men, as a sheep herder. He seems to 
understand the necessity of keeping the herd together, 
and not permitting them to wander away, as well as 
their safety in being corraled at night. There is no 
danger in the herding of sheep as in cattle, neither is 
it so laborious. True, there are small herds of do¬ 
mestic cattle and sheep herded by farmers throughout 
the United States, but the term “herding” is more ap¬ 
plicable to the cases above mentioned. 

Herdsman, a person who attends a herd of cattle. 
He drives them to their pasture, restrains them within 
certain limits, prevents them from hurting one another, 
observes their condition as to disease or health, and 
exercises a general care over them during the period 
of their absence from the farm yard. A boy or girl is 
usually employed to attend a. small flock, and an 
elderly man a larger one. But since the enclosing of 
lands became general, herdsmen of any kind are 
seldom required, except in the Western States and 
Territories, where it is resorted to quite extensively. 
See Herding. 

Herd’s Grass, timothy, in New England and 
New York, and red-top in Pennsylvania. See Grass. 

Hereford (her e-ford), a breed of cattle. See 
page 176. 

Hermetically Seal, in canning fruit, for example, 
is to seal air-tight. 

Hermaphrodite, a term formerly applied exclu¬ 
sively to signify a human creature possessed of the 
organs of both sexes. The term is now applied to 
other animals and plants. It is well known that there 
is no such a thing as an hermaphrodite in the human 
species. In many of the inferior tribes of animals, 
the male and female parts of generation are found to 
be united in the same animal. There are both natural 
and unnatural, or monstrous hermaphrodites. The 
natural kind belong to the inferior and more simple 
order of animals; but as animals become more com¬ 
plicated, and each part is confined to a particular use, 
a separation of the sexual characteristics takes place 
and they are found united only in some particular 
cases. In the horse, ass, sheep and cattle, such 
instances sometimes occur. In the case of cattle, 
when a cow brings forth two calves, one a bull and 
the other a cow, to appearance, the latter, in most in¬ 
stances, is unfit for propagation. See the article Free- 


Martin. Among the invertebral animals, such as 
worms, snails, leeches, etc., hermaphrodites are fre¬ 
quent. 


Hernia, or Hernial Rupture or Burst, a tumor 
of some part which has escaped from its natural place 
by some opening and projects externally. That of 
the abdomen is most common, and consists of the 
protrusion of an intestine between the muscles. 
Hernia is said to be “ strangulated ” when the pro¬ 
truded part is held out so tightly as to stop its proper 
function, cause swelling and great pain. All cases of 
hernia require the services of a conscientious surgeon. 


Hessian Fly, a t\yo-winged fly destructive to wheat. 
It has pale-brown or red eyes and black feet, wings 
blackish or tawny. It deix)sits its eggs on the young 
wheat plant; maggots are hatched, which work be¬ 
tween the leaf and stalk, lives on the sap and destroys 
the plant. Late sowing and burning the stubble are 
methods of diminishing the number of this pest, which 
is very destructive some seasons. 

The Hessian flv is so called 
because it is supposed to have 
been introduced into the United 
States with the forage brought 
by the Hessian soldiers of the 
British Army during the Revo¬ 
lutionary war. It is shown by 
the accompanying engraving. 

Hiccough (hik'up),orHickup. 
Swallow a mouthful of water, 
stopping the mouth and ears. 

Hessiar. Fly. Or, take anything that makes 
you sneeze; or, 3 drops of oil of cinnamon on a lump 
of sugar. Standing or sitting perfectly still, holding 
the breath as if frightened andlistening for the feeblest 
noise, will stop most cases of hickuping. This is the 
rationale of being frightened out of the hickups. 



Hickory, the name of several species of a very 
valuable, \\ ell-known tree. The most popular hard, 
small hickory-nut is from the “shell-bark hickory,” 
so called, and the larger nut is from the “Western,” or 
“thick shell-bark” species. The pignut and the but¬ 
ternut hickories, and the pecan, are all of softer wood, 
when green, and the nuts are all soft-shelled. 

The different species grow in a variety of soils, only 
the pecan in wet ones, and resemble each other in the 
quantity of the timber and in the grain and quality of 
their wood. In the qualities of hardness, weight and 
strength, combined with elasticity, it is unsurpassed. 
The timber until thoroughly seasoned, or if exposed 
to moisture, is peculiarly liable to the attacks of insect 
borers, and is liable to decay in the presence of heat 
and moisture. For this reason, when wanted for 
timber, it is immediately peeled when cut, and sea¬ 
soned in the shade as quickly as possible. The least 
valuable species for timber is the bitter-nut hickory, 
and the most valuable, all things considered, are the 
shell-bark and the thick shell-bark. The second 
growth of pignut hickory, however, is considered as 









664 


HIDE—HIGH JEA Y. 


being superior in strength and toughness, and is used 
for axletrees and handles for tools. The several 
species all ripen their nuts in the fall. 



Hickory-hark Borer. (Scolytus qiiadri-spinosus.) 

In seasoning hickory, the bark should be peeled off 
that it may dry and harden as cpiickly as possible on 
the outside, to prevent the depredations of the borer, 
illustrated in the cut. It has short antennre which 
terminate enlarged as in a club; the length is one-fifth 
of an inch; color black, with brown wing cases. The 
cut at I show j the burrows of the larvae between the 
bark and the wood, growing wider as they diverge 
from the line where the eggs are deposited ; 2, another 
view of the same, showing the hole made by the exit 
of the beetle, 3» beetle, both magnified and natural 
size; 4, larvae, the same; 5, pupa, magnified. The 
female beetle, says Dr. Cyrus Thomas, selecting the 
trunk or larger limb, of a hickory tree, bores through 
the bark and forms a vertical chamber next to the 
wood from half an inch to an inch in length, on each 
side of which she deposits her eggs, varying in number 
from 20 to 50. The larvae, when hatched, feed on 
the inner bark, each one forming a track of its own, 
thus forming the radiating burrows so common on the 
under side of the bark of hickory trees. The larva is 
a soft, yellowish, footless grub, much like the larva of 
some of the curculios, and from which it can not 
easily be distinguished, except by its habits; it is very 
small, not exceeding the fifth of an inch in length 
when fully grown. The eggs are deposited during 
the months of August and September, and the beetle 
issues about the latter part of June or first of July. 
It attacks the bitternut, shell-bark and pignut hickories, 
and probably the pecan. No practical remedy is 
known, nor is there much probability of any extensive 


experiments being made until forest timber becomes 
more valuable than it is now. 

Hickory trees cannot well bear transplanting, and 
they should therefore be raised from the seed. Keep 
the nuts over winter in moist earth or sand, Avhere 
they will net be subjected to alternate freezing or 
thawing, and in the spring plant two or three together 
where it is designed one should stand, and afterwards 
remove the surplus plants, if any. Give clean culture 
until the trees are large enough to take care of them¬ 
selves. Start the plantation with the trees four feet 
each wa)^, and thin out as they grow up until they 
remain 32 feet apart. The taller and straighter the 
trees desired, the longer let them stand. 

Hide, the skin of a cow, an ox, a hors.e, or any other 
large quadruped. The hides of cattle of good breeds 
are thin, movable, mellow, and well-clothed with fine, 
soft hair, yet not so loose as to offer no resistance to 
the touch, nor so thin as to indicate hardiness of con¬ 
stitution. See the articles Cattle and Breeding. A 
raw or green hide, in commercial language, is a hide 
in a fresh state, or when taken off the carcass; a salted 
hide is one which has been dressed with alum, salt¬ 
peter and common salt, to preserve it from putrefac¬ 
tion; a tanned hide is a salted and preserved hide 
which has undergone the process of tanning; and a 
curried hide is one which has been finally dressed by 
the currier, and possesses all the characteristics of 
leather. 

To Cure Green Hides. Lay them flat, flesh 
side up, and throw upon them coarse salt, say about 
15 pounds of salt to a 60 or 8o-pound hide; in 12 to 
20 days shake the salt out and use it again. 

Hide-bound, a diseased condition of the skin of 
horses and cattle. The hide fails to jxjssess the oily 
secretion which is requisite to keep it soft and mellow; 
it becomes hard, dry and unyielding; it appears as if 
glued firm to the muscles and bones, and it suffers 
such a refractoriness of the minute scales of its 
cuticle, that the hair is irregularly disjxrsed, and forms 
a rough, ragged, staring coat. Yet hide-bound is not 
properly a disease itself, but rather the symptom of 
any one of many diseases. It results from grease, farcy, 
founder, chronic cough, worms, prolonged glanders, 
poor diet, all sorts of diseases of the digestive organs, 
and various disorders of obscure seat or ill-defined 
character. The grand remedy for it, of course, is to 
attack and overthrow the disease which causes it. 
But when that disease cannot be discovered, or even 
sometimes as an accompaniment to the main treat¬ 
ment when the disease is quite apparent, a few 
mashes, a little physic, an antimonial alterative and 
regular repeated frictions are often successful in re¬ 
moving hide-bound. 

Highway, a jiublic road, or road which any person 
has a right to use, whether the road be fit only for foot 
passengers, or fit also for wheeled carriages. Any 
road which has been used by the public, or open to all 
persons, during a certain number of years (different in 
different States), is permanently a highway, and any 

























































HINN Y—HIVES. 


665 


road which has been used by the public during four 
or five years may continue without trespass to be so 
used until it is formally enclosed. Public roads ac¬ 
quire the name of highways from the raised causeways 
which constitute the roads of the Romans. See article 
Road. 

Hinny, the offspring of the male horse—stallion— 
and the female ass. The mule has the greater ex¬ 
ternal resemblance to the ass; so has the hinny the 
greater external resemblance to the horse; and a more 
minute examination shows that the mule, not only in 
outward form, but in temper and characteristics, has 
more of the ass in his nature—the hinny more of the 
horse. It is in a considerable degree by the knowl¬ 
edge of these facts, which are positive, that the breeder 
is led, when he insists that, to produce the greatest 
advantage on the offspring, the excess of blood and 
vital energy must be on the side of the sire, and not 
on that of the dam; since he finds invariably that 
from the jackass and the mare, whether the latter be 
the merest dunghill or as thorough-bred as Spiletta, 
the mother of Eclipse, springs the mule of the ass 
type. 

The mule has long ears, slightly modified and 
shortened by the intermixture of the horse; the com¬ 
paratively hairless tail: the narrow quarters and thin 
thighs; the erect mane, the elongated head, the slen¬ 
der legs and narrow, erect hoofs, and the voice of the 
ass. The hinny has a smaller, better formed head, 
the flowing mane and full tail, the general fonn, the 
finer coat, larger legs, broader feet, and the voice of 
the horse. What would at first appear remarkable is 
that tire mule, or offspring of the male ass and mare, 
is a far larger animal than that of the stallion and 
female ass; and not only that, but frequently larger 
than either of his parents. 

The hinny, although hardier, more patient, more 
enduring of privation and scanty fare than the horse, 
is infinitely inferior in all these qualities both to the 
ass and the mule, while he is at the same time gentler, 
more tractable, and nearer the horse in temper,— 
strong arguments, it will be observed, for seeking in¬ 
variably to have the qualities of the blood, temper, 
courage, spirit, on the side of the sire, those of form 
and size on that of the dam. 

Both the mule and the hinny are clearly modified 
asses,—that is to say, they have both more in their 
comixDsition of the ass than the horse, but the propor¬ 
tion of that more depends on the male, and not on the 
female parent. It appears that the vital energy and 
power of transmitting organization is stronger in the 
ass than in the horse, probably because he is entirely 
in-bred, less changed by domestication, and nearer to 
his natural condition than the more cultivated or 
highly favored animals. 

Hired Help. Every farmer who has to emi)loy 
help wishes to have a good hired man. He desires 
that the wages he pays shall be earned, and when sure 
of this he is too frequently satisfied with his help. A 
man that works iqxm the farm is not a mere machine; 


he has a moral influence, and when surrounded by 
children may be dear at any price. The hired man 
should not only be able to earn his wages, but also to 
exert a good influence upon the young, with whom he 
is likely to be more or less associated. Pay good 
wages, and have only whole-souled, honest, upright 
men upon the farm, if you would raise the best crop 
that the farm can produce—a family of noble boys and 
girls. 

'Fhe following general rules should be given by every 
farmer to his hired help, and insist upon their adher¬ 
ing to them: 

1. Be regular and uniform in hours of labor. 

2. Do every operation in the best manner. 

3. Finish one job before beginning another. 

4. Clean every tool at night or sooner when done 
with. 

5. Bring in all tools and machines at night. 

6. Treat all animals kindly and gently. 

7. Never talk loudly to oxen or horses. 

8. Study neatness in everything you do. 

9. Never enter the house with muddy boots. 

10. Never use profane language or get in a passion. 

11. Take a general interest in the success of the 
farm. 

12. Study to improve constantly in knowledge and 
skill in farming. 

Those employers who cannot keep their hired help 
very long, or cannot get good help, are lacking in their 
own moral qualifications in some respect. They must ' 
surely have some disagreeable peculiarity in their 
character. See the section entitled “To the Farmer 
Boy,” page 237. 

Hit, in breeding, an instance of success. 

Hives, an eruption common to young persons, con¬ 
sisting of irregularly shaped patches of pimples, which 
smart, burn or itch. These blotches rise up in thick 
whelks, irregular in shape, from the size of a ten-cent 
piece to several inches in extent, often running to¬ 
gether, of a florid or purplish red color, and attended 
with intense itching, stinging, or burning sensation, 
very muchlike that produced from the sting of nettles; 
—hence the name of nettle rash. It usually appears 
suddenly, without any premonitory symptoms, aixi 
after tormenting the patient an hour or two, often dis¬ 
appears as suddenly as it came, though it frequently 
continues all night, and disappears in the morning, to 
return again at night. It is almost exclusively con¬ 
fined to children or young persons, between the ages 
of five and fifteen years. 

Acetate of ammonia will generally effect a cure; or 
salt and vinegar, or salt water alone. Coxe’s hive 
syrup has been {xipular for many years, but as it is 
somewhat poisonous, a doctor should be called before 
using it. A simple application is that of wheat flour, 
freely applied and rubbed over the surface, or wher¬ 
ever the eruptions appear. Therefore, rub the parts 
freely with flour, and if very extensive, apply flour to 
the whole body, and give the patient freely of saffron 
tea; or if that is not convenient, give sage and sassa- 











666 


HOAR HOUND—HO LI DA Y. 


fras tea. Then follow, as soon as urgent symptoms 
are relieved, with cooling physic, once a day for several 
days in succession. An excellent article for this pur¬ 
pose is cream of tartar and sulphur, three parts of the 
former to one of the latter, mixed with molasses until 
it is (iLiite thick, giving a tea-spoonful of the mixture 
two or three times a day, for several days. 

Attend also to the skin. Give the patient a warm 
bath every evening, or a sponge bath, by washing the 
whole body in warm saleratus water. r3o this for sev¬ 
eral evenings, and at the same time let the patient 
drink a little sassafras or saffron tea, warm or cold, 
through the day. Whenever the blotches appear ai> 
ply the flour freely. 

Hoarhound, a plant formerly cultivated in every 
garden, the tea or decoction of the leaves being used 
for coughs colds, etc. It is now a common weed 
in many places. 

Hoarseness. Wearing a wet cloth over the throat 
will remedy most cases. Patient should avoid all ex¬ 
posure to “ catching cold,” by remaining too long in 
rooms of confined air, etc. A good herb remedy is 
the following: Take i drachm of freshly scraped 
horse-radish root, boil it with 4 ounces of water in a 
close vessel for 3 hours, and make it into sirup, with 
double its quantity of sugar. A teaspoonful to be 
taken several times a day ; one or two doses, how¬ 
ever, sometimes proves effectual. Or, make a strong 
tea of horse-radish and yellow dock, sweeten it with 
honey and drink it freely; or, take four ounces of 
grated fresh horse-radish, saturate it in a pint of good 
vinegar over night, then add half a i)int of honey, 
and bring it to the boiling point; then strain and 
squeeze out. Dose, i or 2 teaspoonfuls several times 
a day. 

Another receipt for hoarseness or tickling in the 
throat is as follows: Take a small pinch of borax, 
powdered, place on the tongue, let it slowly dissolve 
and run down the throat. Repeat it often. It is also 
good to keep the throat moist at night and prevent 
coughing. 

Hobble, or Hopple, to walk lamely, or limp; to 
fasten the legs of an animal loosely together, so as to 
impede free motion ; an unequal, halting gait. 

Hoek, the joint of the lower part of the hind-leg 
of a horse, an ox or other cpiadruped, corresponding 
somewhat to the knee of the fore-leg of the same ani¬ 
mal, and to the ankle of the human being. In 
the horse it is an important joint, and greatly contrib¬ 
utes to the peculiarities of its individual conforma¬ 
tion, to the comparatively high or low value of the ani¬ 
mal, and is frequently the seat of disease and of 
seeming unaccountable lameness. 

Hoe-cake, a coarse cake of Indian meal, baked 
before the fire, and sometimes on a hoe; a johnny- 
cake. 

Hog: see Swine. 

Hog. To “hog” the mane of a horse is to partially 


clip it so that the remaining i)ortion projects up like 
the sharp ridge of bristles on a hog’s back. 

Hogging Down corn, to turn hogs into the corn¬ 
field, at any time after the ears are filled, to fatten 
themselves. It is considered a practice too wasteful 
to be commended. 

Hogshead (hog'zed), a measure of 63 gallons; any 
large cask of indefinite contents, but usually contain¬ 
ing 100 to 140 gallons. 

Holiday (hol'i-day), originally a holy day ; a relig¬ 
ious anniversary; next, a day set apart in honor ol 
some person or in tommemoration of some event; 
finally, a day of exemption from labor and of recrea¬ 
tion and gayety. Thus, utility has secularized what 
was once exclusively religious. A “legal holiday” is 
one in which legal processes, except for the pres¬ 
ervation of good order, cannot be enforced. They 
are, Christmas, New Year’s Day, February 2 2d (the 
anniversary of George Washington’s birthday), the 
Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and every day pro¬ 
claimed by the Government as a day of prayer, fast¬ 
ing, thanksgiving, jubilation, etc. Some persons ad¬ 
vocate an increase in the number of general holidays, 
and laboring men in the cities often have a half holi¬ 
day, or less time, given them weekly by their employ¬ 
ers. Exclusively from the standpoint of health, one 
should rest when he is tired, with no reference to 
days or hours; the holiday, therefore, is practically 
regarded more as a day for social intercourse and 
gayety than as a day simply of rest. Tlie ancient 
Jews in Palestine let their land rest every seventh 
year, to allow it to recover its fertility; but the Gentiles 
attributed the custom to sheer laziness. 

For the information of country school-teachers, we 
will say here that they will be safe in dismissing school 
on the days mentioned above, without consulting the 
directors, and that they will not have to “make up ” 
for them, without a specific contract to that effect. 

While, perhaps, there are not a sufficient number 
of National holidays, each family can have its own 
days of rest and recreation. Birthdays should 
be observed; for the children these days should be 
made happy by gifts and by a pleasant party, or by a 
pleasure-ride to some place which they specially de¬ 
sire to visit. Older people should take these days for 
thought, rest and recreation. It is fitting that these 
points of time should be observed, and that, as the 
years pass by, and age gradually but surely increases, 
the individual should recognize the fact that life is 
passing, and the time which he is to spend upon the 
earth is rapidly diminishing. They need not be sad 
days, but they should be remembered and suitably 
observed. 

Parents should teach their children to remember 
these days. The custom which some writers advo¬ 
cated long ago, of planting a tree to commemorate 
the birth of each child, is to be strongly commended. 
As soon after a child is born as the proper season for 
transplanting arrives, let a fine tree, oak, elm, maple, 










HOLLOW—HOMINY MILL. 


667 


evergreen or one of similar nature, be planted in one 
of the yards near the house. This tree should be tlie 
special care of the child in whose honor it was ])ut 
out, and as they grow in size and age the child will 
take a deep interest in the tree, and will soon come to 
regard it with feelings of affection. 

hlarriage anniversaries should also be observed by 
the married members of a family. They may well be 
celel)rated by social unions of the family circles to 
which the married ])air originally belonged. When 
this is impracticable, a visit to some near relatives, a 
tea-party ora pleasure trip will furnish the means for 
the appropriate observance of the day. 


Hollow. “ Hollow-eye,” an eye sunk in its orbit; 
“ hollow-horn,” leanness and bloodlessness, a disease 
of cattle (see Cattle); “hollow newel,”an opening in 
the center of a windinsj staircase in place of a newel- 
post, the stairs being supported by the walls at the 
outer end; “ hollow-w.are,” a general trade name for 
hollow articles, as cast-iron kitchen utensils, earthen¬ 
ware and the like. 

Holly, an evergreen tree, with a fine-grained, heavy, 
white wood, much used to adorn churches and houses 
at Christmas time. The bark is used to reduce 
fevers, and the berries are violently purgative and 
emetic. The berries turn yellow or red about No¬ 
vember ist. This is the European species, which is best 


known. The American holly is native in the eastern 
portion of the United States, and is more hardy than 
the other. The tree, and especially the berries, are 
exceedingly beautiful. 

Hollyhock, a tall, old-fashioned plant of the mal¬ 
low family, producing large, fragrant flowers. It is 
well known. 

Holstein Cattle, a breed of Dutch cattle. See 
page 178. 

Home Adornment. Under the head of Land¬ 
scape Gardening, Lawn and Residence, we fully treat 
of outside ornamentation, and here we would fully 
treat of parlor and chamber ornamentation 
had we several hundred pages of space; for 
it would require as much as that to present 
only a glimpse of the ingenuities and beau¬ 
ties found in the homes of civilization. The 
class of persons whom we particularly desire 
to read this paragraph are the comparatively 
idle girls living in large but somewhat unfurn¬ 
ished homes, with blank walls and ceilings. 
How much scope is there for their ingenuity 
and labor, devising and making brackets, wall 
pockets, flower boxes and vases, hanging 
baskets, fountains, imitations of birds and 
animals, illusions, what-nots and an infinite 
variety of fancy articles. There is scarcely a 
girl living but that would attain a sweeter dis- 
jxjsition, and a better disciplined mind by hav¬ 
ing something “on hand” to do in adding to 
the beauties and attractions of home. We 
presume the Creator of this flowery world 
would have no objection, even to the most 
pious, making this world as much like heaven 
as possible. Heaven does not consist exclu¬ 
sively of psalm-singing, but of everything 
beautiful and elevating; and it is even our 
duty to make everything in this world serve 
as heavenly a purpose as possible. 

The best method of learning what to make 
for home adornment is to observe what they 
may have at the well furnished homes you 
may visit, and the best way to learn how to 
make them is to be inquisitive about them 
when you are there. 

Homestead Law: see Land. 

Hominy, corn, usually of the smaller white flint 
kinds, bruised in a hominy mill or a mortar until the 
external covering is removed and sifted. Samp is com 
broken coarsely in a mill. But the term “ hominy ” is 
often applied to hulled corn,” which see. 

Hominy Mill. The wholesomeness of hominy as 
an article of diet, its nutritious quality, and its palat¬ 
able taste when properly prepared, have now become 
so generally recognized as to multiply ten-fold the de¬ 
mand for this product which existed a few years since. 
One bushel of corn will make from 28 to 30 pounds 
of hominy. The several manifest advantages of 















































































668 


HONE—HONE Y. 



Hone, a stone of fine grit, used for 
sharpening instruments that require 
a fine edge, and particularly for set¬ 
ting razors. Imitation hones are com¬ 
mon nowadays, which seem to serve 
the purpose very well. Printed in¬ 
structions accompany each article 
sold, whether hone or strap. See 
Whetstone. 


Fig. 2. — Eclipse Hominy Mill. 

a nice and even article of hominy, fully equal to any 
mill in the market. It separates the hearts, bran and 
meal from the hominy, making it a good and mer¬ 
chantable article. It requires 900 revolutions per 
minute. The motion must not check up when the 
charge is let into the mill. The largest size will make 
from 20 to 30 barrels of merchantable hominy in ten 
hours. It requires about eight-horse power, and a 12- 
inch pully, with eight and a half inch face. Put in 
three-fourths of a bushel for a charge. The corn 
should be dry. This mill requires a space seven feet 
two inches by three feet four inches. 

To Cook Hominy, take 3 cups of water to i cup of 
hominy, boil slowly for ^ of an hour; the longer it 
boils the better it is ; then add ^ teacupful of ^weet 
milk to a cup of hominy, and boil 10 minutes more ; 
stir it frequently while boiling. 

Hominy Croquettes. To i cupful of cold boiled 
hominy (small grained) add i tablespoonful melted 


Honey, fresh from the comb, is 
clear, translucent, slightly amber-col¬ 
ored, and viscous, becoming granular 
in time, with whitish, transparent crys¬ 
tals. In taste and smell, it is sweet, 
agreeable and aromatic. It should 
not irritate the throat when eaten, 
and its peculiar flavor should be so 
decided that it can be readily detected 
when mixed with other articles of diet. 

Honey derived from the blossoms 
of plants of the mustard family granu¬ 
lates or crystallizes speedily—often, 
indeed, while yet in the comb before 
removal from the hive ; while that from plants of the 
mint family and from fruit trees in general maintains its 
original condition unchanged for several months after 
being extracted from the comb. Honey produced in 
northern climates likewise crystallizes sooner than that 
from southern countries. 

Crystalline sugar, analogous to grape sugar, maybe 
obtained by treating granular honey with a small 
quantity of alcohol, which, when expressed, takes 
along with it the other ingredients, leaving the cry^s- 
tals nearly untouched. Thp same end may be at¬ 
tained by melting the honey, saturating its acid w’ith 
carbonate of calcium, filtering the liquid, then setting 
it aside to crystallize, and washing the crystals wdth 
alcohol. Inferior honey usually contains a large pro¬ 
portion of uncrystallizable sugar and vegetable acid. 
When diluted with water, honey undergoes the vari¬ 
ous fermentations, and in very warm weather an 
inferior grade of honey will sometimes undergo a 


Wright’s pearl hominy mill (Fig. i) over older patterns 
are in its simplicity of construction and operation, 
economy of ixiw^er, and avoidance of dirt and dust. 
It is a horizontal mill, occupying a space of but three 
by four feet square, and has a regular feed and dis¬ 
charge. The grain requires no soaking or steaming, 
but can be worked dry as well as when damp. The 
hominy and feed are separated before leaving the mill, 
the hominy running out on a shaking screen where 
the fine is separated from the coarse, leaving it in per¬ 
fect condition for the market. The feed is depo sited 
on the other side. 

The Eclipse mill represented below produces 


butter and stir hard, moistening, by degrees, with i 
cupful of milk, beating to a stiff, light jiaste ; then put 
in I teaspoonful of white sugar, and lastly, a well- 
beaten egg. Roll into oval balls with floured hands, 
dip in beaten eggs, then cracker-crumbs, and fry in 
hot lard. 

Baked Hominy. To i cup of boiled hominy (small 
kind) allow two cups of milk, i heaping teaspoonful of 
butter, I tablespoonful of white sugar, a little salt, and 
3 eggs; beat the eggs very light, yolks and white sep¬ 
arately; work the yolks first into the hominy, alter¬ 
nately with the melted butter; when thoroughly mixed, 
put in sugar and salt and go on beating while you 
soften the batter gradually with milk; 
be careful to leave no lumps in the 
hominy; stir in the whites, and bake 
in a buttered pudding dish until light, 
firm and delicately browned. 















HONEY. 


change acquiring a pungent taste and a deeper color. 
The usual adulterations of honey are with various 
forms of starch, as those of the potato and wheat, and 
with starch and cane sugars. The starch is added to 
whiten dark honey, and to correct the acidulous taste 
which olu honey is apt to acquire, as well as for the 
sake of increased weight. The presence of starch 
may be readily detected by the usual iodine test. 
Honey is now rarely adulterated by the old methods, 
in this country at least, as, owing to the large supply, 
the conditions that once made sophistication profit¬ 
able now no longer exist. Since the manufactuie of 
glucose has been so greatly extended of late years, 
this article supersedes nearly all others in the adul¬ 
teration of honey. Indeed, what may claim in the 
market to be “ pure extracted honey,” may be nearly 
all glucose, with a little honey to flavor it. A thin 
strip of comb honey is generally placed in the mass, 
to aid the deception. Honey adulterated with glucose 
will not granulate. The best rule in purchasing honey 
is to select that which is granulated, or “ candied,” 
as some express it. Honey, as well as molasses and 
sugar, are sometimes made even from scrapings from 
the floors of sugar houses and groceries. 

Management of Comb Honey. Comb honey in 
boxes should be taken from the hive as soon as it 
is finished, or as soon thereafter as ix)ssible. No apiar¬ 
ist can expect to have his honey sell for the highest 
market price if he permits it to stay in the hives for 
weeks after it has been sealed over, allowing the bees 
to give the combs a dirty yellow color, by constantly 
traveling over it. All box-honey producers know that 
there always will be cells next to the box that are 
partly filled with honey, but not sealed over, and 
when taken from the hive, if the box is turned over 
sidewise, the honey, being thin, will run out, making 
sticky work. The remedy for this is a small, warm 
room. Bees evaporate their honey by heat, and 
therefore, if we expect to keep our honey in good con¬ 
dition for market, we must keep it as the bees do, in 
such a iX)sition that it will grow thicker, instead of 
thinner all the while. The honey room should have 
a window in it and the south side should be painted 
a dark color, to draw the heat. While the honey is 
. in it the mercury should stand from 8o^ to 90® 
Fahr., and when crated for market, you can tip the 
boxes as much as desired and no honey will drip, 
neither will any of the combs have a watery appear¬ 
ance ; all will be bright, dry and clean. 

Extracted Honey is obtained by the frames be¬ 
ing uncapped and placed in the basket or frame- 
holder of a honey extractor, which being attached 
to a single rod in a large can and revolved, the cen¬ 
trifugal force throws out the pure honey from the 
combs, which runs down the side of the can and is 
drawn off and placed in jars or some other desirable 
receptacle. Extracted honey is the pure liquid minus 
the comb. 

Honey must be “uncapped” before extracting; 
therefore a good honey knife is a necessity. 

Honey can be extracted, if carefully done, without 


669 


the least injury to the bees or the comb; the latter 
may be replaced into the hive, and such have often 
been refilled by the bees within three or four days. 

When the breeding apartment becomes so full of 
honey that the queen has no room to lay, to extract it 
is a necessity. By the extractor, too, all the honey 
may be taken from partly-filled boxes—a small comb- 
holder being furnished with each extractor for that 
purpose, as well as extracting from pieces when trans¬ 
ferring. By its judicious use, many pounds of honey 
can be obtained that would not be deposited in boxes 
by the bees. Empty combs in the spring are invalu¬ 
able, and in the fall there are usually many surplus 
brood combs. By extracting the honey from these 
and carefully putting them away, you not only have 
the honey for use or sale, but also the much desired 
combs in the spring. Inexperienced bee-keepers are 
sometimes tempted to extract too closely, and thus 
ruin the colony. The extractor should only be used 
when there is a rapid storing of honey, and the outside 
frames of comb are nearly capped over. Capped 
brood will not be injured, but there is danger in using 
the extractor when the brood is uncapped. To pre¬ 
vent swarming, the honey extractor is successfully 
used by some. Its frequent use will usually control it. 
Many swarms and large yields of honey will not be 
obtained during the same season. The one will be at 
the expense of the other. Honey extracted before it 
is capped is liable to become sour. It needs “ ripen¬ 
ing;” if it be “well cured,” and placed in a tight 
vessel, it will keep well. 

Considerable confusion has resulted from consum¬ 
ers thinking “ extract ” and “ strained ” honey the 
same thing. The former is obtained as already de¬ 
scribed, and the latter is the result of hanging up 
combs, used in the breeding apartment of the hive, 
and pieces of comb containing bee-bread, dead bees, 
etc., and catching what passes through the cloth. 
That is “ strained honey,” and is quite different from 
the pure honey extracted as before described, still 
having the flavor of the bloom from which it came. 

Artificial Honey may be made as follows : Com¬ 
mon sugar, 4 pounds; water, i pint; let them come to 
a boil, and skim ; then add pulverized alum, ounce; 
remove from the fire and stir in cream-of-tartar, ^ 
ounce ; and water or extract of rose, r tablespoonful, 
and it is fit for use. 

Another: Good common sugar, 5 pounds; water, 

I quart; gradually bring it to a boil, skimming well; 
when cool, add i pound of bees’ honey and 4 drops of 
peppermint essence.' For a better article, use white 
sugar and ^ pint less water and ^ pound more honey 
If it is desired to give it the ropy appearance of bees’ 
honey, put into the water ounce of alum. 

Honey from Tomatoes, i peck ripe tomatoes; 
peel, and cook till fine, in plenty of water, then strain. 
To I pint of juice add i pint of sugar, let boil to a 
jelly; while boiling put in one dozen green peach leaves 
to give it flavor, and a shade of honey. Do not leave 
them too long, as it would be too dark, and then flavor 
with lemon or vanilla. 









670 


HONE ) '-COME—HOE. 


Honey-Comb, a waxen structure full of cells, 
framed by the bees, to deposit their honey in. The 
construction of the honey-comb seems one of the most 
surprising parts of the work of insects. 'I'he mate¬ 
rials of which it is composed, which, though evidently 
collected from the flowers of plants, yet do not, that 
we know of, exist in them in that form, have given 
great cause of speculation. The wax is secreted, by 
the peculiar organization of the insect, in the form of 
small and thin oval scales, in the incisures or folds of 
the abdomen. 'I'he regular structure of the comb is 
also equally wonderful. 'Fhe comb is composed of a 
number of cells, most of them exactly hexagonal, con¬ 
structed with geometrical accuracy, and arranged in 
two layers, placed end to end, the opening of the dif¬ 
ferent layers being in opposite directions. The comb 
is placed vertically; the cells, therefore, are horizontal. 
The distance of the different cakes of comb from each 
other is sufficient for two bees to pass readily between 
them, and they are here and there pierced with pas¬ 
sages affording a communication between all parts of 
the hive. The construction of the cells is such as to 
afford the greatest possible number in a given space, 
with the least possible expenditure of material. The 
base of each cell is composed of three rhomboidal 
pieces, placed so as to form a pyramidal concavity. 
'Flius the base of a cell on one side of a comb is com- 
ix>sed of part of the bases of three on the other. 'Fhe 
angles of the base are found, by the most accurate 
geometrical calculation, to be those by which the least 
possible expense was required to produce a given de¬ 
gree of strength. 'Fhe sides of the cells are all much 
thinner than the finest paper; and yet they are so 
strengthened by their disposition, that they are able to 
resist all the motions of the bee within them. The 
effort of their thrusting their bodies into their cells 
would be the bursting of those cells at the top, were 
not these well guarded. But to prevent this, the crea¬ 
tures extend a cord, or roll of wax, round the verge of 
every cell, in such a manner that it is scarcely possi¬ 
ble they should split in that particular part. This 
cord, or roll, is at least three times as thick as the 
sides of the cell, and is even much thicker at the an¬ 
gles of the cells than elsewhere, so that the aperture 
of each cell is not regularly hexagonal, though its in¬ 
ner cavity be perfectly so. The cells which have 
served or are to serve for the habitation of the worms 
of the common and one of the male bees, are often 
made also, at other times, the receptacles of honey; 
but though these are differently made to serve either 
use, there are others destined only to receive honey. 
'Fhe celerity with which a swarm of bees, received into 
a hive where they find themselves lodged to their 
minds, bring their works of the comb to perfection, is 
amazing. There are vast numbers at work all at once; 
and that they may not incommode one another, thev 
do not work upon the first comb until it is finished, 
but, when the foundation of that Is laid, they go to 
work upon another, so that there are often the begin¬ 
nings of three or four stories made at once, and so 
many divisions allotted to cariyflng on the work of each. 


Honey-Dew, a sweet liquid or viscid substance 
sometimes found on the leaves of trees and other 
plants in small drops like dew. 'Fwo substances have 
been called by this name: one secreted from the plants, 
and the other deposited by a small insect. It is prob¬ 
able, however, that both substances are essentially 
one, being abnormal exudations from the plant caused 
by insects, microscopic and larger, puncturing it. Bees 
feed upon honey-dew with great avidity. 

Honeysuckle, a shrub, much admired for the 
beauty or fragrance of its flowers. There are several 
species. 'Fhe most common kind growing wild in the 
Northern States is called the American honeysuckle, 
or “woodbine.” The true woodbine, however, is a 
European variety, bearing yellow flowers and red ber¬ 
ries. The trumpet honeysuckle has bright scarlet 
flowers, which are yellowish within and scentless. The 
name “honeysuckle” is said to be derived from the 
practice of children sucking the flower to obtain the 
drop of sweet juice at the base. 

Hoof, the horny portion of the foot of animals. See 
Cattle, Horse, etc. 

Hoof-bound, having a dryness and contraction of 
the hoof, which occasions pain and lameness. 

Hooping-Cough, a kind of contagious cough, at¬ 
tended with a shrill whoop, and is more common 
among children. The older the patient is, the lighter 
the disease. This affection is easily recognized. Treat¬ 
ment— Hygienic: Keep the child from all exposure, 
but do not confine him to a close, warm room, even 
for five minutes; do not wrapcloths around the throat, 
or dose with any medicines whatever, not even herb 
teas; keep the diet steady, and consisting of only the 
easily digesting aliments ; diet rather lightly ; keep the 
extremities warm; and give hand friction twice a day. 
Do not permit the case to expose other children. 
Herbal: Give lobelia, in slightly nauseating doses, 
once in two or three hours. Sweetening the dose is 
beneficial, and the drug may be either in substance, 
infusion or tincture. “ Oxymel of lobelia ” is the best 
preparation. 

Ariother : Onions and garlic,sliced, of each, i gill; 
sweet oil, i gill; stew them in the oil, in a covered 
dish, to obtain the juices; then strain and add honey, 

I gill; paregoric and spirits of camphor, of each, % 
ounce; bottle and cork tight for use. Dose, for a 
child of 2 or 3 years, a tea-s^xjon 3 or 4 times daily, 
or whenever the cough is troublesome, increasing or 
lessening, according to age. 

Another : Drink freely of a tea of red-clover blos¬ 
soms, either green or dry. This is the best medica¬ 
tion of all. 

Hoove, Hoven, or Blown, is an extremely flatulent 
distension of the rumen, paunch, or first stomach of 
cattle and sheep. It is accompanied with excessive 
pain, and if not soon reduced it speedily proves fatal. 
See page 206, and article on Sheep. 

Hop, a hardy, perennial-rooted, twining plant. Its 
ix)pular name is an abbreviation of the Saxon word 













HOF. 


signifying “ to climb.” The principal use of 
hops is in the manufacture of beer, and it will be 
many years before they will be superseded, if ever. 
'The importance of this crop compels us to give some 
details as to their 

Cultivation. Very rich land is required. If it 
has been impoverished, renovation by fresh barnyard 
manures and alkaline composts will be necessary. 
After a plantation is started, manuring is done in 
winter upon the hills, and when in the spring the run¬ 
ners are dug up for sets, the manure is dug in around 
the outside of the roots just where the young rootlets 
are starting. You might manure annually if you have 
sufficient manure. Plow deeply, 9 to 12 inches, and 
pulverize well. Mark out the ground at intervals of 

or 8 feet each way, and plant at the crossing of the 
furrows. If the ground is not sufficiently rich, place 
three or four shovels of manure in each hill. The 
planting is done by taking new roots from the old 
hills. Each root should be 6 or 8 inches long and 
contain two or more eyes, one to form the root and 
one the vine. Six plants may be in each hill. The 
first season the intervening ground may be planted 
with potatoes or some low crop. No poles will be re¬ 
quired the first year. Hoe the plants and keep them 
clean of weeds. The second year they should be 
supplied with tough poles 12 to 15 feet long, two or 
three to each hill. When the plants have reached a 
length of 3 or 4 feet, train them to the poles, winding 
them in the direction of the sun’s course, that is, head¬ 
ing west on the south side of the jxile. Tie them 
gently in this position by cotton twine, rushes, tough 
grass or woolen yarn. Go through the plantation 
every day and tie up again such as may have slipped 
out of place. Another method requires fewer poles 
and the use of strong twine stretching from one pole 
to another; but this is more laborious. 

A slightly different plan, more in detail, is this: 
Cheap stakes 6 or 8 feet high are used, to which the 
growing vines are tied. Along the ends, half-way be¬ 
tween the rows, oak posts lising 12 feet above the sur¬ 
face are set and strongly braced. From the ^ tops of 
these are stretched, between the rows. No. 9 wires, 
which are kept from sagging under their load by cross 
wires upon posts set every five hills in the rows. 
From the top of every stake ordinary wool-twine is 
passed over the wire obliquely to the stake in the hill 
next ahead in the next row. The vines readily follow 
up the twines and make a succession of beautful ar¬ 
bors, truly picturesque. The wire for an acre weighs 
about 400 ixninds and costs about $20, varying, of 
course, according to the price of the wire. You may 
use about 60 pounds of twine per acre, costing 8^ 
cents a pound. The wire and twine are cheaper than 
poles, and much more convenient. The stakes re¬ 
main in the ground, only the twine being taken down 
with the hops. In the fall, plow over the hop-yard, 
turning the furrows toward the hills, as there are no 
poles in the way. 

Hops ordinarily blossom about the last of June or 
early in July, and remain in bloom about 25 days. 


671 


Humphrey’s Seedling blooms seven days earlier, and 
remains in bloom only 12 days. 

Harvesting and Preservation. When the hops 
have acquired a pretty strong scent, which averages 
about the first of August, gather them. The seed is 
then brown and the leaves begin to change color. 
First cut the vines at the surface of the ground, and 
pull up the ixiles and lay them in convenient piles. 
Strip the hops off the vines and throw them into large 
baskets, keeping tjiem free from leaves and dirt. 
Cover each hill with compost, which remove in the 
spring; run the plow on the four sides as near as pos¬ 
sible, laying bare the roots but not injuring the plants; 
cut the roots with a sharp knife within 2 or 3 
inches of the main roots; trim the latter if spreading 
too far. It is well to break or twist down the first 
shoots, and allow those which succeed to run, as they 
are likely to be more productive. The cutting should 
be done on a sunny day, to prevent too profuse 
bleeding. 

To dry hops, spread them out thinly upon a plat¬ 
form in a shade, and stir them occasionally. A very 
large quantity is more safely cured in a kiln, which 
should be very particularly constructed. It should 
be in a dry hillside, dug the same size at the bottom 
as at the top; lay the side walls up perpendicularly 
and fill in with solid stone to give it a tunnel form, 12 
feet square at the top, 2 feet square at the bottom, 
and 8 or 10 feet deep. On the top of the walls lay sills, 
and let joists into them as for a floor; on these nail 
laths 0/2 inches wide and ^ of an inch apart; and 
over these again spread a clean linen cloth and tack 
its edges to the sills. Then, on each side of the kiln, 
set up a board about i foot wide, to form a bin for the 
hops. Plaster the inside of the kiln to make it air¬ 
tight. Charcoal is the only proper fuel to be used in 
drying hops, and it is better to have it of yellow birch 
or maple. Thoroughly heat the kiln, and then put 
the hops upon the cloth; keep the heat steady and 
regular, but gradually increasing during the process to 
100°. Fifty pounds of hops when dried is the largest 
quantity that should be dried at one time in a kiln 
of this size; less would dry better. Don’t stir them. 
After lying a few days subsequent to the kiln-diqing, 
the hops will gather little moisture, seeming to undergo 
a sweat; this will begin to subside in about a week in 
average weather, at which time, and before the sweat 
is off, they ought to be bagged in clear, dry weather. 
In testing from time to time the degree of the sweat, 
thrust the hand into the middle of the heap and care¬ 
fully examine them; if you find them very damj) and 
their color altering, they should be re-dried in the 
open air; or, if the weather be damp, in the kiln. 
Hops should not remain long in the bin or bag after 
they are picked, as they will very soon heat and be¬ 
come insipid. In bagging them for market they are 
'pressed in compactly through a box made for the pur¬ 
pose and managed with a screw. The bags may be 
but five feet long and large enough to contain 250 
pounds. A bushel, when dried, weighs \yl jxiunds. 
The bags are made of coarse, strong tow cloth, or of 


43 








6j2 


HORNET STINGS—HORSE. 


Russia hemp. Building houses over the kilns is a 
good practice in vogue; but they should give good 
ventilation by doors, windows and a large opening 
over-head. The apartment in which the dried hops 
are stored should be so thoroughly partitioned off 
from the kiln-room as to preclude all moisture from 
those which are drying. 

Hops are liable to attack from various insects, 
blight, mildew, etc.; but there is ho effective remedy 
for these pests. A white grub frequently gets into the 
hop-vine just below the surface, and sucks the juice 
until the vine withers. Lice also sometimes attack 
the leaves and make quite destructive work. The 
best preventives are new or fresh soil, which is rich 
in ashes and the inorganic manures, and in a fine till¬ 
able condition to insure a vigorous growth. The best 
varieties are the English Cluster, the Grape and 
Humphrey Seedling. The latter originated in Wis¬ 
consin, ripens ten to fifteen days earlier, is productive, 
hardy, not subject tO' fire-blight or winter-killing. 

Hornet Stings: see Stings. 

Horse. The family to which the horse belongs 
comprises animals which have only one apparent toe 
and a single hoof to each foot; although under the 
skin, on each side of their metatarsus and metacarpus, 
there are spurs representing two lateral toes. The 
family consists of a single genus, equus. 

'I'he histor)^ of mankind abundantly testifies that 
every possible use and application of this animal, 
whether in war, commerce or pleasure, seems to have 
been anticipated by the most ancient peoples and old- 
world nations which, ages ago, most largely employed 
the horse, and which were the great centers of antique 
civilization. Indeed, it may be asserted that but for 
the horse the human race could not have reached its 
present state of progress or refinement, or have been 
enabled to contend against the numerous obstacles 
to advancement and material happiness which 
surrounded it; and it has been well said that, 
next to the want of iron, the want of horses 
would have been one of the greatest physical barriers 
to the perfecting of the arts of civilized life. In all 
ages and climes, the horse has been the devoted 
servant of man, whether toiling at the tread-mill or 
straining every muscle in the race. Beyond all other 
animals his only equal in usefulness is his iron name¬ 
sake. 

History of the Horse. Fossil bones, supposed 
by some geologists to be those of the horse, have been 
found in various parts of the earth, buried deep in 
depositions of an older date than the era of the crea¬ 
tion of man. Some have been recently discovered in 
our own country, mixed with those of extinct species 
of animals, although we have no positive proof of their 
being the bones of the horse. The native country of 
the horse cannot, with certainty, be traced. He has 
been found, varying materially in size, in form, and in 
utility, in all the temperate, in most of the sultry and 
in many of the northern regions of the Old World. In 
the Sacred Volume we are told that as early as 1650 


years befoie the birth of Christ the horse had been 
domesticated by the Egyptians. When Joseph carried 
his father’s remains from Egypt to Canaan, “there 
went up with him both chariots and horsemen.” One 
hundredand fifty years afterwards, the horse constituted 
the principal strength of the Egyptian army. Pharaoh 
pursued the Israelites with “ six hundred chosen 
chariots, and with all the horses of Egypt.” Fifty 
years after the expulsion of the Israelites from Egypt, 
and 1450 years before the birth of Christ, the horse 
was so far naturalized in Greece that the Olympic 
games were instituted, including chariot and horse¬ 
racing. We have, therefore, sufficient evidence that 
the horse was, at a very early period, subjected to the 
dominion of man. A long time must certainly have 
elapsed before man was able to Ascertain the value 
and peculiar use of the animals that surrounded him. 
The writings of Moses show us that after the ox, the 
sheep and the goat, man subdued the ass, and then 
the camel, and last of all the horse became his servant; 
and no sooner was he subdued, and his strength and 
docility and sagacity appreciated, than the others 
were comparatively disregarded, except in Palestine, 
where the use of the horse was forbidden by Divine 
authority. 

From Egypt the use of the horse was propagated 
to other and distant lands, and probably the horse 
himself was first transmitted from Egypt to several 
countries. The Bible decides another point: that 
Arabia, by whose breed of horses those of other 
countries have been so much improved, was not the 
native place of the horse. Six hundred years after 
the time just referred to, Arabia had no horses, “ but 
all the horses for his own cavalry and chariots, and 
those which he supplied the Phoenician monarchs, he 
procured from Egypt.” The horses of Arabia itself, 
and of the southeastern parts of Europe, are clearly 
derived from Egypt; but whether they were there 
bred or imported from the southwestern regions of 
Asia, or, as is more probable, brought from the interior 
or northern coast of Africa, cannot with certainty be 
determined. 

The Israelites were forbidden to use horses for 
either battle or pleasure, and commanded to ham¬ 
string such as they captured in war; yet about five cen¬ 
turies after their exodus from Egypt, they so fondly 
domesticated horses and so greatly multiplied them 
that Solomon had 1,400 chariots and 12,000 cavalry. 
The Eg}q5tians, the Ethiopians, the Medes, the Per¬ 
sians, and the Greeks successfully paid great atten¬ 
tion to horses, and maintained them in a spirited and 
well-trained condition for the purpose of war and the 
chase; the Greeks introduced either fine breeds of 
horses themselves, or a taste for possessing and im¬ 
proving them, into Arabia, Barbary, Spain and South¬ 
ern Italy; and the Romans afterwards diffused them 
throughout the central, the western, and the northern 
parts of Europe. William the Conqueror owed the 
victory of Hastings, in a main degree, to the superior¬ 
ity of his cavalry; and the barons who accompanied 
him, being made land owners of a very considerable 









t 




























































































































































































HORSE. 


675 


portion of the kingdom, rapidly diffused a valuable 
mixture of the characters of the Norman and the 
Spanish horses among the British breeds. A century 
later King John made some importations from Flan¬ 
ders to give weight and substance to draft and cav¬ 
alry horses. The improvement of the various breeds 
were afterwards pursued with more or less judgment 
and zeal by other British monarchs. It has already 
been stated that the earliest records we have of the 
horse trace him to Egypt, whence he gradually found 
his way to Arabia and Persia, and the provinces which 
were colonized from Egypt; and thence to other parts 
of the Old World. But Egypt is not now a breeding 
country, and it does not appear to possess those requi¬ 
sites which could have constituted one; therefore it is 
natural, in giving an account of the most celebrated 
and useful breeds of different countries, to begin with 
those of Africa. At the head of these is the Barb, 
remarkable for fine and graceful action. The Barb 
has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Span¬ 
ish horse, from which sprang the wild horses of 
America; and when the improvement of the breed of 
horses began to be systematically pursued in Great 
Britain, the Barb was very early introduced. Next we 
have the East Indian, the Persian, the Toorkoman, 
the Tartar and Calmuck, the Turkish, the German, 
the Swedish, Finland and Norwegian, the Iceland 
the Flemish and Dutch, the French, the Spanish, the 
Italian, and the English horses, all of which, more or 
less, have directly or indirectly contributed to our 
American breeds. 

The first or ancient mode of using the horse was in 
chariots—a rude vehicle without springs—or riding on 
horseback without saddle or bridle; hence the Elgin 
marbles representing the rider on the bare back of his 
steed without a bridle. After the establishment of the 
Olympian games, about 775 years before the Chris¬ 
tian era, saddles and bridles were invented. They 
rode about four-mile races in public competition for 
prizes awarded to the winner. The Olympian games 
were held once in four years in Greece. They were 
devoted to athletic sports and horse-racing. Elo¬ 
quence, poetry and the fine arts were cultivated in 
these conventions. They were patronized by the most 
distinguished statesmen and orators of Greece. Al- 
cibiades, the Athenian general and disciple of Aris¬ 
totle, sent from his stable to one meeting no less than 
seven-four horse chariots. He came off victorious 
with three, and drew three prizes. The great object 
of these four-mile contests was to improve their war 
horses. Equestrian skill was a profession of the an¬ 
cients. It gave great distinction to the cavalry sol¬ 
diers of Greece and Rome. 

The horse was early devoted to war—used by ty¬ 
rants to destroy the human family. Ambitious rulers 
have used them to extend the dominion of empire, and 
to protect kings and conquerors in their dominions. 
Romulus, the reputed founder of Rome, 753 years be¬ 
fore the Christian era, selected his body-guard from 
the youthful sons of the wealthy Roman families, be¬ 
cause the monetary aristocracy would mount their 


sons on gallant chargers, to defend the city, free of 
expense. This was the institution of the mounted 
Roman legions that served the State at their own ex¬ 
pense. They were called “ Knights,” a title of honor, 
conferred for their patriotism and bravery, second only 
in distinction to the title of a Roman senator. The 
martial spirit of these young mounted cohorts protected 
the city, at their own expense, from the barbarous 
hordes that surrounded it. 

Caesar depended for his cavalry upon horses pro¬ 
cured from Gaul, which could ride over the Roman 
chargers at the battle of Pharsalia as if they were in¬ 
fants in cavalry tactics. Pompey the Great, who had 
been victorious upon a hundred battle-fields, and made 
twelve crowned heads submit to the power of Rome, 
could not stand before the powerful cavalry of Caesar. 
He was ignominiously defeated by the great con¬ 
queror of three hundred nations or tribes and eight 
hundred cities, who, in a sixty days’ fight made him¬ 
self Dictator of Rome. 

The Grecian horses could not stand before the more 
powerful chargers of the Persian cavalry. Their irre¬ 
sistible charges would break the line of Grecian cav¬ 
aliers, and scatter them like chaff before the wind. 
The Greeks instituted chariot racing, breeding stables, 
and imported Persian or foreign stallions to breed up 
a more powerful race of horses, so that the great law¬ 
givers of Athens might extend their dominions against 
the more formidable cavalry of the surrounding na¬ 
tions. 

The Greeks first drove the horse to a rude chariot, 
and then found they could manage him while on his 
back, with the voice or a switch and without either 
saddle or bridle. This ingenious people soon inveiited 
the snaffle bridle, and both rode and drove with its 
aid. The curb bit was a Roman invention, whilst 
shoeing was not practiced by either Greeks or Ro¬ 
mans. Saddles and harness were of skins and some¬ 
times cloth. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of 
middle and northern Asia, and some other rude na¬ 
tions, the flesh of the horse is used for food, and 
mare’s milk for domestic purposes, the latter forming, 
when fermented, an acid drink which is intoxicating. 

The horses found in the wild state on the pampas 
of the South and in the prairies of North America, are 
undoubtedly descendents of the Spanish chargers, es¬ 
caped or let loose in the exploring expeditions of De 
Soto and other adventurers, especially from the horses 
that escaped in the Spanish wars with Mexico and 
Peru, increased by those abandoned at Buenos Ayres. 
The blood of the Barb predominates in the Spanish 
horse, a breed brought into Spain by the Moors. 
The Mexican ponies to this day show unmistakable 
marks of oriental blood. 

Horses are not supposed to be indigenous to the 
western continent; at least none of the first discov¬ 
erers have left on record any evidence of their exist¬ 
ence. We know that Columbus, in his second voy¬ 
age to this continent, in 1493, brought over horses, 
the first probably that ever saw the light of the sun in 
the western hemisphere. 











676 


HORSE. 


According to Herbert, in 1604 an enterprising 
French lawyer, M. L. Escarbot, brought horses and 
other domestic animals from France into Acadia, 
from which descended the French horses that now 
prevail extensively in that country. 

In 1609, the English colonizing ships, landing with 
emigrants at Jamestown, Va., brought over from En¬ 
gland six mares and one horse, besides cattle, sheep 
and swine. 

In 1625, a 'Stock of horses was imjwrted from Hol- 


widely in animals destined to work of very dissimilar 
character. The points which would be highly prized 
in a race-horse would materially lessen the value of a 
cart-horse; those which would largely add to the value 
of a draught-horse, would make a hunter unsalable. 
But, notwithstanding this, there are certain jxjints 
which should be found well developed in good horses 
of every breed, class and variety. Such are: width 
of forehead, indicative of large volume of brain, 
and denoting courage, tractability, cleverness, etc.; 



Fig. 2.— Showing-Muscies o/ the Horse. 


land to New York by the Dutch West IndiaCompany. 

In 1629, Francis Higginson, an English emigrant 
from Leicestershire, brought over horses and mares to 
Massachusetts, from which descended the first stock 
of New England. 

From these early periods and beginnings, and sub- 
quent importations, many millions of horses have 
spread over the United States. Some of the noblest 
steeds and greatest performers in the world are num¬ 
bered among our running and trotting celebrities, and 
our draft and road horses are taking rank w'ith the 
best breeds of England and France. 

Points of a Horse. The best relative proportions 
of the various points of a horse will, of necessity, differ 


width of nostril, as well as of jaw, for the full and easy * 
play of the breathing apparatus; fullness and clear¬ 
ness of the eye, together with a soft, gentle expression, 
pointing to soundness and good temper; medium-sized 
ear, etc. 

The neck should be neither too long nor too short. 
In the former case the weight of the head is a constant 
strain on the muscles. It should be sinewy and full, 
with a sweep between the withers and breast, and 
should gradually slope off until it joins the head, with 
a delicate curve just behind the ear. Narrowness of 
throat abruptly bent at the upper part, called the 
throttle, is not unfrequently indicative of roaring. 

In the fore-quarters the most imjxirtant point is 













HORSE. 


677 


conceded to be the shoulder, if the horse is intended 
for the saddle. The reason is clear. Unless there is 
length of blade and true-arm, there is not enough sur¬ 
face for the attachment and play of the muscles ; nor 
will there be spring enough to neutralize the jar caused 
by the fall of the horse’s foot. The straighter the 
angle formed by the long axis of each of these bones, 
the less spring there will be. Again, if the angle be 
too small the shoulder-blade muscles will not thrust 
forward the true-arm, and the latter will not be ade¬ 
quately provided with muscles to act on the fore-arm. 
Consequently, the upright shoulder not only gives rise 
to short, jerky*action, but there is a want of the elastic 
movement which allows the horse to carry his body 
with ease and rapidity, without such alternate rise and 
fall of the fore and hind quarters as would make the 
rider very uncomfortable. In the draught or farm 
horse, on the contrary, an upright shoulder, well 


equipped with muscle, is desirable, and in a measure, 
also, in the trotter and carriage horse, the pressure 
of the collar demanding a steady and comparatively 
motionless surface to sustain it. 'Fhe ix)int of the 
shoulder should be fully developed, but there should 
be no projections in it. When the true-arm is short 
and the elbow is under, or only slightly behind it, the 
action of the horse will seldom be good. When the 
elbow turns inward the horse is liable to turn his toes 
out; in the contrary' case, to turn them in. A muscu¬ 
lar and long fore-arm is the surest indication of grand, 
strong action, and is a most important ix)int. The 
knee should be considerably broader than the adjacent 
parts of the leg above and below, when looked at from 
the front, tapering off to a thin edge behind, with 
marked development of the pisiform bone, which pro¬ 


jects backward at its upper part. Below the knee the 
leg should be as large as in any other part, and not 
bent inwards, which is a sign of weakness. A slight 
bending forward of the knee is far preferable, unless 
it arise from overwork. Large, flat cannon bones are 
important with a full-sized suspensory ligament. The 
fetlock should be large and clean, and the pasterns 
form an angle somewhat over forty-five degrees with 
the ground. The foot should be round and moder¬ 
ately broad, but not flat. 

In the middle piece the withers first claim our atten¬ 
tion. They should be moderately high and thin; not 
too ])rominent and not devoid of muscle. Some very' 
good authorities hold that if the shoulder-blades are 
long and slanting and well furnished with muscles, 
the withers may be altogether disregarded. This 
opinion is not, however, general. The volume of the 
chest shows the size of the lungs, as well as the de¬ 
velopment of the larger diges¬ 
tive organs. Too great breadth 
of chest is not a point to be 
commended in the case of the 
hunter, racer or trotter, inas¬ 
much as it interferes with the 
free action of the arms and 
shoulders as they move on the 
ribs. In them depth of chest 
must supply the want of width. 
In draught or cart-horses, on 
the contrary, a wide, roomy 
frame in every direction should 
be highly valued. For light 
draught a horse of medium 
qualities between these two 
should be sought. The size of 
the chest at the girth indicates 
the capacity of the lungs; bot¬ 
tom, or staying ix)wer, depends 
upon the depth of the back ribs. 
To this last ix)int especial at¬ 
tention should be paid. The 
back should be short and spa¬ 
cious. From the shoulder point 
to the back of the quarters the 
distance should be greater than 
the height at the withers. The perfection of shape 
in this point is embodied in the saying, “ Short above; 
long below,” 

The hind-quarters will have to present character¬ 
istics dependent upon both the breed and the purposes 
for which the animal is to be used. In the draught- 
horse, where speed is not a consideration, the main 
requirement is strength, solidity of build and stamina. 
In his case the lower thigh is much shorter than that 
of the thorough-bred, the hind-leg much straighter, and 
the angle formed by the hocks very smallt whilst the 
upper thigh is nearly or quite as long as that of the 
thorough-bred. In the latter, when intended for high 
speed, whether as a race-horse, a hunter or a trotter, 
the two bones which unite at the stifle-joint should be 
amply long. In a flat outline, the length from the 

































678 


HORSE. 


hip-joint to the stifle-joint will measure 24 inches in a 
horse of 15 hands, three inches, and proportionately 
as the height be greater or less; measured around the 
surface it will be about 26 inches. The gaskin, or 
lower thigh, should be of nearly the same length; but, 
in a high-bred, well-proportioned horse, it will measure 
quite 28 inches from the stifle-joint to the point of the 
hock. Great muscular power in quarters and gas- 
kins is a desideratum in any breed of horse, for these 
furnish the main propelling power. In selecting a 
horse it is an excellent plan to survey the quarters from 
behind, see that they are large in volume, well-knit, 
dose together, and leave no hollow below the arms. 
Should these conditions not exist, there is reason to 
fear some constitutional weakness in the animal. The 
hock, which has to bear all the strain exercised by the 
muscles, ought to be clean and flat, but of good size, 
without any gumminess or thorough-pins, and with a 
clearly defined jxiint standing out from the rest of the 
joint. The place of the spavin, and the “curby place” 
should not be enlarged, the hocks be well let down 
and the cannon-bone short. The pasterns and feet 
should be proportioned to those of the fore extremity. 
Horses in which even all the points above enumerated 
seem to exist when in the stable or at rest, should 
never be purchased without being tried in action; be¬ 
cause there are many cases in which the most finely 
fonned and proportioned horse will fall short of what 
ought to be expected from him, and other cases, in 
which a horse apparently faulty in one or more points 
will, in action, greatly surpass the opinion formed of 
him. 

I he various parts of the horse, when in perfect 
proportion to each other, ought, according to the best 
authonties, to give the following measurements. The 
horse is supposed, as above, to be 15 hands 2 inches 
in height: 

INCHCS* 

Height at withers and croup. , 

Length from shoulder-point to quarter... . 

From the lowest part of the chest to the ground .. 

h rom the elbow-point to the ground . ^ 

From the withers to the pole, just behind the ears, in a stVaight line ^o 

1 he same, measured along the crest. “ 

Length of head.. 

Width across the forehead. .. ' 

From the stifle-joint to the point of the hock. .. -. It 

From root of tail to stifle-joint.. ? 

From the point of the hock to the ground . 

Length of arm from the elbow to the pisiform bone !.!. 

b rom pisiform bone to the ground. 

Girth... .’ . , 

Circumference of fore cannon-bone, about. . .^ '^8 

Such are the various external points or character¬ 
istics which should be found in a really good, well-bred 
horse. As previously stated, the heavier and more 
solid draught-horse will, in many joints, deviate from 
this standard, but there are good and sufficient reasons 
for this, which have already been dwHt upon. 

Bone Structure. It is not intended to overload 
this article with more technicalities than are absolutely 
essential to the thorough understanding of the sub¬ 
ject by the reader. Of these the greater number will 
occur in describing the bone structure or skeleton of 
the horse, without a sufficient knowledge of which 


31 


37 


those interested in horses, whether as breeders, train¬ 
ers, buyers or otherwise, can never hope fully to mas¬ 
ter this most important subject. 

The number of bones composing the skeleton of 
the horse is two hundred and forty-seven, which are 
uriited by joints to form the spine, thorax, pelvis, 
tail and fore and hind quarters. 

The spine consists of 7 cervical (neck), 18 dorsal (back) and 6 lumbar 

(loin) vertebrae or joints. 

The thorax is formed of the dorsal vertebra;, with 18 ribs on either 

side, and the sternum in the middle. 

The pelvis is made up of two ossa innominata (unnamed bones) and 

I sacrum. , 

The tail usually contains 17 bones.17 

The fore extremity is composed of 20 bones on each sWe. 40 

The hind extremity has 38 bones. 38 

Cranium (skull). 10 

Face and lower jaw.i8 

Teeth.40 

I nternal ear bones, 4 in each.8 

Bones of the tongue, five sections.5 

247 

The Spinal Column. In the horse this is the first 
portion of the skeleton developed in the embryo. It 
is the frame to which all the other parfs are joined. 
At first it is a cylinder of cartilage, but in course of 
time bone points fomi corresponding to each vertebra 
or joint, the whole being finally divided into separate 
pieces called vertebrae. The vertebrae may be divided 
into true and false, the former extending from the 
head to the pelvis, the latter from the pelvis to the 
hind extremity of the animal, comprising the sacrum 
and coccyx. The true vertebrae embrace the 7 cer¬ 
vical, 18 dorsal and 6 lumbar vertebrie. From each 
of these, two plates, called lamincs., project upwards, 
terminating in a spinous process. Besides this there are 
two lateral or side projections, called transverse proc¬ 
esses, which perform the office of binding fimily to¬ 
gether the vertebrae themselves, and these to the ribs 
and extremities .below, by means of the muscles at¬ 
tached to them. Further, each vertebra has two 
small projections before and behind (articular sur¬ 
faces) which form distinct joints between them. The 
spinal cord and its clothing lies in a somewhat trian¬ 
gular opening between the body, the lamina and the 
spinous process. The edges of this aperture are at¬ 
tached to those before and behind it by light yellow 
(subflava) ligamentous tissues. Opposite these'open- 
ings the bone is indented below and above, and 
opposite each space between the vertebrae the ligamen¬ 
tous tissues are pierced by holes on each side allow- 
ing a passage to the vertebral nerves which stretch 
thence to the exterior as well as to the extremities of 
the body. The spinal column is thus a flexible tube 
serving to enclose the spinal cord and afford a passage 
for the nerves, while it is firmly secured and infinitely 
better adapted to the necessary end than if formed of 
one piece of bone, which would be no aid to locomo¬ 
tion, be devoid of flexibility and very liable to break 
under a heavy weight. 

Head, Face and Hvoid Arch. The bones of the 
skull serve the same purixDse in the case of the brain 
as those of the spine do in that of the spinal cord or 
marrow. They form a series of imperfect arches pro- 



































































































































































































































HORSE. 


68 i 


tecting the brain. The thirteen bones of the cranium. 
are named as follows ; 


1. Occiput. 

2. Parietal bone. 

3. Frontal bone. 

4. Petrous portion of temp’ral bone. 
S- Zygomatic arch. 

6. Lachrymal bone. 


7. Malar bone. 

8. Posterior maxillary bone. 

9. II. Nasal bone. 

10. Anterior maxillary bone . 

11. Temporal fossa. 

12. 13. Lower jaw. 


It may be here stated that the skeleton of the horse, 
like that of most of the superior class of vertebrate 
mammalia, is divided into three arches, connected 
one with the other by the spine, but interrupted be¬ 
low at certain distances so as to allow of the arching 
or bending of the frame which takes place in rapid 
locomotion. The first of these arches, called neural 
(from neuron, a nerve), forms the jaws and bone of the 
tongue; the second or hsemal (hsina, blood), comprises 
the ribs and sternum, and constitutes the thorax and 
its appendages; the third or pelvic,which protects the 
organs of generation, and, through its prolongation, 
the posterior extremities, assists in locomotion. 

The facial bones, the os hyoides and the lower jaw 
are suspended from the neural arch just in the same 
manner as the ribs and the pelvic bones behind them 
are attached to the vertebrae. In the horse, as dis¬ 
tinguished from many of the higher vertebrates, there 
is no collar-bone, the fore extremity, in his case, be¬ 
ing joined to the thorax by two broad bands of muscle. 
Its liability to fracture and dislocation is thus lessened, 
but he is thereby made more subject to strains and 
rheumatic affections of the muscular sling. The 
fore-quarters, being nearer the center of gravity, sup- 
jxirt more weight than the hind-quarters. The latter 
are the chief propelling force, the former acting some¬ 
what after the manner of springs. 

Teeth. The teeth are the only true index by which 
the age of the horse may be known. To do this with 
any degree of accuracy, a very thorough knowledge of 
the changes which take place in them from time to 
time must be had. We therefore give very full and 
careful explanations, with illustrations, of these 
changes. This will enable one of ordinary acuteness 
and powers of observation to tell the age of this noble 
animal. The incisors furnish the chief indications; 
to them, therefore, must the attention be chiefly di¬ 
rected. The back and hook teeth should be observed 
to some extent, as their condition often serves to cor¬ 
rect and corroborate the indications of the incisors. 
The form of the incisors should be studied by care¬ 
fully examining those taken from dead horses of dif¬ 
ferent ages. 

When the horse has a full mouth, he has 40 teeth, 
which are as follows: i. The incisors or nippers—six 
in the upper jaw and six in the lower jaw. 2. The 
canine or tusks—two in the upper jaw and two in the 
lower jaw. 3. The molars or grinders—twelve in the 
upper jaw and twelve in the lower jaw. The mare 
has but 36 teeth, her mouth being deficient of the 
four canine teeth. The rudiments of these teeth 
sometimes make their appearance in the mare, but 
they never become developed as in the horse. Each 
tooth is made up of three substances—cement, enamel 
and dentine. These three constituents 6f the horses’ 


tooth, being of different degrees of hardness, the 
enamel leading in this quality, wear away with vary¬ 
ing degrees of rapidity. The result is the rough sur¬ 
face of the equine tooth, which is peculiarly well 
adapted to the crushing of grain, upon which the 
animal is largely fed. The milk incisors differ con¬ 
siderably in shape from the permanent teeth. The 
milk teeth are much snialler, especially at the roots, 
while in the permanent set the thickness is nearly 
uniform throughout the tooth. The milk teeth, too, 
are indented on the outside, are whiter, and on their 
table the marks are much less perceptible than in the 
permanent teeth. As the teeth wear away they pre¬ 
sent an appearance which varies according to the 
amount of wear they have ‘undergone. A means of 
determining approximately the age of any horse has 
thus been secured. In the parlance of horse-breeders 
'and dealers, etc., the incisors are called nippers, the 
canine teeth tushes, and the molars grinders. 

At the end of the first year the colt has generally 
cut his 16 grinders and 12 nippers. The eight for¬ 
ward grinders are usually visible at birth; the two 
central nippers a week afterward. At the end of the 
first month another grinder shows itself all around, 
and in the middle of the second month the next nipper 
shows itself. At the end of the second month the 
central nippers are full-grown, and the second about 
half-grown. The corner nippers are cut between the 
sixth and ninth month, and are full-grown by the end 
of the first year. The first set of nippers, as before 
stated, are much smaller than the permanent teeth, 
are more hollow towards the mouth, the outer edge 
being at first higher than the inner, and are more 
rounded in front. As they wear away, these two 
edges soon get level, but the corner nippers preserve 
this characteristic for a long time. At the end of six 
months the central nippers are almost level; the 
black mark in their middle is broad and ill-defined. 
At the end of the ninth month the next upper and 
under nipper are worn down to almost even surface. 

In the first month 
of the second year, 
at latest, a fourth 
grinder makes its 
appearance all 
around. These are 
the firstlings of the 
permanent set. The 
three first molars are 
also shed. At 18 
months, the mark in 
the central nipper is 
very faint; the corner 
nippers are flat, but 
mark is very clear. 
As a matter of 



F.g. ^ -TUre..year-old Mouth 

It. Anterior maxillary bone. i. i. Central . j-rr 

permanent nippers, nearly full-grown. 2. 2. a perceptible dltter- 
Milk teeth worn down. 3. 3. Corner milk r-nn 

teeth, still showing central mark. 4. 4. Tushes lUcbC CU 

concealed within the jaw. ditlOnS between COltS 

fed on soft, fresh !bod, and those on corn, dry hay, etc. 
















682 


HORSE. 




Fig. 


The second tooth-cutting begins during tlie third 
year, and takes place in the same order as the milk 
teeth appeared. Both are present in the jaw in a 
more or less rudimentary fonn at birth, the permanent 
being more deeply set than the milk-teeth. As the 
mouth grows, it becomes too large for its first set of 
teeth, and the roots of these being pressed upon by 
the growth of the permanent set, their fangs are ab¬ 
sorbed and allow the new teeth to show themselves, 
either in the places of the formeror by their sides. When 
the permanent teeth, instead of forcing the milk-teeth 
out, show themselves by the side of the latter, they 

are called wolf’s teeth. 
The sixth grinder 
shows itself towards 
the end of this year, 
but is slow of growth, 
the upper and lower 
central nippers fall out 
and their place is sup¬ 
plied by the perma¬ 
nent ones. 

At three years and 
four or six months, 
E- . the next nipper is shed 

6 .—Mouth of the Colt at Four and 4 ^ , 

a Half Years. all around and re- 

.A. j^ntcnor msxillsry bone* i. i> Ccn~ 
tral nippers considerably worn down. P^^Cea Oy tUe pemia- 
2.2. The next pair, fully developed, with neilt tOOth. The COmer 

their edges slightly worn. 3. 3. Corner orp mnrh wnrn 

permanent nippers in a state of growth, titpp*-i3 cliciiiUL.ll vvuill 

withtheedges of the cavity sharp, and the and the mark ill them 
mark very plain. 4.4 The tushes show-, y h\ ^ a 

ing themselves through the gum, but not barely perceptible. At 

full-grown. years, the edges 

of the central nippers become blunted and the teeth 
themselves have grown considerably. The next 
nipper all around has attained nearly its full size, the 
edges being still quite sharp, and the mark deep and 
well defined. The corner nippers ought still to be in 
their place, but a wish to misrepresent the age of the 
animal sometimes inducts the horse-dealer to knock 
them out. Between four and a half and five years, 
the corner nippers fall out and the tusk is visible. 

At five years the 
mouth is furnished 
with its full comple¬ 
ment of teeth, as 
shown in Fig. 7. At 
this age the central 
cavities of the lower 
teeth, as compared 
with the upper, are 
much more worn, the 
middle nipper having 
only a small black f,g. y.-Wr 
spot in the midst of A'h >e y'ears 

a smooth surface; the Central nippers, with their marks 

. ’ almost entirely worn out. 2 2. h.ext nip- 

next IS much WOrn,pers, showing marks partially worn. 3.3. 

onri thoiiah fliprnrnpr Corner nippers, with the mark plainly seen, 
ana tnougn tne corner i,„t the edges partially worn. 4. 4. Tushes 

teeth show the mark^^h the grooves inside almost obliterated. 

distinctly, they also indicate considerable wear. The 
tush is prominent; the outer surface convex, the inner 
concave, the edges clear and sharp. The sixth molar 


I'ears Old. 


Tushes at 




is full-grown, and the third has made way for the per¬ 
manent tooth. These are the teeth which furnish the 

best evidence as to 
age, in case of doubt. 
The mouth of the 
six-year-old is the 
last which affords 
any reliable ground 
o f judgment as to 
exact age. The nip- 
p e r s of the lower 
jaw are know n to 
wear out two years 
sooner than those of 
the upper jaw, so 

Fig.8. — The Lower Nippers and Tushes ^ip tO tile eight 

a Six-Vear-oid Horse. years, the horses’age 

The lower jaw. i. i. The central nippers, pg determined 

With the marks worn out. 2. 2. 1 he next . ^ 

nippers with the marks disappearing. 3. With tolCfablC aCCU- 

Thecornernippers,showingthemarkplainly . PYTminino- 

enough, but with the edges of the cavity con- examining 

siderably worn. 4. 4. The tushes, standing them later 111 the 
up three-quarters of an inch, with their points , ’ r 

only slightly blunted. _ general ruii of cascs, 

up to the age of eight years. Up to the age of six, 
the nippers of each 
jaw are nearly vertical 
to one another; after 
this age they begin to 
stand outwards from 
the straight line, and, 
in the very old horse, 
form a sharp angle. 

At the age of eight 
(Fig. 9), the upper 
nippers present much 
the same marks as the 
lower nippers do at 
six. Both tushes are 
much worn away at 

the points the upper Fig. q. — upper Nippers in the Eight- 
ones more than the . ■ . ye^r-oid Horse. 

1 ^ ^ A. Anterior maxillary bone. 1. i. Cen- 

lOWer. tral nippers, worn to a plane surface. 2.. 2. 

At nine years, the P'*'''-’ showing a sljght remnant 

. ' ot the cavity. 3.3. Corner nippers, show- 

Upper middle nippers •'’gthe mark plainly enough. 4-4. Tushes, 
tUr.rrMirrV,Ur more worn down than in the lower jaw of 

are tnoroughly worn the six-year-old mouth, 
down; the second pair have still a faint mark 
left and the corner nippers nothing but a dark 
stain without any central depression. After the 
ninth year the age of the horse is a matter of conjec¬ 
ture. The teeth increase in length and are more in 
a^ line with the jaw. The visible section of each 
nipper, instead of being oval, becomes more and more 
triangular, and the tooth becomes almost round. The 
teeth assume a dirty yellow tint, with brown and 
black streaks. The tushes wear down to a very 
diminutive size, and frequently one or both drop out. 

In addition to what has been already said touching 
the punching out of the milk nippers, it may be well 
to state here that dealers not unfrequently saw all 
the nippers of an old horse off to the length which 
they have in the six-year old. The teeth, too, are oc¬ 
casionally burned to a properly regulated depth. As 













HORSE. 


O83 


1 


in most of these cases only the experienced eye can i 
detect the deception, it wotdd be next to imix)ssible 
to give rules for the uncloaking of the fraud. 

After the horse passes his ninth year his age cannot 
be told with absolute certainty, yet by studying the 
changes after that time a good judge will not miss it 
far. The following are the changes as indicated after 
the animal passes his ninth year: 

At nine years, the middle nippers are rounded on 
the inner side, the oval of the second pair and of the 
corner teeth becomes broader, the central enamel is 
nearer to the inner side, and the marks have disap¬ 
peared from the teeth of the upper jaw. 

At ten years, the second pair are rounded on the 
inner side, and the central enamel is very near to the 
inner side. 

At eleven years, the corner teeth are rounded, and 
the central enamel becomes very narrow. 

At twelve years, the nippers are all rounded, and 
the central enamel has entirely disappeared from the 
lower jaw, but it may still be seen in the upper jaw. 

At thirteen years, the middle nippers commence to 
assume a triangular form in the lower jaw, and the 
central enamel has entirely disappeared from the cor¬ 
ner teeth of the upper jaw. 

At fourteen years, the middle nippers have become 
triangular, and the second pair are assuming that 
form. The central enamel has diminished in the 
middle nippers of the upper jaw. 

At fifteen years, the second pair have become tri¬ 
angular; the central enamel is still visible in the 
upper jaw. 

At sixteen years, all of the teeth in the lower jaw 
have become triangular, and the central enamel is 
entirely removed from the second pair in the upper 
jaw. 

At seventeen years, the sides of the triangle of the 
middle nippers are all of the same length; the cen¬ 
tral enamel has entirely disappeared from the upper 
teeth. 

At eighteen years, the sides of the triangle of the 
middle nippers are longer at the sides of the teeth 
than in front. 

At nineteen years, the middle nippers become flat¬ 
tened from side to side, and long from front to rear. 

At twenty years, the second pair assume the same 
form. 

At twenty-one years, all of the teeth of the lower 
jaw have become flattened from side to side, their 
greatest diameter being exactly the reverse of what it 
it was in youth. 

The Thorax. As, in subsequent portions of this 
article, much will have to be said touching the treat¬ 
ment of the horse in disease, especially when either 
distance from a city or a sudden emergency renders 
it imix)ssible or very difficult to procure the services 
of. a qualified veterinarian, the chief parts of the 
horse’s trunk will here be briefly explained, so as to 
render the treatment of the animal under such cir¬ 
cumstances more intelligent and consequently more 
humane. 


The thorax, which has already been mentioned and 
explained in connection with the bone-structure sur¬ 
rounding it, is what is usually termed the chest, and 
contains the breathing and blood-circulating appara¬ 
tus of the horse. The oesophagus, connecting the 
pharyuix with the stomach, passes through it. These 
organs of circulation and respiration are covered with 
smooth serous membranes, the pleura and pericardium. 
The former of these two covers the lungs, except at 
their roots, where the blood-vessels and air-tubes enter 
them. It is then called the pleura pulmonalis (lung 
pleura). It also covers the ribs, enabling them to 
contract and expand with ease, by the gliding of one 
surface against the other. The name then given it is 
the pleura costalis (costal or rib pleura). These two 
together form a bag, which holds, in health, only suffi¬ 
cient serum to lubricate its walls; in disease this 
amount increases indefinitely, frequently leading to 
dropsy or a great mass of pus, where severe inflam¬ 
mation of the membrane exists. 

Of the heart and its action it is unnecessarj' to treat 
here, the subject being familiar to every one, as well 
as the action of the lungs. It is more important to 
describe briefly the abdominal and pelvic viscera (in¬ 
testines). The digestive organs lie immediately be¬ 
hind the thorax, from which they are separated by a 
thin wall of membrane called the diaphragm. The 
space in which these organs are contained is called 
the abdomen. It is capable of very great distension. 
The movement of the diaphragm in the act of breath¬ 
ing causes the flanks of the animal to rise and fall, 
and thus indicates either the distress of exhaustion or 
any peculiarity of breathing, such as “broken wind” 
or the various inflammatory conditions of the lungs. 
In their natural condition the abdominal muscles 
slope gently from their costal (rib) to their pelvic 
attachments or ligaments. Consequently the width 
and depth of the pelvis and back ribs indicate the 
normal capacity of the abdomen. Narrow, shallow 
back ribs usually indicate weakness of the digestive 
organs in the horse. The abdomen contains the 
stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, the mesenteric (mid¬ 
dle intestine) and chyle-bearing ducts, the kidneys, 
with their vessels and nerves. Of these organs, some, 
such as the kidneys and pancreas, are attached close 
to the spinal column; others glide uixtn each other, 
this motion being facilitated by a serous coat, similar 
to the pleura, called the peritoneum (Greek, to stretch 
around). The barbarity of those who, kicking the 
horse under the belly, as is not unfrequently done, 
injure these im^xirtant organs, is at once manifest. 

The stomach is situated on the left side of the ab¬ 
dominal cavity, just behind the diaphragm. It is 
pear-shaped, has two openings, two surfaces and two 
bags, usually divided by a narrow neck. Generally in 
the horse of medium size it will hold about three gal¬ 
lons. The intestines are divided into large and small, 
and measure, in an average-sized horse, from eighty 
to ninety feet in length. They extend from the stom¬ 
ach to the arms. The small intestines range between 
an inch and an inch and a half in diameter, except at 









684 


HORSE. 


their forward orifice, where they are much enlarged, 
forming, as it were, a kind of smaller stomach, d'hey 
are tied to the upper walls of the abdomen by the 
mesentery, and thus become folded. The mucous 
coat of the stomach presents innumerable little pro¬ 
jections, like the pile of a velvet carpet; through 
these the chyle is taken up. The large intestines are 
shorter than the small ones by two-thirds. They are 
gathered up in pouches or cells by a peculiar arrange¬ 
ment of the longitudinal muscular fibers. The mu¬ 
cous membrane is sparely furnished with these pro¬ 
jections, called vtlli, and they become rarer towards 
the rectum. The liver is close to the right side of the 
diaphragm. It is unnecessary to describe it. It is 
enveloped by the peritoneum, except at the entrance 
and exit of the large veins. The bile seems designed 
to dissolve the fatty matter contained in the food, and 
to stimulate the intestines in their functions. The 
function of the spleen is involved in doubt; that of 
the pancreas is believed to be similar to the action of 
the saliva. The right kidney is completely within the 
ribs; the left barely advances beyond the eighteenth 
rib. The average kidney of the horse weighs about 
two pounds eight ounces. The pelvis contains, in 
both sexes, the bladder, rectum and organs of genera¬ 
tion. The bladder occupies the middle space of the 
pelvis, and, according as it is full or empty, occupies 
more or less of the space of the abdomen. 

The Nervous System is to the horse, indeed, to 
all animated beings, the fountain of motive jiower. 

It is comjxised of two different colored substances, 
the one grey and granular, the other white and 
fibrous. The former is the reservoir of all nervous 
IX)vyer; the latter simply forms the line of its communi¬ 
cation from the brain to any part of the body. 

The nose of the horse is endowed with marvelous 
sensibility, which he exercises in the selection of his 
food. 

'fhe eye is a most imjxjrtant organ in the horse, 
pd deserves some detail, inasmuch as ignorance of 
its construction and needs has been the' cause of un¬ 
told suffering to the horse, and has added consider¬ 
ably to the chapter of dreadful but unavoidable 
accidents. In the eye of the horse there are three hu¬ 
mors, which perform the office of lenses, and concen¬ 
trate the rays of light on the back part of the eye, 
called the retina. These humors are: The aqueous' 
(watery), the crystalline lens, and the vitreous humor 
(glassy). The first is a perfectly clear fluid, which is 
rapidly renewed when it is let out by puncturing; the 
second is as hard as a stiff jelly, and is arranged in 
layers having a common center like an onion. It is 
a double convex lens. Behind it is the vitreous hu¬ 
mor, confined in a series of transparent cells. Upon 
the absolute transparency of these humors and the 
proper shape of the parts containing them depends the 
sight of the horse. The same causes which affect 
the sight in man will affect it in the horse. Too great 
convexity of the anterior coat produces what is called 
the “buckeye,” and leads to shying, which, when it 
proceeds from this cause, is always incurable. The 


outer membrane of the eye is called the sclerotic 
tunic; the second the “ choroidthe third the 
“ retina,” which is an expansion of the optic nerve. 
The membrane which protects the exix)sed surface of 
the eye is called the “conjunctiva.” The eyelids 
need not be described. The haw is a cartilage lying 
within the inner corner of the eye, and is termed the 
membrana nictitans. It can be thrust outwards so as 
to partially cover the eye. This happens when any 
irritating substance strikes the surface of the eye. 
The lachrymal or weeping apparatus consists of the 
lachrymal gland, situated beneath the outer wall of 
the eye-ball, and secretes a fluid which is intended to 
relieve the eye of any foreign bodies which may be 
present in it. 

I he ear is divided into the external and internal 
ear. T he former collects sounds; the latter conveys 
it inwards. The sense of touch would seem, in the 
hoise, to reside chiefly in the lips, and to some extent 
m the feet. 

The anatomy of the foot is very important for every 

man to understand. 
Observe, in the cut, 
that there is very lit¬ 
tle space between 
the main bone and 
the hoof, and that 
therefore, in case of 
inflammation, there 
is no room for swell¬ 
ing, and the pain 
mustbeintense. The 
three parts of the 
hoof are the external 
wall, or crust, the 
sole, and the frog; the 
latter is the triangu¬ 
lar central portion. 
The crust reaches 
from the hairy edge 
'PiG. lo.—Lower Part 0/Leg-and Foot, of the skill tO the 
ground, averaging 3^ inches in this extent. The 
front IS the toe, the hinder part the heel, and the sides 
are termed the “quarter-hoofs.” The front of the 
crust is rather more than a half an inch in thickness, 
diminishing, in the fore feet, to one-fourth inch toward 
the rear portion. The hinder hoofs aie about the 
same thickness all around. The sole is slightly con¬ 
cave downwards, and is fixed to the inner side and 
not the lower edge, of the external hoof. Its usual 
thickness is about one-sixth of an inch, and consists 
of plates which are easily separated. In the middle 
of the frog is a cleft, the sides of which should form 
an angle of about 45 °. In front of this cleft is a solid 
wedge of The substance of the frog, and is called the 
cushion. ’ 'fhe hoof grows by elongation simply, 
and not by spreading out. 

VARIOUS breeds OF HORSES. 

The hoj-se, no doubt, existed originally in a wild 
state, as it does now in South America and Tartary, 























AMERICAN ROADSTER 



I 





















































































































































































































































































































HORSE. 


687 


but at what period it was subjected to the dominion 
of man cannot be determined. All the civilized na¬ 
tions of the ancient world of whom we have any his¬ 
torical records not only possessed this animal in a 
domesticated state, but set a high value upon it, 
bestowing great pains in training and improving its 
various breeds or races. The origin of those breeds 
is likewise unknown, but they were most probably pro¬ 
duced by the circumstances of variety in climate, food, 
and shelter during a long succession of ages, assisted 
afterward by the effects of domestication in different 
countries. Climate has great influence upon the forms 
of animals, and, in general, a species is found in¬ 
digenous to each country whose form best fits it for 
supporting its existence there. Thus, in the arid 
plains of the East, where herbage is scarce, the horse 
is found to possess a form which enables it to transport 
itself with great rapidity from one sjxjt to another, 
without permitting his weight to cause it to sink in the 
sandy deserts. In cold countries, on the contrary, his 
size is diminutive, but his compactness and strength, 
as well as his coarse, shaggy coat, enable him to resist 
the severity of the weather. In temperate climes, 
where these causes do not operate, and where vege¬ 
tation affords, by its luxuriance, more nutriment, we 
no longer see him equally small or slender, but, with 
great capacity still for progression, possessed of more 
beautiful proportions, with superior muscular power, 
varying considerably in his qualities, which are adapted 
to the purpose of war, hunting, parade, the saddle, 
and draught. 

'Fhe indigenous horse of every country has been 
modified by cultivation, and the native breeds have at 
one time or other been more or less mixed with other 
varieties with a view to improvement. What is meant 
bv purity of blood is the result of limiting the propa¬ 
gation of particular races, and preventing other races 
from mixing with them. The native races of some 
countries are distinguished and esteemed above others 
for their peculiar qualities. 

American Thorough-breds. The Thorough-breds 
are cultivated in great perfection in the United States. 
Recent experiments have shown that they are able to 
carry their colors to the front in competition with the 
most formidable horse kingdoms of Europe. The 
English race-horses have been the acknowledged 
champions of the world for two centuries. They have 
met and defeated the far-famed Arabian courser on 
the scorching sands of Bengal, conquered those fabled 
kings of the wind on their native soil. They have 
ranged through the frozen regions of Russia, and de¬ 
feated all the best horses in those vast dominions of 
absolute monarchy. France, that great nation of 
horsemen, has been compelled to strike her racing 
colors to the stout English courser, that has trampled 
them in the dust for unnumbered generations. All 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, have been compelled to ac¬ 
knowledge the superiority of the Thorough-bred En¬ 
glish courser. Yet notwithstanding its remarkable 
fleetness, and its long and universal reign, it is com-., 
pelled, in the humility of many a defeat, to acknowl¬ 


edge the superiority of the American Thorough-bred. 

Iroquois, an American three-year-old, sent over the 
Atlantic in 1881, to test the speed and bottom of the 
English race-horse, has won the Derby, the most jX)p- 
ular race, and the largest three-year-old stakes in 
England, that calls out the flower of the three-year- 
old flyers of Britain. Iroquois, to clinch his superior 
three-year-old form over English-bred colts, won the 
Prince of Wales stakes at Ascot, under a penalty of 
nine pounds for winning the Derby. He won seven 
out of nine starts, with all their penalties. Iroquois 
comes out of his three-year-old form with his flag fly¬ 
ing at the top-mast. He has not only the credit of 
beating the best three-year-olds in the great racing 
metropolis of the world, but has the good fortune to 
bring to his owner material aid of over ^78,000 in 
stakes. 

Foxhall, another American-bred colt sent over from 
this side of the ocean to try conclusions with the best 
blood of Europe in 1881, won the grand prize of Paris, 
the most popular race of France, the great sporting 
event of Europe, with stakes of $30,000 hung up to 
the winner, open to the world. It brings together the 
best horses of the continent, buckled up with their 
armor, to compete for this grand prize and the honors 
of victory. The omens of victory are more stimulating 
than the rewards. They stand as an enduring mon¬ 
ument to the victor. They immortalize the winner by 
presaging their descent to posterity as the great cham¬ 
pions of the age. Foxhall had no “ splinters ” to con¬ 
test with. He was confronted with the most powerful 
racers of Europe, who congregate together in the 
beautiful climate of France to develop their speed. 
Foxhall vanquished the whole with remarkable ease, 
and had run in him left over to beat the English 
three-year-olds on their own soil. He won nearly all 
his engagements in England after being iienalized by 
extra weights for beating their faint-hearted colts, ac¬ 
cording to English rules of bringing down the speed 
of a good colt to the capacity of their light-waisted 
three-year-olds. It shows Foxhall to be far better 
than English colts of the present year by taking up 
nine pounds and beating them with extra weight on 
their own soil. 

Parole, a few years ago, when he won the Newmar¬ 
ket stakes and captured, in another race, the City and 
Suburban stakes, etc., finally won three out of his six 
first starts in England, gave notice to Englishmen 
that their horses must run from end to end to beat the 
American horses on the turf. 

The first authentic account of Thorough-breds im¬ 
ported into this country was Spark, presented by Lord 
Baltimore to Gov. Ogle, of Maryland. The date of 
his landing is not known. It must have been previous 
to 1750, because the Prince of Wales, who presented 
Spark to Lord Baltimore, died in 1751, and these 
transactions took place long before his death. Gov. 
Ogle also imported Queen Mab, by Musgrave’s gray 
Arabian, into Maryland. About 1750, Col. Tasker, 
of Maryland, imported from England the celebrated 
mare Selima, by the Godolphin Arabian. Her de- 


44 









688 


HORSE. 


scendants were among the most distinguished racers 
in the early annals of America. 

Gov. Ogle set a worthy example to his successors 
by introducing to the breeding community these famous 
thorough-breds that have perpetuated a race of worthy 
descendants, and stand as a living monument to mark 
the public spirit of their early patron and founder. 
'Fhe immediate successors of Gov. Ogle followed his 
example, and encouraged an enterprising public 
spirit by keeping a breeding stud to improve the breed 
of horses. 

These importations were followed by several stallions 
and a few mares. Fearnaught, son of Regulus, was 
landed in Virginia in 1764, and also Morton’s Trav¬ 
eler by Partner, grandson of the Byrley Turk, and 
grandsire of King Herod. 

These, together with Jolly Rogers and a few others, 
bred to those imported mares Selima, Kitty Fisher, 
Jenny Cameron, and Miss Colville, may be said to 
have laid the foundation of the American race-horse. 

At the breaking out of the Revolution, this foreign 
traffic in equine celebrities was suspended. Every 
able-bodied man had to buckle on the armor of war, 
to defend his hearthstone and drive the invader from 
our soil. At the conclusion of peace, the importation 
of horses was revived, and such distinguished stallions 
as Medley and Shark were introduced into Virginia; 
the latter was got by Marske, the sire of Eclipse. 
Diomed was brought over to Virginia in 1798. He 
was by Florizel, a son of King Herod. He was one 
of the best, if not at the head, of all the stallions bred 
in England. Also, imp. Bedford by Dunganon, was 
brought into Virginia. Dunganon, the sire of Bedford, 
was by Eclipse, out of Aspasia by Herod (a fashion¬ 
able pedigree), and he was one of the most popular 
sires in Great Britain. He had a roach-back, called 
in racing parlance the Bedford hump, which he trans¬ 
mitted to his posterity. It has been carried to the 
front in triumph over some of the best horses on the 
American turf. 

Diomed was unquestionably the greatest sire of get¬ 
ters of winners that ever stepped his foot on American 
soil. Had he gotten no other celebrity than Sir 
Archy he would have established a reputation that 
would last as long as the horse finds admirers. There 
was not a winner of any repute for half a century that 
did not carry in his veins the blood of Diomed. Those 
great champions that won their laurels upon the turf, 
and made the course memorable by their wonderful 
achievements, were nearly all of this blood. They 
include Eclipse, Henry, Sir Archy, Boston, Lexington, 
Lecomte, and a host of others, whose indomitable en¬ 
ergy and iron will, inherited from Diomed, carried 
them in triumph over their most formidable compet¬ 
itors to victory and renown. It was unexampled 
speed and the courage to continue it to the finish that 
Diomed transmitted to his posterity. His vital powers 
were so strong that he entailed his speed to the fifth 
and sixth generation of his descendants. Nearly all 
the horses up to the middle of the present century, 
that became distinguished on the turf, or celebrated 


in the stud, came down from this grand old hero of 
stallions. 

Eclipse was by Duroc, son of Diomed. Eclipse was 
never beaten, and never paid forfeit. He was retired 
from the turf to the stud when in the palm of his 
glory, with the champion’s wreath girded upon his 
saddle, where he became as successful as he had been 
distinguished on the turf. 

Sir Archy, the best son of Diomed, was never beaten, 
nor did he ever meet a horse that could make him ex¬ 
tend himself, or put him to his full speed towards the 
close of a race. He went into the stud in the prime 
of life—when there was none that dared to compete 
with him on the turf—where he sired more winners 
than any other horse, living or dead. 

Boston was probably the best race-horse of his day, 
and the equal of any horse of any age. He was long 
on the turf, and never fairly beaten but once, and 
that when out of condition, by the fast mare Fashion. 
The owners of Boston offered to match Fashion a sec¬ 
ond time for $20,000, but the proposition was refused. 
This showed the confidence on both sides. The own¬ 
ers of the mare were satisfied with a single victoiy 
over such a formidable competitor, without sacrificing 
the reputation of their noble animal by the doubtful 
issue of a second attempt. The confiding public were 
always on the side of this great son of Timelion, the 
hero of so many battles, and would defy Fashion or 
any other race-horse to beat Boston when at himself. 
Boston was on the course six years, starting thirty- 
eight times, and winning thirty-five races—twenty-six 
of these at four-mile heats, and seven at three-mile 
heats. His winnings amounted to the large sum of 
$49,500. 

For further history and characteristics of the Amer¬ 
ican thorough-bred, see Thorough-breds in this article. 

American Trotter. The true modern trotting 
horse is a most remarkable instance of what may 
be done by keeping an animal to one kind of work for 
generations, and selecting the specimens best fitted 
for it to breed from. He cannot be called a distinct 
breed, and will almost invariably be found to be a 
cross between the thorough-bred and some more ro¬ 
bust and hardier native horse. Some have come from 
Canada; some from the country horse of the Middle 
States; some from the Vermont family; some from 
the Indian pony, and lastly, some mainly if not en¬ 
tirely from the thorough-bred. To no one of these 
families can any superiority be attributed as produ¬ 
cing trotters of great speed. All have shown their 
specimens by means of which to claim their share in 
the production. Only it may be affirmed, generally, 
that while some very famous trotting horses have been 
nearly, if not entirely, thorough-bred, they are not 
generally compatible with good trotting action or 
speed. Still, it is true the best time trotters have not 
the round, high-stepped action which is prized in car¬ 
riage horses, or parade horses for show, and that they 
have in a great measure the long reaching stride, the 
quick gather, and the comparatively low step of the 
thorough-bred. The first time ever a horse trotted in 










HORSE. 


68 g 


public, in America, for a stake, was in i8i8, and that 
was a match against lime for ^i,ooo. The match was 
proposed at a jockey-club dinner, where trotting had 
come under discussion, and the l)et was that no horse 
could be produced that could trot a mile in three 
minutes. The horse named at the post was Boston 
Blue,” who won by a close shave and gained great re¬ 
nown. He was a rat-tailed, iron-gray gelding, i6 
hands high, and nothing is known of his pedigree. 
Since that date the perforaiances of trotting, as well 
as running and pacing horses, in America, may be 
found under the head of Speed. 

The essential quality of speed, at any gait, is a 
certain organization of the nervous system, and this is 
the one thing needful in every case. This is what 
we breed for when we breed for speed; this is the 
quality that has been transmitted through so many 
generations from the progenitors of American trotters. 
\V e can not detect this peculiarity of organization by 
any outward sign; we can know of it only by its 
manifestations in action. We know that it is 
hereditary, and we also know that it may be associ¬ 
ated with any form. We, therefore, must respect the 
pedigrees of the horses and mares we breed from, and 
the more of the trotting quality we find in their pedi¬ 
grees the more reason we will have for expecting a 
fast colt. The speed should be in both families, to 
make its inheritance certain; but if it is strongly in¬ 
herited by one side, we may reasonably expect all of 
the progeny to go faster than the parent that is not 
speedy. Thus a slow mare bred to a good trotting- 
foal getter will always produce faster colts than she 
would if bred to a slow stallion like herself. No trot¬ 
ter attains his greatest spee'd before maturity, and the 
best of them continue to improve up to 15 and 18 
years of age. To do this a horse must have a good 
constitution, one that will carry him to a great age 
without disease, and will stand the hard work neces¬ 
sary to develop his powers. Breeding from such 
horses will therefore improve the stock of the country, 
not only in speed but also in stamina. The cultiva¬ 
tion of Thorough-breds for running races has been of 
immense benefit to the road stock of the countiy by 
improving its speed and stamina, and by giving it 
better form and style. The American trotter gets 
more of his peculiar excellence from the Thorough¬ 
breds than all other sources. Since the first trotting- 
match in America, in 1818, when the trotting of a 
mile in three minutes was considered a most wonder¬ 
ful performance, the time has been decreased, by the 
improvement of the stock, to such an extent that in 
the year 1881 Maud S trotted her mile in the unprec¬ 
edented time of 2 m. 10^ s., and with like improve¬ 
ment in the future, none can tell the time that may 
be recorded. For record of fastest trotting-time, see 
Speed. 

Arabian Horse. There is no evidence that there 
were horses in Arabia 900 years before the time of 
Christ; for then, while Solomon brought silver and 
gold and spices from Arabia, he brought his horses 
from Egypt. So late as the seventh century after 


Christ, there were but few horses in Arabia, for when 
Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had 
but two horses in his army, and although vast numbers 
of camels and sheeji were carried away, and immense 
plunder in silver, not a single horse is mentioned as 
a part of the spoils, in fact, the most credible testi¬ 
mony would seem to show that the horse was gradu¬ 
ally introduced into Arabia at a comparatively late 
period from Egypt, from whence, also from the same 
stock, sprung the stock of horses in the whole south¬ 
eastern portion of Europe. What the Arabians have 
excelled in is in keeping their race of horses pure by 
the most careful breeding and attention to keeping 
the blood pure and without stain of intermixure. 

Travelers differ as to the number and names of the 
distinct breeds of horses which are found in Arabia; 
but Ali Bey, an accurate and apparently disinterested 
Oriental writer, describes six distinct breeds of Arabds. 
The first, “ Dgelfe,” is found in Arabia Felix. They are 
lofty in stature, with long ears, narrow in the chest, but 
are deep in the girth, swift, high-strung animals, and 
capableof supporting hunger and thirstfor a longtime. 
The second breed, named “ Seclaoni,” is reared in the 
eastern part of the desert and resembles the “ Dgelfe,” 
but is not considered so valuable. The third breed, 
“ Mefki,” is handsome, resembling the Andalusian 
horse in figure, but not remarkable for speed. The 
fourth, called “ Sabi,” resembles the “ Mefki.” The 
fifth, named “ Fridi,” are quite common, but apt to be 
vicious. The sixth breed, named “ Nejdi,” is from 
the neighborhood of Bussorah, is considered equal to 
the first named breed. Other writers make men¬ 
tion of but three distinct breeds, to which they attrib¬ 
ute names different from those above given. 

The general characteristics of the pure bred Ara¬ 
bian may be stated as follows ; 

He stands from 14 to 15 hands in height, the dif¬ 
ference depending mainly on the country in which 
he is bred, and the amount of good food he is given 
as a colt. In shape he is like the English Thorough¬ 
bred, but with certain differences. The principal of 
these is, as might be expected, in the head, for when 
there is a mixture of blood, the head almost always 
follows the least beautiful type of the ancestors. 

The head of the Arabian is larger in proportion 
than that of the English Thoroughbred, and is extra¬ 
ordinary for its beauty. The ears are fine and beau¬ 
tifully shaped, but not small. The eye is large and 
mild; the forehead prominent; the neck is light: the 
shoulder is good; the fore-arm in the best specimens 
is of great strength, the muscle standing out with 
great prominence. He is well ribbed and stands 
higher at the croup than at the wither. The tail is 
set on high, but not on a level with the croup. The 
tail is carried high, both walking and galloping, and 
this point is much looked to as a sign of breeding. 
The hind-quarter in the Arabian is much narrower 
than in our horses, another point in breeding which 
indicates speed ratherthan strength. The line of the 
hind-quarter is finer, the action freer, and the upper 
limb longer in proportion than the American race 






HORSE. 


690 


liorse. The hocks are larger, better let down, 
and not so straight. The cannon-bone is shorter. 
The legs are strong, but with less bone in pro- 
lx)rtion than back sinew. The hoofs are round 
and large, and very hard. In disposition the Ara¬ 
bians are gentle and affectionate; they have no fear 
of man, and will allow any one to come up and take 
them by the head when grazing. They are never 
vicious, shy or show signs of fear. The colors mostly 
prevalent among them are bay, gray and chestnut. 
Occasionally a black is found. 

'I'he Barb. This is an African horse, and derives 
its name from Barbary, the country where it is found. 
Barbary embraces the States of Tunis, Triix)li, Algiers, 
Fez and Morocco, all lying on the northern coast of 
Africa, to the west of Egypt. 

In height, he is from fourteen to fifteen hands; his 
chest is round; his shoulders are broad but light, and 
somewhat obliquely sloping; his withers are thin and 
rather high; his loins are straight and short; his 
flanks and ribs are round and well developed; his 
haunches are strong; his croup is somewhat too long 
for nice corresjwndence with the rest of the body; his 
quarters are muscular and full; his legs are clean 
and tlie tendons are clearly marked ; his pasterns, 
like his croup, are somewhat too long and slanting, 
but not so much so as to amount to real defect; and 
his feet are sound and of good shape. But his head 
is especially beautiful. It is small and lean, while 
the ears are of medium size and admirably placed, 
d’he mane is rather meager; but the neck rises boldly 
from the withers, and gives an impression of ease and 
grace in carriage. 

In spirit and fleetness he is not regarded as the 
equal of the Arab, much less of the real Thorough¬ 
bred ; but in a certain native vigor and in form he is 
superior. 

Canadian Horse. French horses were brought 
over into Lower Canada in the early settlement of 
that colony, and formed the principal horse stock of 
Canada. The rigor of climate and scanty fare have 
somewhat reduced their size from that of their French 
ancestors; still they retain the same strong make-up 
and general characteristics, so that they can be dis¬ 
tinguished from any other breed as readily as daylight 
can be distinguished from darkness. They consti¬ 
tute a hardy race of easy keepers, with a remarkably 
sound constitution, and live to a great age. From 
their strong, compact form, they can command their 
strength to the best advantage. There'is nothing but 
the mule that will stand the wear and tear of hard 
work equal to the Canadian French pony. They 
have done more to establish the trotting horse of the 
United States than they have ever had credit for. 
The cross of that breed with those upon this side of 
the line, on account of their sound constitution, has 
proved the salvation of several other breeds. 

Alexander’s Pilot, Jr., the founder of a family of 
trotters, was got by the French pacer Pilot, that was 
converted into a trotter. Pilot, Jr., was the sire of the 
dam of Maud S and many other distinguished trot¬ 


ters. The original Pilot was imixirted from Canada 
into Kentucky, and numbers among his descendants 
Bonesetter, Pilot Temple, Tatler and Tackey, who 
owed their great speed and value to the French pacer 
Pilot. Alexander’s Norman was got by a half-breed 
French horse—the Morse horse. He was the sire of 
Lulu, record 2:15. Red Jim, the fastest three-year- 
old of his time, inherits the blood of Norman; Black¬ 
wood, the fastest three-year-old of his day, was a son 
of Norman. Davy Crockett, a French pacer, was the 
progenitor of Legal Tender, Red Cloud, Red Cross, 
and some of the best horses of his day and generation. 
Copper Bottom, a French pacer, did much to improve 
the trotting stock of Kentucky. Blue Bull, it has 
been claimed, was sired by a French pacing stallion. 
There are a large number of Blue Bulls in the 2:30 
class. Columbus was a French pacer, brought from 
Canada into the States, and converted into a trotter; 
he was the sire of Young Columbus, that has filled 
the Northern States with trotters. There are hosts of 
the decendants of old Columbus to be found in the 
2:30 class. 

The black mare Kate, bred in Canada, sired by a 
French stallion, has dropped five colts to Hamble- 
tonian that have trotted better than 2:30. Three of 
them are on record—Bruno, 2:291^; Breese, 2:24; 
Young Bruno, 2:22^; the other two. Brunette and 
Daniel Boone, are quite as fast, and have trotted in 
public better than 2:30. From the strict technicalities 
of racing rules they have never been put on the record 
for what they have performed. Susy, the dam of 
Henry Clay, was a French mare, from whose lineage 
sprang Geo. M. Patchen, Lucy and American Girl. 
Gift, one of the most promising colts of Mambrino 
Pilot, was out of a French pacing mare. The dam 
and grandam of Mambrino Gift, had a French cross, 
as well as his grandsire and his dam’s grandsire. 
This stallion had the gift of trotting in 2:20. Crobeau, 
St. Laurence, Grey Eagle, Andrew Jackson, Canada 
Chief, Whirlwind, Snow Storm and Coeur de Lion, 
were French trotting or pacing stallions, brought over 
from Canada into the United States, and they per¬ 
petuated the trotting or pacing element to a large 
number of their representatives. 

The claims of the French Canadian to public favor 
rest upon their capacity for all work, as the general 
purpose horse. Their sound body, wind and limb is 
a constitutional inheritance that is propagated from 
generation to generation. This gives them an advan¬ 
tage for hard service over other breeds of less consti¬ 
tutional vigor. They are so formed that they can use 
their strength to the best advantage. They will per¬ 
form more labor, at less expense for keeping, than any 
other breed of horses of equal weight. Their legs are 
more perfect than any other breed. They will be 
found hard and dry to the touch under a shaggy coat 
of hair. These levers are composed of solid bone 
and firm, matted sinews, that seldom spring at the 
knee, cock at the ankle, or throw out curbs or spavins. 
Their feet are unexceptionable. Soft feet have 
proved the ruin of many highly pampered breeds. 









HORSE. 


691 


They are short-coupled from the knees and hocks 
down, which gives good purchase power. The strong, 
muscular thighs and fore-arms complete the limbs 
and make them strong enough to support the body 
under heavy loads, over hills and hollows, without 
tiring out or breaking down. The first-class Canadian 
French pony will weigh about 1,200 ]X)unds, which is 
large enough, with their powerful fonn, to draw a dray 
or any other heavy draft; and small enough to be 
active for the plow, the reaper, mower, light buggy, or 
family carriage. 

I'he prevailing color is black, but browns and chest¬ 
nuts are frequently found, sometimes sorrels and duns 
and occasionally a dark iron-gray, with black legs. 

Canadians are long-lived, easily kept and capable 
of the greatest endurance. They are heavy enough 
for the purposes of the farmer and as roadsters. While 
they are not regarded as rapid travelers, they main¬ 
tain a reasonable rate of speed, say six miles an hour 
for long journeys, and continuously, and this while 
carying a heavy weight. It is nothing for them to go 
fifty miles a day for many days in succession. 

Few horses are entitled to more consideration at 
the hands of those who would obtain the best medium¬ 
sized and easily kept animals for the farm, and for 
medium heavy and moderately rapid draft. The 
breed, chiefly in a mixed state, is widely spread in 
the Northern and Eastern States. 

Cleveland Bays have long been celebrated as one 
of the best breeds for draft. They were originally 
bred in Yorkshire, England. The Cleveland Bay 
horse was capable of carrying a great weight and of 
maintaining under it a rapid rate of speed. A lighter 
horse and one better adapted to the carriage was pro¬ 
duced by crossing the Cleveland mare with a large 
thorough-bred stallion. The Cleveland Bays, in their 
pure state, are nearly extinct, yet from them a very 
superior animal has descended, which, after several 
steps and gradations, has settled down into a family 
common throughout many portions of England. 

Writing of their origin. Prof. Low says; “It is the 
progressive mixture of the blood of horses of higher 
breeding with those of the common race that has pro¬ 
duced the variety of coach horse usually termed 
Cleveland Bay. About the middle of the last century 
Cleveland became known for the breeding of a super¬ 
ior class of jxjwerful horses, which, with the gradual 
disuse of the heavy old coach horse, became in request 
for coaches, chariots, and similar carriages. The 
district of Cleveland owes its superiority in the pro¬ 
duction of this beautiful race of horses to the posses¬ 
sion of a definite breed, formed not by accidental 
mixture, but by continued cultivation.” 

As to the purity of the blood of the present stock of 
Cleveland Bays, or the distinctiveness of the breed, 
some doubt. As above remarked in their pure state 
they are quite if not altogether extinct. On this sub¬ 
ject the editor of the Breeder's Gazette., under date of 
Feb 16, 1882, makes the following remarks. The 
first article was in answer to an inquiry as to the pe¬ 
culiar characteristics of the Cleveland Bays, the use 


to which he is adapted, and “ Is there such a thing as 
a breed of Cleveland Bays?” 

“ ‘ Many years ago there was a classof horses bred in 
lX)rtions of England, notably in the vale of Cleveland, 
in Yorkshire, known as Cleveland Bays, and generally 
recognized as a distinct breed. They were espe¬ 
cially adapted to use on the coach. All modern 
writers, so far as we are aware, agree in stating 
that no such breed is now recognized in England, 
and that the Cleveland Bay, if it ever existed as 
a breed, has become extinct. The so-called Cleve¬ 
land Bays of the present day are what would be called 
in this country, grades,—that is, they are produced 
by breeding large, stylish, high-stepping, well-bred 
mares to Thorough-bred stallions. We can breed just 
as good and just as pure Cleveland Bays in this 
country, and of substantially the same blood as any 
that are bred in England. We have the same material 
from which to make the cross, or rather the grade. 
We have just as good and as stout Thorough-bred sires, 
and certainly we can find mares equally as well 
adapted, with which to make the cross that pro¬ 
duces the so-called Cleveland Bay in England.’ 

“We based our opinion as given above largely upon 
information obtained through personal interviews with 
many intelligent English and Scotch breeders, but 
more especially u^xm the fact that, nowhere in all our 
reading of British agricultural papers within the past 
ten years, have we seen an editorial allusion to the 
Cleveland Bays as a distinct breed; neither have we 
seen them mentioned in any of the reports of horse 
shows in that country. Clydesdales, Cart-horses, 
Suffolks, and Thorough-breds are often mentioned; and 
hunters and coach horses are also alluded to, but 
in no reports do we find a reference to the Cleveland 
Bay. The nearest approach that we have been 
able to find to a recognition of the Cleveland Bay 
as a breed in any English agricultural paper with- • 
in ten years past, is the following from the London 
Live-Stock Journal of November i8th, 1881 : ” 

“‘The Cleveland that some people write about is 
not a Cleveland; it is only the nearest approach to 
what the Cleveland was like. If there is such a thing 
as a pure Cleveland the owner should stick to him; 
the breed, it is possible, may be resuscitated.’ 

“ And the Mark Lane Express of about the same 
date qualified a reference of the same sort by the 
query ‘if there be such a breed? ’ 

“ In comfirmation of this, Youatt & Bum, Youatt 
& Spooner, Prof. Low and ‘ Frank Forrester,’ all treat 
of the Cleveland Bay as an extinct breed. ‘Frank 
Forrester ’ (Henry William Herbert), the most recent 
of these writers, in Vol. II, page 20, of hisgreat work, 
speaks at length of the course of breedingwhich have 
rendered the Cleveland Bay extinct as follows; 

The first gradation, when pace became a desidera¬ 
tum with hounds, was the stinting of the best Cleve¬ 
land Bay mares to good Thorough-bred horses, with a 
view to the progeny turning out hunters, troop-horses, 
or, in the last resort, stage-coach horses, or, as they 
were termed, machiners. The most promising of these 










692 


HORSE. 


half-bred colts were kept as stallions; and mares, of 
the same type with their dams, stinted to them, pro¬ 
duced the improved English carriage horse of fifty 
years ago. 

“‘The next step was the putting the half-bred fillies, 
by Thorough-breds out of Cleveland Bay mares, a 
second time to Thorough-bred stallions, their progeny 
to become the hunters, while themselves and their 
brothers were lowered into the carriage horses; and 
the half-breed stallions, which had been the getters of 
carriage horses, were degraded into the sires of the 
new, improved cart-horse. 

“ ‘ From this, one step more brings us to the ordinary 
hunter of the present day, of provincial hunting coun¬ 
tries, for light weights, and persons not willing, or able, 
to pay the price of Thorough-breds. These are the prod¬ 
uce of the third and fourth crosses of thorough blood 
on the improved mares, descended in the third or 
fourth degree from the Cleveland Bay stock, and are 
in every way superior, able and beautiful animals, pos¬ 
sessing speed and endurance sufficient to live with 
the best hounds in any country, except the very fast¬ 
est, such as the Melton Mowbray, the Northampton¬ 
shire, and perhaps the Vale of Bel voir, where the 
fields are so large, and the land all in grass, and 
the scent so fine that the fox-hunting in them is in 
fact steeple-chasing; so that no fox can live before 
the hounds on a fine scenting day above half an hour, 
nor any horse, except a Thorough-bred, live even that 
time with the hounds, having fourteen stone or up¬ 
ward on his back. 

“ ‘ No sort of breeding in England is so profitable as 
this. The breeder is comparatively secured against 
anything like ultimate loss, while he has a fair chance 
of drawing a capital prize, in the shape of a first-rate 
hunter or a carriage horse of superior quality; and it 
is to the breeding of such a class of animals that the 
attention of the fanners, in horse-breeding countries, 
is wholly directed at this date. 

“ ‘ For this reason one has no more pure Cleveland 
Bays, the use of the stallion of that breed being en¬ 
tirely discontinued ; large, bony, slow Thorough-breds 
of good form and great power, which have not suc¬ 
ceeded on the turf, having been substituted for them, 
even for the getting of cart and farming-team horses; 
and the farmers finding it decidedly to their advan¬ 
tage to work large, roomy, bony, half or two-thirds bred 
mares, out of which, when they grow old, or if by 
chance they meet with an accident, they may raise 
hunters, coach horses, or, at the worst, charges, or ma- 
chiners, rather than to plough with garrons and weeds, 
the stock of which would be valueless and worthless, 
except for the merest drudgery. 

“ ‘ Since the authorities above referred to all sub¬ 
stantially agree with Mr. Herbert that there are now 
“ no more pure Cleveland Bays, the use of the stallion 
of that breed having been discontinued,” we recom¬ 
mend that our critics turn their batteries upon them 
a while, and “ give us a rest.” ’ 

“We do not deny that many most excellent and 
well-bred animals have been imported and sold as 


Cleveland Bays—animals that are well calculated to 
improve the stock of farm horses in almost any 
neighborhood.” 

In a very thorough encyclopedia on domestic 
economy published in England half a century ago, 
we find in a reference to the Cleveland Bay breed, 
which it denominates Cleveland or Yorkshire Bays, 
that “they have long been celebrated as one of the 
best breeds in the island for draft; but they are said 
to have degenerated flat.” This work also says, in 
speaking of the coach horse, “it cannot be called a par¬ 
ticular breed; but the origin of the superior kind is the 
Cleveland Bay, confined principally to Yorkshire and 
Durham, and now difficult to meet with in either 
country.” 

A very intelligent gentleman, well known as a 
writer upon live-stock matters in Great Britain, writ¬ 
ing from that country in response to a personal in¬ 
quiry concerning the present status of the Cleveland 
Bays, says, in substance, that of late a demand for the 
old sort of Cleveland Bays has sprung up, and the 
breed is in a fair way to be resuscitated. He thinks 
there is material enough left to operate on, and says 
that “ the Cleveland is undoubtedly the produceof the 
Thorough-bred horse (race-horse or hunting stallion) 
on the North country cart mares; this was the origin 
of the breed, and it was created for coaching purposes. 
The coaches, toward the last, required faster horses, 
and these were superseded by the railway. So the 
Cleveland fell into desuetude. Now they are wanted 
again for fast, heavy town work.” 

Whatever may be said of the origin of this horse 
or the various gradations through which it has passed, 
it is certain that the Cleveland Bays of the present 
day are a most excellent and superior stock, worthy 
the attention of the best breeders. As roadsters they 
occupy the front rank, are of uniform color, build and 
disposition. 

We present a fine specimen (Prince Minister) of the 
Cleveland Bay on the next page. He is owned by W. 
M. Field & Bro., Cedar Falls, Iowa. 

Clydesdale Horse. Though, no doubt, as the 
Stud Book indicates, Clydesdale horses are bred all 
over Scotland, the area to which the true Clydesdale 
is confined is very limited. The Clyde Valley on 
either side, as high as Biggar, Renfrewshire, the 
northern district of Ayrshire, Kintyre, in Argyleshire, 
part of Dumbartonshire, a small piece of Surling- 
shire, parts of Wigtonshire, and Kircudbrightshire, 
the border part of Dumfriesshire and Cumberland 
comprise most of the farms where the tenants have 
any pretensions to Clydesdale, or rather draft-horse 
breeding. 

The Clydesdale is the product of certain Scottish 
mares with Flanders stallipns. In color bays and 
browns predominate, with usually some white in the 
face or on the feet. In height he ranges from 15:3 to 
17:1, with an occasional one at nearly 18 hands, and 
in weight from 1,500 to 2,100 pounds, with an occa¬ 
sional horse 2,400 or 2,500 pounds. He is heavier- 
boned than any other breed, according to his weight, 










Fiff. —CLEVELAND BAY. 














































































































































































































































































































































































HORSE. 


695 


particularly in his limbs, which are of great width, 
flat, cordy and hard. Ringbones, bone-spavins, 
splints, and such diseases of the bony structure, are, 
with him, in his native country, entirely unknown. 
The hoofs are good size, deep, well-shaped, fine¬ 
grained, firm and tough. He has a prominent eye, 
fine head, well-shaped neck, which is well set upon 
magnificent shoulders. His barrel is round and 
straight, with none of the paunchy appearance ; body 
generally long, and the quarters immense. The 
whole ruuscLilar structure is of prodigious develop¬ 
ment, and with none of the stall-fed and flabby ap¬ 
pearance so common in some families of the draft 
horse ; his mane and tail heavy and usually inclined 
to curl. The back of the legs, from the knee and 
hocks to the fetlock is covered with quite long hair, a 
characteristic very highly prized by the Scotchman, 
being evidence of the purity of the blood. He is 
kind and gentle in dis^x^sition, but spirited, and with 
great nerve, vim and energy. 

It is said that one of the ancient kings required the 
bishops to see that good stallions were kept in each 
diocese to propagate a good race of horses for agri¬ 
culture and other work purixrses. Later, the Duke of 
Hamilton sent to Flanders for a Flemish stallion, 
which, crossed upon the mares sprung from the horses 
kept as above referred to, became the fountain head 
of the Clydesdale. The estate of the Duke of Ham¬ 
ilton is in the valley of the Clyde, from which came 
the name “Clydesdale.” 

From the valley of the Clyde, the breeding of this 
horse gradually spread over a large part of Scotland, 
and has found its way to American shores. 

We give an illustration of a Clydesdale stallion, 
Rhoderick Dhu, owned by Powell Bros., Springboro, 
Pa. He is a good representative of the Clydesdale 
breed. See page 701. 

Conestoga Horse. This horse was bred in the 
valley of Conestoga, Pa., many years ago. They 
are supposed to be descended from Flemish and Dan¬ 
ish cart-horses, brought by the early German settlers 
to that district. It is a very large, muscular animal, 
often reaching 17 hands and upwards, and closely 
resembles the heaviest breeds of German and Flem¬ 
ish cart-horses. They are used in Pennsylvania 
chiefly to the wagon, and are good, honest workers, 
much quicker and lighter in their action than might 
be expected from their weight. 

English Draft Horse. The improvement in the 
breed of heavy horses in England was principally 
effected by the importation of a race of black horses 
from Belgium and Holland. They are hardly known 
in this country as a distinct breed, although they have 
undoubtedly exercised more or less influence on the 
work horses of this country. In England they are 
divided into three sub-families: First, the heavy, 
massive horse, reared in the rich marshes and 
plains of the midland counties expressly for the Lon¬ 
don brewers; second, the smaller-sized, but still tol¬ 
erably heavy horse, generally employed for agricul¬ 
tural pur]^x)ses; a strong, compact animal, but slow in 


action ; and third, a lighter and more active animal. 
The modern English Draft horse, however, is as much 
different from those of one hundred years ago as the 
modern Thorough-bred is superior to his ancestors of 
two hundred years ago. The last fifty years has 
marked an era in the breeding of draft animals, as 
has the last one hundred years in the breeding of 
Thorough-breds. So that in the Draft horse good feet 
and legs are of the utmost importance; the shoulders 
should be oblique, in order that the animal may have 
free and safe action. The stallion should have a well- 
arched chest, long, lean head, and clear, prominent 
eye; added to this, there must be great bone, sup¬ 
ported by strong sinews, with plenty of muscle, and 
the animal should be so good a feeder that it will 
cany" plenty of weight to assist all this. 

In speaking of the English Cart-horse of 60 years 
ago, of which the modern English Draft-horse (in 
America as well as in England) is an improvement, 
the English Cart-Horse Stud Book says: 

“With very few exceptions (and those exceptions 
chestnut), black, dark brown and gray are the only 
colors met with in descriptions of Draft stallions living 
in the first quarter of the present century. Gray 
horses seem to have been more common in countries 
south of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, but it is prob¬ 
able that the coats of many of the so-called black 
horses had interspersed therein a considerable sprink¬ 
ling of white hairs, and they were occasionally de¬ 
scribed as grays; there is one instance, about 40years 
ago, of an Oxfordshire horse being sometimes described 
as a black and at another period as a gray. The head 
was large in all its dimensions, well placed on the 
neck by strong, broad and deep attachment; the fore¬ 
head and face wide, expressive and intelligent; a side 
view of the jaws and muzzle represented those parts 
to be remarkable for depth; the ears were small and 
carried slightly outwards; the eyes somewhat small, 
not prominent, but generally mild and moderately in¬ 
telligent in expression; the nostrils and mouth large, 
finu, and well closed; the neck was long, arched, and 
remarkable for its depth, and for the strength of its 
insertion between the shoulder blades. The shoulders 
were massive, muscular, upright, low and thick at the 
withers, thrown well outwards beyond the insertion of 
the neck by tlie front ribs being properly arched. The 
fore-arm was long, strong and muscular, the knee 
broad and flat on all its aspects;' the fore and hind 
cannons short and thick, frequently measuring upward 
of 12 inches in circumference, covered with coarse 
skin and having a beefy appearance and touch, more 
marked in advanced age than in youth. . The hocks 
were of rather defective formation, but showing little 
predisposition to disease, generally too short and round 
and not sharply defined. The breast wide and full of 
muscle, indicative of great strength rather than quick 
movement; the back longer, narrower, and dipping 
rather too much behind the withers. The dock strong 
and thick, with powerful, broad attachment to the 
trunk. The growth of hair upon these old stallions 
was remarkably luxuriant, that of the mane and tail 








HORSE. 


696 


being abundant, strong in texture, glossy, and very 
often several feet in length. Tlie cannons, fetlocks, 
and coronets, both fore and hind, were garnished with 
a profusion of coarse, long hair, distinctive of the Cart¬ 
horse breed. The silky growth in corresiX)nding situ¬ 
ations of the present day has probably become thus 
modified from the admixture of extrinsic blood, from 
local influences, from altered methods in the system 
of rearing and managing young stock, or from a combi¬ 
nation of two or all of those causes. 

As an illustration of the English Draft-horse we 


Justin Morgan, a schoolmaster, in Vermont. The 
founder of the family, or strain, was got by a horse 
called “True Britain,” which was said to have been 
stolen from a British officer during the Revolution, 
and whose pedigree was therefore lost. From him 
were descended, more or less remotely, “ Black Hawk,” 
“Ethan Allen,” “American Eagle” and a host of 
horses celebrated for gameness and many of them for 
fast-trotting powers. He is generally, though not 
universally, admitted to be very stout and enduring, 
with good action, especially in the trot, and great 



Fig. 13. —Norman Maref. 


hardiness of constitution. He shows very little evi¬ 
dence of pure blood; indeed, it may be said that the 
reverse is the case, as he invariably possesses a thick 
and long mane and tail, with a considerable curl in 
both, signs which may be truly said to be fatal to his 
claims. 

In height he seldom exceeds 15 hands. His frame 
is corky, but not remarkably well put together, there 
being generally a deficiency in the coupling of the 
back and loins. The head is not extremely small. 


give a picture (Fig. 14) of Grand Duke, a noble 
specimen of the breed. He is owned by W. M. Field 
& Bro., Cedar Falls, Iowa. 

Morgan Horse. While many deny that this is 
really a distinct breed, yet so marked are their char¬ 
acteristics and so different are they in some particulars 
from other racers, that they seem fully entitled to be 
considered as a distinct breed. He was kept pure in 
its own district for more than half a century, and de¬ 
scended from a single horse, in the {xissession of Mr. 












































































HORSE. 


697 


\ 


but there is no superfluous muscle or fatty matter 
about it; the face is straight, the forehead broad, the 
ears are small, fine, and set far apart, the nostrils are 
wide, the lips are close and firm, the muzzle is small, 
the eyes are not large, but very dark, prominent, set 
wide apart, and full of animation. The back is short; 
the shoulder-blades and hip-bones are large and 
oblique, the loins broad and muscular; the body is 
long, round, deep and closely ribbed up; the chest- 
bone is prominent, the chest wide and deep, the legs 
seem rather short for the height, but they are close- 
jointed, and though thin, they are very wide, hard, 
clean and very powerful; the feet are small and round; 
the hair is short and flossy at almost all seasons; the 


porters and breeders of French horses'in this country. 
He says, in speaking of the Norman horses, that they 
are “ so called from the fact that they were bred in 
Normandy, and existed there a distinct breed for 
many years before they became scattered throughout 
the other districts in France. They are now known 
by various names peculiar to the departments in 
which they are found. In Boulogne they are known 
as Boulonnais; in Normandy, as Augerons; in Picardy, 
as Vimeux; and in Artois and French Flanders, as 
Hammonds. They are all descendants of the Nor¬ 
man race, to which they are indebted for all their 
good qualities as draft horses. There are various 
other names by which Norman horses are known in 



fetlocks are moderately long and there is some long 
hair up the backs of the legs. 

'riieir peculiar adaptability to all the ordinary pur- 
lX)ses of the farmer is such that they enjoy a high 
degree of favor. As a breed, they are usually long- 
lived, and this constitutes one of their great points of 
excellence. 

Norman Horses. No breed of horses has at¬ 
tracted more attention in this country during the last 
50 years than the Norman horses from France. There 
has been much discussion regarding the use of the 
different names applied to these French horses. We 
quote the words, in describing this magnificent breed, 
and giving an account of its origin, etc., of Mr. E. 
Dillon, of Bloomington, Ill., one of the largest im- 


France, but the families we have nan.ed are the most 
renowned in commerce. 

“Brittany (a division in France, situated on the 
Western coast) furnishes the Perche farmers with the 
greatest number of colts suitable for omnibus horses. 
This Percherizing business has been carried on ex¬ 
tensively in Perche; and the large number of Perch- 
erized animals which the Perche farmers have thrown 
u^x)!! the market under the' name of Percherons, has 
established that name for all omnibus horses in 
France, regardless of where they are bred or raised. 
Brittany furnishes the Paris market with as good 
omnibus horses as Perche does, and, although they 
are bred, raised and sold by the Breton farmers, when 
they go in the Paris market they are called Percherons. 








































698 


HORSE. 


“French draft horses are generally known through¬ 
out the world as Norman horses. It is the name that 
was given to the renowned heavy horses in Normandy 
many centuries ago, and has been handed down from 
generation to generation. The name Percheron- 
Norman is an American invention; there are no horses 
in France known as Percheron-Normans. There is 
no difference between the draft horses now found in 
Perche and those found in other localities in France. 

“ The ancient race of heavy horses, known for ages 
throughou the world as Norman horses, originated in 
Normandy during the days when chivalry flourished 
and the iron-clad Norman knights wielded the heavy 
javelin and the ponderous battle-ax. The heavy 
Norman war-horse originated in a cross of the heavy 
gray horses of Lombardy, of Persian descent, and the 
black Vandal, the native stock of the north of France 
and the Netherlands. This cross, under a favorable 
system of breeding and the influence of the fine 
climate and rich productive soils of Normandy, orig¬ 
inated a race of gigantic horses that has ever been 
the glory of France and the envy of other nations. 

“For many years, during the reign of the Norman 
kings, these mighty horses were used exclusively as 
war horses; in the course of time, however, the in¬ 
vention of gunix)wder brought fire-arms into use, and 
they gradually took the place of the heavy spear and 
battle-ax in warfare. There was no longer a demand 
for those giant horses for war purjxjses; but the de¬ 
mands of war had created in the Norman war horse 
those qualities that pre-eminently fitted him for agri¬ 
cultural purposes; and in the fourteenth century he 
became an agricultural horse, a ix)sition he has hon¬ 
orably held from that time to the present. 

“Agriculture in France advanced with civilization; 
and, as the inhabitants began to turn their attention 
to the cultivation of the soil, they very naturally 
looked to Normandy for their supply of horses. Thus 
the old Norman race became scattered throughout 
the different departments in France, and laid the 
foundation for all the families of draft horses, not 
only in France, but throughout the world. 

“The description of these horses are as follows: 
Average height, full 16 hands; head short, thick, 
wide and hollow between the eyes ; jaws heavy; ears 
short and pointed well forward; neck short and thick; 
heavy mane and tail; rump steep, and divided by a 
deep furrow; quarters very broad; chest deep and 
wide; tendons large; muscles excessively developed ; 
heavy, flat, bony legs, very short, particularly from the 
knee and hock to the fetlock, and thence to the top 
of the hoof, which is partly covered with long hair. A 
horse is a Norman just in proportion as he fills the 
above description, no difference by what name he 
may be known in France.” 

We give an illustration in Fig. 13 of two Norman 
mares, imported from France in 1877, by E. Dillon & 
Co., Bloomington, Ill. They weigh 1,940 and 1,950 
pounds, and are certainly magnificent specimens of 
the Norman French breed. 

Fig. 14 represents a Norman stallion, imported in 


1880 by same parties as the Norman mares. He is a 
dark dapple gray in color, and is certainly a splendid 
specimen of the Norman breed. 

Percheron Horses. We cannot go into a lengthy 
discussion upon the name or names which properly 
belong to the two varieties of French horses now in 
this country. In the previous section we give Mr. 
Dillon’s views upon this ix)int, but others differ with 
him. Indeed, much has been written and said uix)n 
this subject pro and con by the best informed men of 
the country. In fact, so difficult did it seem to draw 
dividing lines that the editor of the “ Percheron Nor¬ 
man Stud-Book” was at a loss to know what should 
constitute fitness for entr}^ The plan finally adopted 
was to give a full account of the course of breeding 
and crossing practiced in France, and admit to reg¬ 
istry all horses imported from France as Percheron, 
Norman, Percheron-Norman, and Norman-Percheron. 
The two are so mingled inFrance; and as the French 
utterly ignore pedigrees, the question cannot be satis¬ 
factorily settled there. It is claimed that the Percheron 
is a stock peculiar to La Perche, a district in France. 
He is claimed by some to be a descendant of the 
pure-blood Arabian, crossed with a stock of heavy 
draft horses existing in that part of France prior to 
the Crusades. Others think the native race referred 
to was the old war horse of the Normans. It was heavy, 
bony and slow, good for cavalry use during the days 
of chivalry, when the carrying of a knight and his 
heavy mailed armor required an animal of great 
strength and jxjwer of endurance. One author as¬ 
serts that the Percheron is descended from a re¬ 
mote cross between the Andalusians (after their 
commixture with the Morocco Barbs) and the 
Normans; and this somewhat fanciful reason is given 
for the active agency of man in bringing it about; 
that the Norman, though powerful, was too slow for a 
fully caparisoned knight, the Andalusian or Spanish 
Barb was too light, and a cross was effected for the 
purix)se of securing a horse that combined speed 
with power. 

The old Norman stock is said to have transmitted 
to this race their extraordinary bone and muscle, 
while the Arab or Andalusian, or whatever may have 
been the cross, give the spirit and action. The Nor¬ 
man has been described as being capable of carrying 
great burdens at a reasonable rate of speed; to have 
been large, compact, muscular, and possessing the 
greatest endurance. 

We understand of the two varieties of French 
horses, that they are but different strains of one breed, 
and scarcely differ more than different specimens of 
other breeds of either horses or cattle. Those of the 
Percheron type are smaller, more active, exceedingly 
muscular and powerful, having good trotting action, 
fast walkers, weighing 1,250 to 1,600 pounds. The 
Normans will weigh 1,700 to 2,000 pounds, have 
similar characteristics of a lower degree—that is, 
walk well, trot finely, are docile, powerful and well 
formed. 

Indeed, whatever may have been the origin of the 













HORSE. 


Percheron, or the distinct features between it and the 
Norman, or the proper naming of the two, it is evi¬ 
dently a pure race, one capable ot producing and re¬ 
producing itself unchanged through a long succession 
of years, and without deterioration of qualities when 
like sires are bred to like dams. 

For hard work on ordinary fare the Percheron is 
unequaled, and his energy and endurance are won¬ 
derful. He will keep his condition where another 
horse would die of hard work and neglect. Though 
full of spirit, unflinching under even painful effort, he 
is yet docile. 

Ponies. Ot the numerous breeds of ix)nies’ the 
only ones worthy of mention here are the Indian 
ix)ny, the Mexican Mustang and the Shetland. In 
whatever manner the pony was originally produced, 
in its primary form, or subsequently established in all, 
or any one, of its self-producing varieties, is inqxjssible 
to decide, and it is useless to speculate. 

Indian Forty, which seldom or never exceeds thir¬ 
teen hands in height, is remarkable for activity and 
strength, as compared with its size, appearing to be 
almost overwhelmed with its rider, whose feet nearly 
touch the ground, yet moving under its load with free¬ 
dom. It has a high crest, and a flowing mane and tail, 
with a proud carriage of the head of a very pleasing char¬ 
acter. The body is strongly built, and the legs and feet 
are made of the most lasting materials. Large num¬ 
bers of them run wild in the prairies of the North¬ 
west. . They are thought to be a degenerated Norman, 
having sprung from horses of that stock brought to 
Canada by the first French immigrants, and allowed 
by some means to escape into the forests. Wander¬ 
ing, from generation to generation, in those cold re¬ 
gions, and under circumstances altogether unfavorable 
to the production of generous growth, they have 
become dwarfed and in other particulars modified 
as to form. They seem in their present state to be 
a perfectly distinct animal, and they possess many 
ix)ints of excellence. They are found in the Upper 
Mississippi country, on the borders of Canada, and 
west of the great lakes, and are used chiefly by the 
different tribes of northern Indians. Great herds of 
them are found in a wild state on the northwestern 
prairies. 

They are a larger animal than the Mustang, and in 
most respects far superior to him. Though he is to be 
considered a true ix)ny, he is often thirteen, sometimes 
even fourteen, hands high. The body is very strongly 
built, being round-ribbed, short-barreled, and with 
powerful limbs. The neck is thick and short; the 
legs are covered with thick hair, and seem somewhat 
heavy and clumsy, but they are as firm, muscular, 
iron-like and sound as those of the Shetlands. The 
mane is very heavy, often falling on both sides of the 
neck, while the forelocks cover the eyes, and give a sort 
of shaggy appearance about the upper portion of the 
the head ; the tail is also heavy and generally inclined 
to be wavy. They have a high crest and quite a 
proud carriage of the head. They are docile, intel¬ 
ligent, sure-footed, capable of enduring all the rigors 


699 


of a northern winter, and able to perform long-con¬ 
tinued journeys, at a moderate pace, while cariyung 
or drawing disproportionate burdens. 

Their courage is so high that they do not readily 
succumb to any hardship, however trying its nature, 
and though coupled with poorness and scantiness of 
fare. 

Mexican Mustang, one of the most widely known 
and distinct of American ponies, is found chiefly on 
the prairies of Texas and Mexico. His origin is doubt¬ 
ful, though it is affirmed that notwithstanding his 
diminutive size, and some striking points of degen¬ 
eracy, there is clear indication of Spanish origin. It 
is difficult, however, to account for the difference be¬ 
tween him and other wild horses left or lost upon the 
American continent by the early Spanish discoverers 
and conquerers. They are the smaller of our ponies, 
of very slight limbs, often ugly and disproportionately 
made, with long back, slender and weak posteriors. 
Their hoofs are often badly formed, tending to flat¬ 
ness and irregularity. Their heads, however, though 
long, are lean and well shaped, and their nostrils are 
wide. Their manes and tail are fine. 

Shetland and Scot Ponies are the most remark¬ 
able of all the European pony races, and best adapted 
for one of the principal uses to which ponies are ap¬ 
plicable. They are natives of all the northern Scot¬ 
tish isles, but are found of the smallest size and of the 
most perfect form in the extreme northern isle of Yell 
and Unst. None of the Shetlanders exceed, in the 
average, nine or ten hands, that is, from three feet to 
three feet four inches in height, and none are consid¬ 
ered truly bred which exceed eleven hands or three 
feet eight inches. Many are found which do not ex¬ 
ceed 30 or 32 inches, and which are consequently 
inferior in size to some of the largest Newfoundland 
dogs. Their characteristic form is a round, closely 
ribbed-up barrel, a well-laid, sloping shoulder, but 
thick rather than fine, aifd with little elevation of the 
withers; a short, thick neck, covered with redundant 
masses of coarse mane, scarcely inferior to that of the 
lion, a well-shaped, lean and bony head. The ears 
are unusually small, erect and well placed;- the eyes 
large, clear and intelligent. Their loins are superb, 
so that their breadth bears no small proportion to the 
entire height of the animal. Sway-backs and flat 
sides are unknown to the race. Splints, curbs, spav¬ 
ins, windgalls, thorough-pins, ringbones and navicular 
diseases seem to be things utterly foreign to the Shet¬ 
lander. Their hardihood and spirit are wonderful. In 
their native isles they run wild on the hills, never 
herded, sheltered nor fed, but picking up a hardy live¬ 
lihood from the tender shoots of the heather, and the 
coarse, innutritions grass which grows among it. In 
winter he is often obliged to scrape off the snow to get 
at this. Even when domesticated their fare is but 
little improved. Oats are a luxury unknown, and a 
few bundles of wild meadow hay or barley straw fur¬ 
nish a dainty bouquet to the wee Shetlander. His 
speed, of course, is not great, but he will go along at 
a sort of a waddling run under a weight which it 







700 


HORSE. 


would bother some horses to carry, that is to say, from 
150 to 200 pounds, at the rate of four or five miles an 
hour, and will accomplish his 50 miles between sun¬ 
rise and sunset with a heavy weight on his back. For 
little boys and girls learning to ride the Shetlander is 
perfection, for he is very docile, intelligent, affection¬ 
ate and gentle. The colors are generall)^ black, dark 
brown and a sort of rust-colored sorrel. Whites and 
grays are exceedingly rare, and blacks are considered 
the best of the race. Shetland ponies of the true 
breed are not often imported into America, although 
of late years a good many of the larger or Scottish or 
Welsh ponies are being introduced, and if black, are 
often erroneously called Shetlands. 

Thorough-bred Horse. The following is ex¬ 
tracted from an excellent article on the Thorough-bred 
horse read before the convention of stock breeders at 
Washington, D. C., Jan. 20, 1882, by Gen. W. H. 
Jackson, of Tennessee. The subject was so fully and 
fairly treated that we can do no better than take lib¬ 
eral extracts from it ; 

“Among all the numerous varieties of domestic 
animals which a benevolent Providence has created 
for the use of man, the blood horse stands pre-eminent 
—without a compeer in the animal kingdom. 

“The uninitiated may ask what you mean by a 
Thorough-bred or blood horse.? I mean the horse 
which traces back with certainty, through a long line 
of distinguished ancestry, to the beautiful and game 
little creatures which were imported into England from 
the deserts of Arabia about the middle of the sixteenth 
century. How they came to Arabia, or by what means 
they had been brought to the degree of perfection 
they possessed at that early period, I am not able to 
answer. 

“ In beauty the Thorough-bred is without a rival in 
the equine family; a coat as fine as satin; his eye in 
repose as mild and gentle as the lamb; under excite¬ 
ment as bright as the eagle and as bold as the lion, 
denoting the energy of his nature; his skin as thin 
and elastic as the fawn; his form as perfect and well- 
placed as beautifully defined muscles can make it. 
This is his exterior, or that which is visible to the 
naked eye; but there is an interior or invisible struc¬ 
ture that contributes more, perhaps, to his po wers than 
even his perfect exterior formation. His large heart 
and capacious lungs give him the wind of the high¬ 
bred hound; his large blood-vessels and soft, thin skin 
enable him to throw off the excess of heat that must 
be generated by great and rapid exertion, especially 
in a heated atmosphere; his muscles firm and beauti¬ 
fully defined, with bone of ivory texture, all combine 
to give him strength, endurance, action and beauty, 
far exceeding all of his race. 

“ The uninstructed in this particular branch of an¬ 
imal industry may inquire, ‘How do you know of this 
internal andinvisiblestructure.?’ The veterinary surgeon 
will answer: ‘By dissection of blood horses we find uni¬ 
versally large hearts, capacious blood-vessels, thin skin 
and ivory-like bone, possessing solidity and consequent¬ 
ly strength far superior to coarse breeds.’ Therefore, 


when we know that the pedigree is pure, we also know 
that this perfect internal structure exists. From the 
time of the introduction of this horse into England 
to the present, the best talent of intelligent breeders 
hasbeenzealously and energetically employed through¬ 
out the world, aided too, by all the leading Govern¬ 
ments (except our own), to develop and improve this 
noble animal. They have not failed. By attention 
to his comfort, with a liberal supply of proper food 
from infancy to maturity, his size has been enlarged; 
consequently his speed and strength increased; 
though beautiful when brought from his native desert, 
he has attained such perfection in symmetry and 
strength that breeders of the present peiiod are puz¬ 
zled to know what further improvements can be an¬ 
ticipated. 

“The many admirable qualities I claim for this 
magnificent animal do not constitute his chief, nay, 
nor his greatest value; his high mission is to improve 
all the equine race. The pure and unadulterated 
blood that flows in his veins, improves and gives ad¬ 
ditional value to all the horse family. To the child’s 
pony it imparts more action, spiightliness and beauty; 
to the saddle-horse more action, durability and style; 
to the trotter—a class of animals at present so highly 
prized, and for which such fabulous prices are paid— 
this blood is indispensable, for without it, with all his 
strength, when pressed, his muscles will tire, and he 
will grow weak for want of breath, the natural result, 
not of his exterior, formation, but of his defective in¬ 
ternal organization. 

“ I quote from Col. John P. Reynolds, then editor 
of the National Live-Stock Journal, published at Chi¬ 
cago, on this subject, as follows : ‘ So far as we are 

advised and believe, there is no individual fast trotter, 
nor admitted family of trotters, whose blood, if known, 
is not traceable in part to the Thorough-bred. In other 
words, Thorough-bred blood, if not the foundation, the 
sine qua non of speed at trot, and we may add, at any 
other gait, is always present where speed is found. 
There is no speed without blood, and we think the 
inference fair that none is expected.’” 

“ The question is frequently asked. With all the per¬ 
fection you claim for the blood horse, do you esteem 
him the horse of all work.? I answer. No. The horse 
of all work is a misnomer; no such horse or breed 
exists. The horse is now an inhabitant of all coun¬ 
tries, of nearly every clime, from the torrid to the 
frigid zone, used by all people (civilized), under varied 
and totally different circumstances and for different 
purposes. Of course no single animal or breed can 
be best adapted to all these various circumstances and 
conditions; but I affirm that he is better adapted to a 
greater variety of uses than any of his race. 

“ The veteran breeder, Gen. Harding, after an ex¬ 
perience of forty years, says: ‘ The best and most 

durable plow horse I everowned was a thorough-bred. 
On a hot day and in high corn (the most severe test 
for farm stock) he could kill all the horses and mules 
that could keep up with him, without any injury to 
himself. The best, most active and durable saddle 















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HORSE. 


703 


horse I ever owned was a blood horse. I rode this 
horse until he was twenty-four years of age before he 
ever fell with me, or made a bad blunder. I then set 
him free and had the pleasure of providing for his com¬ 
fort for several years after.’ 

The best harness horses I have used were well- 
bred. I find them more sensible and more bold, 
consequently more safe and reliable. The best mules 
I ever worked were from Thorough-bred mares; in¬ 
deed, no animal is more improved by a dash of blood 
than the mule. It imparts to him the action and 
spirit which he so greatly needs. To form an idea of 
the wonderful powers of the blood horse we will sup- 
ix)se his weight nine hundred and fifty jwunds, this 
being about the weight of the average race-horse. By 
the strength of his muscle he carries this weight, to¬ 
gether with his rider (one hundred and ten pounds), 
makingten hundred and sixty pounds,—not on a down 
grade, but on a horizontal line, a mile in 1:39^, al¬ 
most equaling the power of steam. Of all animated 
nature, the feathered tribe alone can equal his speed. 
If we imagine a feathered monster of equal weight I 
doubt much whether he could surpass him in his 
flight. Persons not versed in the art of breeding this 
animal have but an imperfect idea of his history, or of 
all the care and labor bestowed in its preparation, 
from the Arabs down to the present time. 

“The English Thorough-bred is descended from the 
Darley Arabian, imported into England in 1703, being 
then four years old, and the foundation of the present 
improved stock of English race-horses is to be at¬ 
tributed to the Darley and Godolphin • Arabian, 
though previous to the importation of the Darley into 
England, several Barbs, Turks, and Arabians—mares 
as well as horses—had been brought into the country 
and crossed on each other; but none of them had 
been able to establish any imposing reputation by 
imparting to their stock that size, bone, strength, and 
substance, those extraordinary and unequaled powers 
of speed and continuance which were afterwards at¬ 
tained through the agency of this noljle animal. 

“ P'or the benefit, and I hope for the pleasure of my 
hearers, I will append here the description of the two 
stallions—the Darley and Godolphin. 

“ 'fhe Darley Arabian was a bay horse, fifteen 
hands high, strongly and elegantly formed, with a 
blaze in his face, and his near fore-foot and both hind 
feet white. 

“ The Godolphin Arabian followed the Darley 
twenty-five years later, and though he enjoyed greater 
reputation than the Darley—many writers of that day 
attribute his success to the advantage of the labors 
and improvements of stock accomplished by the Dar¬ 
ley. Flying Childress and Eclipse, the swiftest be¬ 
yond a doubt of all quadrupeds at that time, were the 
son and grandson of the Darley Arabian. The Godol¬ 
phin was an entire brown bay in color, fifteen hands 
in height, of great substance, of the truest conforma¬ 
tion for strength and action, bearing every indica¬ 
tion of a real courser, a horse of the desert. He had 
mottles on the buttocks and crest, with a small streak 


of white upon the hinder, heels. He was imported 
into France from some capital or royal stud in Bar¬ 
bary. He is said to have been foaled in 1724. Mr. 
Coke brought him over from France and gavejiim to 
William, master of St. James Coffee House, who pre¬ 
sented him to the Earl of Godolphin. He is said by 
French writers to have been bought for eighteen louis, 
about ^75. He died in 1753—the most successful as 
a stallion of any foreign hoi-se before or since imported 
into England. To sum up from my reading I think 
the English race-horse derives much of his beauty and 
speed from the Arabian ; his strength and stride from 
the Barb; and his size and height from the Turk. 

“ The first Thorough-bred horses imported to this 
country were Bulle Rock, imported in 1730, foaled 
1718, and tracing back to 1689, 1686, and 1584; and 
Dabster, imported in 1741. Both of these horses were 
imported to Virginia. Since that date millions have 
been expended in the importation of stallions and 
mares from England and France. 

“ I present here a list of those horses imported to 
this country which have left the most lasting impress 
uix)n the blood stock of America, named in the order 
of merit, viz: Diomed, Glencoe, Priam, Leamington, 
and Bonnie Scotland. The most noted of our native 
stallions are Sir Archy, Medoc, Lexington, Vandal, 
Longfellow, Virgil, Enquirer. 

“ The most noted of the brood mares of England 
have been Pocahontas by Glencoe, Queen Mary by 
Gladiator, and Alice Hawthorne by Melbourne or 
Windhound. 

“ The most noted mares imported to this country are 
Gallopade, Britannia and Weatherwitch. 

“,The most noted of native mares are Reel by Glen¬ 
coe, Magnolia by Glencoe, Picayune by Medoc, Mad¬ 
eline by Boston, Sally Lewis by Glencoe, Maggie B. 
B. by imp. Australian, Madeira by Lexington, Nevada 
by Lexington, Nantura by Brawner’s Eclipse, Susan 
Ann by Lexington, Vesper Light by Childe Harold, 
Forfaletta by Australian, and Florine by Lexington.” 

The color of the Thorough-bred horse is now gener¬ 
ally bay, brown or chestnut, one or other of which will 
occur in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. Gray is 
not common, but sometimes appears. Black also 
occasionally makes its appearance, but not more fre¬ 
quently than gray. Roans, duns, sorrels, etc., are now 
quite exploded, and the above five colors may be said 
to complete the list of those seen on the race course. 
Sometimes these colors are mixed with a good deal of 
white, in the shape of blazes on the face, or white legs 
and feet; or even all these marks may occur. Gray 
hairs mixed in the coat, are rather approved of than 
otherwise, but they do not amount to a roan. 

The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of 
high breeding, and in the absence of the pedigree 
would be highly regarded ; but when that is satisfac¬ 
tory it is no use descending to the examination of an 
inferior proof, and therefore, except as a sign of health, 
the skin is seldom considered. In all Thorough-bred 
horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair more silky 
than in common breeds; and the veins are more appar- 


4 S 








HORSE. 


704 


ent under the skin, partly from its thinness, but also 
from their extra size and number of branches. 

The mane and tail should be silky and not curly, 
though a slight wave is often seen. A decided curl is 
almost universally a mark of degradation, and shows 
a stain in the pedigree as clearly as any sign can do. 

Vermont Draft Horse. This is a celebrated 
Jamily of draft horses long existing in Vermont, and 
less marked in their distinctive features than they 
were before the introduction of railroads. The pecul¬ 
iar characteristic of these horses is the shortness of 
their backs, the roundness of their barrels and the 
closeness of their ribbing-up. So striking is this 
that they much resemble jxmies, yet, when approached, 
they are found to be 16 hands high, and often over. 
Of their origin but little is known, but it is very likely 
that the old Suffolk Cart-horse, imported into Massa¬ 
chusetts in 1821, the Cleveland Bay brought there in 
1825, and the Thorough-breds introduced three years 
later, and with the best stock of the district produced 
this breed. These noble horses filled an important 
sphere before the days of railroads. The lighter ones 
were dnven to stage coaches, so common then. The 
attention given to the Morgan horse seems to have 
been to the detriment of this stock, as they are now 
seldom met with in anything like their original excel¬ 
lence. 

Breeding. No question is of more vital import¬ 
ance to the majority of farmers in the United States 
than that connected with the rearing and use of stocks, 
especially the horse. We have very fully treated 
of the principles of breeding under that head, to which 
we refer the reader, and to attempt to discuss the im¬ 
portance of rearing the best animals possible under 
the circumstances, would be to discuss a question 
universally accepted. A few observations, however, 
may be in place uixm horses intended for different 
uses. 

•iTj^ niost profitable horses to raise are those that 
do the most service and keep on the least amount 
of food. Good draft horses have good constitutions 
and will perform a vast amount of heavy work with¬ 
out tiring out or breaking down. They' have a full 
developed chest to hold and digest their food, and 
will keep fat at hard work on a reasonable amount 
of food. They require weight and large muscular 
development to give strength to move heavy loads 
They do not require speed, and it need not be culti¬ 
vated in this class, except the fast walk. They are 
always in demand, and find a ready sale at good 
pnces. Take a drove of draft horses to any large 
market and they will sell for about $250 per hkd as 
an average, which will pay a profit on the cost of pro¬ 
duction. Other breeds would eat their heads off 
before they would find a purchaser in the same 
market at a lower price. 

The vast imports and exports of heavy goods in 
commercial dealings require strong, powerful horses 
to distnbute them to the consignee, or to start them 
off from the consignor, and the draft horse has become 


the favorite medium to facilitate the interchange of 
these commodities. 

The road horse is an indispensable agent in all 
active business pursuits. They will always be in 
demand for commercial traffic and domestic inter¬ 
course in every civilized commitnity devoted to com¬ 
merce and manufactures, and in - all enlightened 
nations whose enterprising people have increased the 
national wealth by encouraging commercial industry 
and facilitating the mutual exchange of manufactured 
commodities. The first-class roadster is valuable for 
fine style and rapid movement. Their splendid form 
and superlative action gives them an exchangeable 
value that will pay a profit on the cost of production. 

In breeding first-class road horses, many of them 
vnW turn out to be fast trotters. The breeder will 
realize a fortune on those that strike the key-note to 
the tune of 2:20 on the race-course. Flora Temple, 
with a record of 2:195^, sold for ^8,000 when an old 
mare. Dexter, record 2:17 brought S33,ooo when 
in the prime of life, and in the palm of his triumphs 
as champion of the turf. Young Pocahontas, record 
2:26^, sold for $25,000, on the reputation of her cele¬ 
brated mother. Juy Gould, record 2:211^, brought 
$30,000 on his own reputation. The breeder only 
wants to produce a few of the famous champions to 
become as rich as Croesus, who built the great temple 
of Diana at Ephesus. 

The carriage horse has come into general use in 
most families that can afford the luxury. They have 
usually been bred from a cross between the Thorough¬ 
bred and Draft horse. The object of the grade is to 
retain the strength of the Draft horse, and to quicken 
the movement by the superior action of the race-horse. 

When they are brought up to the standard of great 
weight carriers at a good rate of speed they are called 
carriage or coach horses. Their high-stepping action, 
good size and commanding form are ornaments to the 
gentleman’s carriage. So long as the public prefer 
this class of stout travelers for domestic use there will 
be a demand, and it will require a large number to 
supply the demand of an increasing market. 

There is another class of useful horses that may be 
called the farmer’s horse for all work. They are a 
cross between a draft and a road horse. The cross 
lightens the carcass and improves the action. They 
are strong enough for heavy work, and quick enough 
for active road service. They are adapted to all kinds 
of farming, and suited to carry the products of agricul¬ 
ture to market. They are raised at light expense 
keep easy, perform a vast amount of labor, and live to 
an advanced age. There is no class so well adapted 
to a broken, hilly country as the horse of all work 
They may become the staple production, in the horse 
kind, of the rural economist of the Northern States 
Breeding is the art of so coupling animals and 
of so rearing them as best to fit them for the purposes « 

for which they are intended. The fact early became i 

known that characteristics of the parents were trans¬ 
mitted to the offspring; hence the saying is true enough | 

among wild animals, that like produces like A criti- ] 
















HORSE. 


705 


cal study of the form and proportions of an animal 
with a view to their adaption to the desired end is nec¬ 
essary to anyone who seeks to excel in the art of 
breeding animals. The object of breeding being to 
improve the animals bred in such qualities as have a 
definite value in the market, the breeder must work 
strongly to obtain high developments in some particu¬ 
lar cpiality. The time has long since passed when 
mediocrity in several essentials and excellence in 
none will be accepted by the buyer. 

The standard of excellence of the true breeder 
must be high and well defined; in other words he 
must have a clear idea of the various points of the 
perfect animal, and strive to attain, slowly it may be, 
but surely, to that perfection. This will require in him 
a keen eye, tpiick to detec*!. faults, and also to recog¬ 
nize all good qualities as they present themselves. 
Beyond and back of eye-sight, he should have good 
judgment, by which he comprehends the causes that 
are at work to produce good or ill effects, and if possi¬ 
ble he should be able to control the forces with which 
he has to deal. Any exterior points of beauty, as to 
outline or color, should not lead him to sacrifice the 
deep fundamental qualities upon which the great 
value of well-bred animals always rest. Lastly, he 
should not hope to produce an animal that is the best 
for everything. 

The first thing to be done in breeding horses is to 
select the best animals, and the first indispensable 
(luality in such animals is a good constitution. With¬ 
out this as a foundation, all attempts to perfect a race 
of horses will be a failure. The animal that is select¬ 
ed for a breeder should have a deep chest, strong 
loins, good limbs and feet. The nervous tempera¬ 
ment of the animal should by no means be overlooked. 
The eyes should be wide apart, full and clear. The 
ears should set apart, not lopped like those of a mule, 
nor pricked forward like the rabbit’s. To these points 
of a good constitution and a fine nervous tempera¬ 
ment, add all the symmetry you can. Make sure of 
good size; never take a mare weighing less than 1,000 
to 1,200 pounds, and not below 15^ to 16 hands 
high. The fault with most of the horses bred in the 
past, is that they have been too small. 

The next requisite is blood. Having selected your 
mare, never take any but a fixed blooded stallion. 
When you have the qualities already described, breed 
early so that your colt may get a good growth before 
flies bother it and its mother. 

In regard to breeding, breed near enough to secure 
the desired qualities, and when once secured, to re¬ 
tain them; but do not breed nearer than first cousins 
if you can avoid it. If “ in-and-in-breeding ”■ is fol¬ 
lowed more closely than this, and persisted in, the colt 
will be either stillborn, or if living will be a cripple. 

Never sell the best animals. When a man has dis¬ 
posed of his best breeding mare, he will advance in 
Ihs work on the same principle that the “ frog jumped 
out of the well ” one step ahead and two backward. 

It is poor ix)licy to go to the city and buy a broken- 
down mare, thinking to make a breeder of her. In a 


great majority of cases you will only breed defective 
animals. 

Blind mares are almost sure to have colts which go 
blind at an early age. Select good sound mares and 
breed to good stallions, if they do cost 10 or 15 dol¬ 
lars more than a common scrub, and you will have a 
colt to be proud of. If you want light carriage horses 
breed mares of about 1,000 or 1,100 of good style, 
to Thorough-bred stallions, which weigh from 1,100 to 
1,200. If breeding for any other purpose, breed 
good heavy mares to some full-blood stallion ; the best 
are among the Normans, Clydesdales, English Draft 
and Cleveland Bay horses. Take which you fancy 
most. Never breed to a vicious brute of a stallion,or 
a mare; if you do the colt will be dangerous. In se¬ 
lecting a stallion select one of proud bearing, with a 
lean head, open nostrils, full, lustrous eyes, wide be¬ 
tween eyes, light neck, well arched; short back, but 
long under, broad hips, flat lean leg, well muscled, 
good round hoofs (the harder the better), soft skin, 
fine hair, not too long, and you have the ideal horse. 

Perhaps not half the farmers who take their mares 
to a stallion give fair consideration to the gait of the 
horse, especially to his walk. A careful calculation of 
the time spent on a walk by the fann horse, as com¬ 
pared to the time used at other gaits, would show that 
the walk is nearly the constant gait—constant at the 
plow, also at the harrow, the corn planter, and the 
seeder. In hauling the hay, grain, or any other com¬ 
modity to market the walk is always the gait. It is 
not used only when returning with the empty wagon, 
or when, occasionally, a team is hitched to the family 
carryall. A very fast walker, under the saddle, will 
make very nearly or quite five miles an hour. Such 
a horse at his work would make, say three and a half 
miles, while a slow walker would not come within one 
mile of this speed taking the day through. When a 
horse is offered in the market, his rapid walking stride 
commends him to buyers, partly because all men like 
a horse that walks fast and partly because a good 
walker is clever at all gaits. 

To breed a rapid walker, look well to the shoulder, 
that it is not too upright; neither must the breast be 
too broad. The rapid walker is not likely to be a 
lazy horse, but, on the contrary, he usually shows 
spirit; sometimes he shows high mettle. These qual¬ 
ities all tell in judging his value in the market, be¬ 
cause they add to his show qualities, if he has any, 
and to his tendency to progression when hooked up; 
and there is no class of buyers that object to a horse 
because he is not slow enough. It is easy to get slow 
horses, and horses that go slow at all gaits; but now 
that nearly everything goes by steam except the horse, 
the nearer this useful animal comes to doing this the 
more attention he will attract, and, all other things 
being equal, the more money he will bring. Especi¬ 
ally do express companies, omnibus companies, whole¬ 
sale dealers who deliver to trains, men who haul by 
the load, and all men except six)rting characters, prize 
a horse largely for the speed he makes at that very 
useful gait,“the walk.” 










7o6 


HORSE 


One or other of the parents should be of mature 
age, and if a very young mare is chosen, the horse 
should not be less than eight, ten or twelve years old. 
If both are very young or very old the product is gen¬ 
erally small and weakly. A great many of our best 
performers on the turf have been got by old stallions; 
but their mothers, with few exceptions, were young. 
'I'he rule generally adopted, is to wait till the mare is 
three years old before breeding from her, and then to 
put her to a horse of at least full maturity,—that is to 
say, seven or eight years old. The necessity for 
health in each parent should be considered, and it 
will be found, the preponderance of either over the 
form and temper of the progeny, will fall to that one 
which has the superior purity of blood ; and there¬ 
fore, if the breeder wishes to altar in any important 
particular the qualities possessed by his mare, he 
must select a horse which is better bred. Neither a 
large nor a small sire or dam will perpetuate the like¬ 
ness of himself or herself, unless descended from a 
breed vvhich is either the one or the other. 

Management of Brood Mares. All mares are 
the better for slow work up to within two months of 
foaling, but they should not be ridden or driven so fast 
as to cause exhaustion. 

Farm mares are generally used to within a few days 
of their time, care being taken to keep them at light 
work. 

The time of sending the mare to the horse will 
vary with the purpose for which her produce is 
intended. If for racing, it is desired that she should 
foal as soon as possible after the first of Januarj^and 
as she carries her foal about eleven months, the first 
time of her being “ in use ” after the first of Febru¬ 
ary is the period chosen for her. All other, horses 
take their age from the first of May; and as this is the 
time when the young grass begins to be forward 
enough for the use of the mare, the breeder is not 
anxious to get his foals dropped much before that 
time. As, however, mares are very uncertain ani¬ 
mals, he will do well to take advantage of the first 
opportunity after the first of March; as by putting off 
the visit to the horse, he may be disappointed alto¬ 
gether, or the foal may be dropped so late that win¬ 
ter sets in before it has strength to bear it. (See 
table, page 117.) The foregoing remarks apply to 
maiden mares only; those who have dropped a foal 
are generally put to the horse nine or ten days after¬ 
wards, when almost every mare is in season. For 
this reason valuable Thorough-bred mares are often 
sent to foal at the place where the sire stands who is 
intended to be used next time. The traveling to him 
so soon after foaling would be injurious to both the 
dam and her foal, and hence the precaution named is 
adopted. The mare then remains to be tried at in¬ 
tervals of nine days, and when she is stinted, the foal 
is strong enough to bear any length of journey with 
impunity. Mares and their foals sometimes travel by 
road twenty miles, or even more, for this purpose, but 
they do not often exceed that distance. About 
fifteen miles a day is quite as much as a nine-days- i 


old colt can compass without injury, and that done 
very quietly, the mare being led at a slow pace all 
the way. 

After having been served by a horse, the mare 
should be allowed to stand idle awhile, as conception 
will be far more apt to take place if she is left alone. 
If put to brisk motion, or to any strain immediately 
after copulation, she is very apt to fail of concep¬ 
tion. She should also be kept away from string- 
proud or badly castrated geldings, not only at this 
period but during her entire pregnancy, as they are apt 
to worry her to the casting of the conception, or at a 
later period, to slinking the foal. 

After she has been allowed a reasonable season of 
quiet, moderate work will be rather beneficial than 
injurious; and this may be kept up until about the 
time of foaling. Special care should always be exer¬ 
cised to guard her against being kicked, heavily 
thrown, or inordinately strained in any way. 

It sometimes occurs that at the time of foaling, a false 
presentation is made, producing difficulty of delivery; 
but no reliable instructions can be here given as to 
what course to pursue in these cases; and it is best 
to seek the aid of some skillful veterinary surgeon. 

The mare which has had a colt will be found in 
season some time within the next thirty days, and she 
ought to go to the horse at this time if she is to be bred 
at all. The ninth day after foaling will generally be 
found to be the right time. Whenever indications of 
heat are discovered, the matter should not be delayed, 
as the season may pass off and not return. After 
putting, the days of trial are the ninth, then, if she 
refuses, the seventh after this, and upon a second 
refusal, the fifth after this, which is sufficient to prove 
her. 

When about the time of pregnancy is passed, more 
than ordinary pains should be taken with the mare, 
for it is at this time, if ever, that she is most likely to 
slink. Excitement of every kind is a fertile source 
of “ slippin’ ” the foal, and anything which is at all 
likely to have that effect should be avoided. The 
smell of blood is said to have a prejudicial influence 
in this way, and there is no doubt that one mare mis¬ 
carrying will in some mode affect others in proximity 
to her. Possibly the same cause may act on all; but 
it seems to be generally concluded that the act is 
generally contagious, either from what is called sym¬ 
pathy, or some other inexplicable way. If a mare has 
“slipped” a foal in a previous pregnancy, double care 
should be taken, as she will be far more likely to do so 
again than another which has hitherto escaped the 
accident. It occurs most frequently about the fourth 
or fifth month; therefore extra care should be taken 
at that time. The suspected individual should be kept 
quiet by herself; but it is better to allow her the run 
of a small retired pasture than to confine her to the 
barn, where, for want of exercise, she will become 
restless and anxious. Purging physic should not be 
given unless it is absolutely necessary; and if the 
bowels are so confined as to require some stimulus of 
this kind, and bran mashes and other changes in the 










HORSE. 


food fail to produce any effect, choice should be made 
of the mildest aperient which is likely to answer the 
purpose. 

Treatment after Foaling. In a healthy state the 
mare very soon recovers the efforts which she has 
made in bringing forth the foal, and in fine weather 
she may be allowed to enter the meadow on the sec-, 
ond day afterward, which is generally soon enough to 
suit the strength of the foal, though occasionally the 
young animal is very active within six hours after it 
comes into the world. For a month or six weeks 
the mare and foal are better kept in a meadow by 
themselves. 

During the remainder of the time of suckling, no 
Special treatment is required except to see that the 
mare is well fed and well protected from the weather. 
At weaning-time she sometimes requires a dose or 
two of cooling medicine; but generally she is so 
nearly dry that no interference is required. 

For further knowledge as to the care of the colt 
while young, see Animals, page 12. 

If the colt is healthy and thriving, he should be 
weaned when from five to six months old. If he con¬ 
tinues with the dam after this period he is an un¬ 
necessary burden to her. If at this time the mother 
is inclined to furnish milk so copiously as to render 
the udder painful to her, care should be taken that it 
does not result in inflammation. If necessary to pre¬ 
vent this, draw away the milk by hand once a day 
for a few days. Keep her on dryer food than usual, 
and at more than ordinarily steady work. This will 
have a tendency of preventing the secretion of the 
usual quantity of milk, and the udder will soon dry. 

Care of the Colt. It matters little what the 
breed, or how well born, if the colt does not have the 
proper care he can never amount to much. Starve a 
colt in his first year, and he is spoilt forever. No 
subsequent treatment, however judicious, can redeem 
the neglect of his early youth; the sinking loin, the 
worn look, the spindle shanks too surely attest the 
treatment he received in infancy, whatever his original 
caliber may have been. 

Very much of the future value and size de- 
l^ends on the condition in which they are kept the 
first winter. They should always be provided with 
comfortable quarters; that is, a dry, warm stable, 
with a window having a southern exposure, if possible. 
They should not be kept tied up continually, but 
allowed the range of a yard during the day time, and 
especially during the pleasant weather, that they may 
exercise as much as they please; observing that 
there is no projecting rail, stake, or Ijit of board 
against which they may injure themselves by run¬ 
ning, as, when at play, they perform wifh a reckless¬ 
ness scarcely equaled by any other domestic animal. 

Treat them kindly, occasionally feeding a little 
from the hand, and thus gain their confidence. 
Break them to the use of the halter; lead them about 
by it; tie them up for a few hours when you are busy 
about the barn, and until they will stand quietly do 
not leave them unwatched but a short time at once. 


707 


for it is difficult imagining what position they may 
not get into. 

There is but little or no use breaking them to the 
use of the bit until at least one year old, and at the 
age of two is a better time to commence the opera¬ 
tion of bitting and checking up. By exercising a 
little patience and kindness, a colt may just as 
easily be brought up as a pet, and, in one sense of 
the word, be broken ere it is hitched to a vehicle, as 
to be necessitated to call into recpiisition the services 
of a horse-tamer. 

Castration. This operation should be performed 
at a rather early age, yet not before they are one year 
old. They will then retain more of the natural vigor 
and style of the entire horse. 'Fhe latest and one of 
the best methods of castrating colts or horses of any 
age, is with the castrating ecrasseur (Fig. 17). Di¬ 
rections accompany each ecrasseur. 

In the case of colts and old horses the structures 
are tough and the cords strong; consequently clamps 
(Fig. 18) are necessary, so that the circulation may 
be entirely stopped. 

The clamps should have a small portion of red 
precipitate and corrosive sublimate sprinkled on the 
inside, first wetting the clamps. The operation 
should be performed as follows: Cast the horse or 
colt and fasten him securely, having everything 
ready, a keen, round-pointed knife, clamps and cords. 
Seize the scrotum, and make a clean cut through the 
integuments and well into the testicle, and in a line 
so the cut shall be parallel to the median line or line 
dividing the scrotum. Clean the envelope of the test¬ 
icle, leaving it as near intact 
as possible, as the envelope 
must remain with the animal. 
Draw the testicle out, put a 
clamp on the cord and seiz¬ 
ing the other end of the clamp 
with a pair of pincers (Fig. 16), 
press it strongly together, and 
tie securely with a wax thread. 

Proceed the same with the 
other. The horse may then 
be allowed to get up. In thir¬ 
ty-six to forty-eight hours the 
sticks or clamps are to be re¬ 
moved. 

In castrating do not be afraid 
to make an extensive cut, and 
do not leave the cord too long, 
else it may be strangulated, 
and fever and inflammation 
ensue. If this should unhap¬ 
pily occur, enlarge the opening 
and push up the cord. If 
there is formation of matter, 
hasten it by fomentation with 
warm water. When a free ex- 

__ udation of cream-like matter is 

Fig. 16.— established, the animal will go 
on to recovery as granulation progresses. If, how- 


















7o8 


HORSE. 




ever, the work has been properly done, the animal 
will suffer little inconvenience, and nothing more 
need be done. 

The best time for castrating colts and horses is 
from the middle of May to the first of June, in the 
North, and in the South, about the time the young 
grass is a free bite. 

Breaking. If a colt is never allowed to get an 
advantage, it will never know that it possesses a 
power that man can control; and if made familiar 
with strange objects, it will not be skittish and ner¬ 


Fig. 17. — Ecrasseur, 

vous. If a horse is made accustomed from his early 
days to have objects hit him on the heels, back and 
hips, he will pay no attention to the giving out of 
harness, or wagons running against him at an unex¬ 
pected moment. A gun can be fired from in front of 
a horse, an umbrella held over his head, a buffalo 
robe thrown over his neck, a railroad engine pass close 
by, his heels be thumped with sticks, and the animal 



Fig. 18. — Clamps^ 

take it all as a natural condition of things, if only 
taught by careful management that he will not be 
injured thereby. 

Commence handling the young foals from their very 
birth. They are much more easily gentled and halter- 
broken during the first few months than at any subse¬ 
quent period, and, as a rule, the longer it is deferred 
the more difficult the work becomes. The easiest 
way'in the world to break a colt to the halter is to tie 
him in the stall by the side of his dam, and to lead 
him by her side occasionally when she is taken out for 
work or exercise. The time thus employed is never 
missed, and many a young thing that might otherwise 
grow up wild, vicious, and unruly, is made gentle, kind 
and tractable. 

Many a fine horse is ruined before it becomes a horse 
at all, and the owner can charge his loss upon the 
mismanagement of the colt at the time of breaking. 
We have seen colts, after remarkable patience with the 
stupidity or viciousness of those breaking them, at 
last resort to kicking or balking, through fear or in 
self-defense; and in many cases the defect is lasting. 

A verv great mistake is to let the colt run wild from 


the time it is foaled until it reaches the proper age for 
breaking. It is not uncommon to find colts that are 
as wild as hawks because they have never been even 
fondled, much less familiarized with the touch of any 
part of harness. Very naturally such a colt is handled 
with difficulty and danger when the attempt to break 
it is made. Such a result is utterly inexcusable, for it 
is rather a pleasure than otherwise to familiarize the 
colt with being handled, and the accomplishing of 
that object should be begun at once, and the breaking 
of the colt, in the proper sense, should be commenced 
as soon as it is weaned,—that is to say, it 
should be accustomed to the halter, to being 
led about, and even tied up for short per¬ 
iods. The surcingle can be applied and any¬ 
thing that can be done without injury to 
the colt to accustom it to the touch of har¬ 
ness, should be done, gradually of course; 
for not only would nothing be gained by 
doing everything at once, but the irritation 
that would be caused might be injurious 
to the young animal. After the first year 
the breaking should be more in earnest. The colt can 
then be bitted. Select a much smaller bit than is gen¬ 
erally used and one that will not hurt the animal’s 
mouth. A wooden bit is a good thing to commence 
with. When he has become accustomed to the bit, 
which he will in a few days, it is advisable to fasten 
ropes to it, and e.xtend them to a loose girth over the 
back, attaching them thereto. Thus harnessed he 
may be driven, as it were, over a field, the trainer 
pulling the ropes occasionally. Portions of the har¬ 
ness can be very soon placed upon him, and by the 
time the colt is really old enough for use he will be 
pretty thoroughly “taught,” if such a course is fol¬ 
lowed. In handling a colt, or for that matter a horse, 
we never want to forget our first duty is to gain the 
animal’s confidence, and that in the next place the 
animal cannot do anything if it does not understand 
what is wanted of it. An inconipetent trainer at¬ 
tempts to induce the animal to do a certain thing, 
and because it does not understand what is required 
of it, and consequently cannot do it, the trainer flies 
into a passion, the animal becomes excited, loses con¬ 
fidence both in itself and in the trainer, and great 
injury is done. No man is fit to handle a horse, 
much less a colt, who has not just as much patience 
as a competent teacher has with a child. He should 
proceed just as a teacher proceeds. The teacher ex¬ 
plains and explains until the child grasps the idea, 
knowing that the child can do nothing until the idea 
is grasped, and if the child is very stupid so much 
more patience is necessary and given. 

Frequently we hear men swearing at a horse and 
lashing him, because he does not do what he does not 
understand. A man that will whip a horse under 
such circumstances, is foolish enough to swear at a 
tree because it does not fall when he tells it to. If 
we cannot be gentle and patient we have no business 
to touch a colt, whatever else we may think ourselves 
competent to train. A trainer needs but three moral 




















ARISTIDES 





























































































































































































































































































































































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HORSE. 


requisites, namely, firmness, steadiness and patience. 

The regular training of a colt or filly should begin 
at the age of two years past. There are many ur¬ 
gent reasons for this ; first, the animal has neither the 
full strength nor the disposition to resist that it will 
have at a more mature age ; second, it is more tract¬ 
able, and will acquire its lessons more easily; third, 
it will not have contracted habits of self-will difficult 
to be broken off; and fourth, lessons in flexions of the 
body may be taught that will naturally increase its 
usefulness in whatever direction it may be wanted. 

The first lesson for any use is implicit and perfect 
obedience to the will of the master. This thor¬ 
oughly accomplished, the rest of the task will be com¬ 
paratively easy, as it is only a question of time. It 
is supposed the animal is entirely free from acquired 
vice that it has been halter broken, and taught to 
stand quietly at the end of the halter, to follow 
quietly, to lead by the side of the master, and to stand 
quietly in the stable. 

The next step is to procure a bitting bridle, also a 
strong bridle with a heavy, smooth snaffle bit, with a 
tongue piece and keys depending from the center of 
the bit; it must also have a check rein that may be 
lengthened or shortened, and two side straps, one 
on each side. The harness is simply a very wide, 
strong surcingle, with padded back-piece, having at 
the top a strap and buckle to form a loop for the 
check rein, and also a buckle on each side of the sur¬ 
cingle in which to buckle to side straps. To the 
rear of the pad of the surcingle is attached a back 
strap and round crupper strap, the latter to buckle 
and unbuckle. 

Take the harness, and approaching the colt in the 
stall, let him smell it until satisfied, then put it on 
without undue haste or fuss. If the colt is nervous 
or skittish, talk to him and take time. The harness 
on, put on the bridle, giving plenty of length to the 
check rein and side straps, so the colt will not be un¬ 
duly hampered, and let it out in a smooth, tight yard, 
following it about with the whip under the arm. 
Sometimes a strong colt will struggle and sweat vio¬ 
lently, but if he has been properly handled heretofore, 
he will take the subjection as a matter of course. Let 
him exercise an hour a day for a few days, tightening 
the check rein and side straps gradually, until his 
head is brought into a proper position, but not a con¬ 
strained position. When he ceases to fret at the har¬ 
ness, pass the snap of a leading rope through the 
near ring of the bit and snap it into the off one. 
This rope should be about fifteen feet long. Taking 
the end in hand, exercise the colt in a circle, allowing 
him to walk if he will. When somewhat tired let him 
stop and stand in front of him, say Come, tapping 
him lightly on the fore-legs with a whip. If he pulls, 
hold him firmly, but without undue violence while he 
resists, tapping him on the fore-legs at intervals, using 
the word Come. He will soon find the way to escape 
the whip will be to get near you. Then fondle him 
and give him a trifle of sugar or salt, and let him fol¬ 
low to the stable. So proceed from day to day, exer¬ 


711 


cising him in a circle both to right and left (lunging 
it is called), gradually increasing his pace to a fair 
trot, until he will work as you want him, turning at 
the word to the right or left circle, or to stand and 
come to his master at the word of command. 

Rarey System of Breaking. If the colt is properly 
educated during its early life, the right course pur¬ 
sued, as previously directed, there will be no occasion 
for a violent process of training. When this is not 
the case, however, and the colt is wild and vicious, 
there is no mode to break him equal to the one in¬ 
vented by John S. Rarey, of Ohio. Novel and extra¬ 
ordinary to a degree bordering on the marvelous 
were the exhibitions which he gave, both in America 
and Europe, in the management of this noble animal. 
Wondering and delighted crowds attended these ex¬ 
hibitions in all the principal cities in this country and 
abroad. Crowned heads and titled dignitaries were 
among the gifted champion’s most enthusiastic audi¬ 
tors. As this system is so remarkable and so effect¬ 
ive, we shall give both a sketch of it and describe 
the method. 

The apparatus that is required is, first of all, an 
ordinary snaffle or straight bit in the mouth, without 
which nothing can be done with a vicious horse. 

The manner of getting this bit in the mouth is dif¬ 
ferent and great difficulty is ofttimes experienced. 
Rarey sometimes used guide ropes fastened to the 
head of the animal and held by grooms on each side. 

The second part of the apparatus is the leg-strap 
for the near fore leg. This is very similar to a stirrui)- 
leather, which, with the addition of a strong loop, can 
be made to answer the same purpose very well. 
Before applying this strap, which at once makes the 
horse harmless for offense, he must be rendered 
approachable, which in ordinary animals is effected 
merely with the aid of the bridle. As soon as this is 
done the horse is innocent of all mischief, except with 
the teeth, for he cannot kick on three legs, and even 
his mouth may be kept away from the operator by 
drawing on the off rein. 

To bring him to speedy submission the other leg 
should also be confined, which is effected by first 
buckling on a surcingle, as represented in the fol¬ 
lowing engraving, and then catching the off fetlock in 
the running noose of another leg-strap, composed of a 
long strap with a loop at one end 

Provided with this second strap in his ^xicket, and 
having already applied the first strap and surcingle, 
the subject under manipulation is either induced to 
drop his off foot into the noose or it is slipped around 
his ankle, while the off rein is held by the other hand 
to keep the teeth off the operator. As soon as this 
loop is firmly drawn around the leg, the other end is 
slipped through the surcingle under the belly, and 
entire control of the horse is only a work of time. 

With a violent horse, it is alv'ays best to let him 
feel his want of power for doing mischief with the near 
fore leg strapped up and the slight degree of fatigue 
which a few minutes hopping will produce, before the 
second strap is called into play. When this is done 










712 


HORSE. 


and the second strap applied and slipped through 
the surcingle, the rein is taken in the left hand and 
gently jerked, to make the horse move, which he can 


in 



Fig. ^o,~—Horse in the Power oj" his Master, 

do only by raising the off fore leg off the ground in 
the action known as hopping. The moment this be¬ 
gins the right hand firmly draws the off leg up to 
the surcingle, and keeps it there, when the horse 
must either bound into the air on his hind legs or 
he must go down on the ground. See Fig. 21. 

To avoid mischief, therefore, the yard where 
the operation is carried on should be thickly bed¬ 
ded with straw, for no knee-caps are stout enough 
to protect the joints from injury on hard ground, 
nor, if they escape being bruised, will the shock 
to the body on falling be at all safe. Even straw 
can hardly be relied on, if the floor beneath is 
of brick, stone, pebbles, or hard natural soil, for 
it is apt to give way during the struggles of the 
horse, and allow the knees to reach it without the 
intended protection. A good, solid bed of ma¬ 
nure, which is always to be had where horses are, 
spread at least a foot thick all over the yard, and 
over this clean straw, is the most desirable place. 
When the horse bounds into the air, plunges and 
falls on his knees, the chief art of managing him, 
or this part of the process of breaking him, is to 
keep a firm hold of the strap attached to the off 
leg close to the surcingle; the hand, being pro- _ 
tected by the glove, can easily prevent it from 
slipping through during the struggles of the horse, 
and at the same time serves as a starting point 
for the operator, so that he can follow the movements 
of the bounding animal in whatever direction he may 
progress. The operator must on no account attempt 


to stand away from his patient, nor must he advance 
before the girth-place, but keeping close to this he is 
no danger, provided he has the sense and the 
ability to give way if the horse should throw 
himself down toward his side. The rein, being 
still held in the left hand, prevents the horse 
falling away from the operator and is also 
used by him as a means of guiding the ani¬ 
mal, if he happens to progress in a direction 
which is not desired. Nothing else is to be at¬ 
tempted till the hors,e has quite exhausted all 
his energies, which those ix)ssessed of high 
courage will soon do; but low-bred animals 
are very apt to turn sulky, and, refusing to 
plunge, remain on their knees, in spite of every 
kind of stimulus which can be given them short 
of severe punishment with the whip, which 
must be avoided as opposed to the principles 
on which the whole process is founded. By tak¬ 
ing time with these low-bred animals they may 
always be made to tire themselves, for the 
kneeling position is very irksome to them, 
and the most stubborn will give a plunge now 
and then to relieve themselves. Sooner or later, 
varying from ten minutes to two or three 
hours, the tail begins to tremble, the flanks 
heave, and a profuse perspiration breaks out, 
which are signs that the horse himself desires 
the incumbent position; and if he does not lie 
down of his own accord, he may be pulled 
over by the hand of the operator. 

A second or two after the horse has gone down, let 



Fig. 21. — The Horse Bounding on his Hind L.egs, 

him raise his head, and then drag it down again to 
the ground by the mane. On repeating this once, 
twice, or- thrice, the animal will give in as far as that 






















HORSE, 


713 


part is concerned; and being rewarded with d pat of 
the hand, the head remaining on the ground, that 
part is gentled. Now remove the leg straps, lift the 


fore legs, separately, and let them fall to the ground, 
gently patting them, and they are gentled. Then go 
round to the back, proceed to gentle the hind limbs in 
the same manner, when you may perform all the usual 
“clap-traps ” of putting your head between the legs, 
knocking the hind and fore shoes to¬ 
gether, standing on the body, etc. While 
in this state, the horse lies in the atti¬ 
tude and with the expression which is 
very well represented in the accompany¬ 
ing sketch, and there he will gladly lie as 
he is permitted to do so. But he is not 
to be allowed to recruit his powers, and 
as soon as you have gone through the 
tricks above mentioned, make him rise; 
call for a saddle; in every case show it 
to the horse, put first on his head, then 
on his neck, and then in its proper place; 
then mount and the horse will move off ^ 
as tamely as an old horse for years ac¬ 
customed to the saddle. 

By this plan it is indisputable that any 
active man of good temper but possessed 
of firmness and courage, and accustomed 
to deal with horses, may gain such a con¬ 
trol over even the most vicious. This 
manner of breaking acts by producing in 
the horse a compound feeling of fear and 
gratitude, the former being the result of 
the animal’s fruitless efforts to^et rid of the controll¬ 
ing hand of man, and, the latter being established, 
from finding that same hand relieve him of his straps 
and then caress and gentle him. 


Breaking with a Halter. For the breaking of 
ordinary colts other methods are much better than 
that of Rarey’s. His, however, is much quicker, and 
for breaking cavalry or circus horses 
his method is not excelled. We give 
another method of breaking a colt. 
This with the halter only. - This op¬ 
eration is o f t en accompanied with 
danger, unless proper steps are taken 
to avoid it. Our experience has taught 
us that it is well to be governed by 
these rules. First, provide against 
accident yourself. Second, secure your 
horse against possibility of injury. 
Third, accomplish your desire with the 
animal in the quickest time possible, to 
render the lesson a permanent one.' 
Having these rules in view, we proceed 
as follows: Take a round stick, one 
inch or one inch and a half in di¬ 
ameter, the length of which is to be 
governed by prospect of danger from 
the viciousness or nervousness of the 
colt. Commence by driving a shingle 
nail three inches from the end, drive 
another about seven or eight inches 
from and in a straight line with the 
first, leaving the nails far enough out, 
so that you can hang upon your halter. Then lake 
a common halter, made of rope, which has a run¬ 
ning noose, made as follows: Tie a hard knot on the 
end of your rope; about eight inches from the first 
make another, and about twenty inches from the sec¬ 


ond, make another; put the end knot through the 
third, drawing the third tight, then draw the other end 
of the rope which is intended for the stale of the 
halter, through the second knot; this will form the 




Fig. 23. —The Horse Tamed. 


































HORSE. 


714 


noose. Place the head-piece of the halter on the 
nails, turning them upwards for security in holding it 
on. You are now ready to commence operations with 
the colt, in doing which it is necessary to understand 
the fact that curiosity is a very strong trait in the horse, 
and when not overcome by fear or some other power¬ 
ful influence is sure to prevail. You can test this, if 
you choose, by placing your hat or handkerchief on 
the end of your stick, and holding it toward the colt. 
He may at first show symptoms of alarm, but, by 
holding it towards him and moving it gently, the colt 
will naturally use his own way of examining it, by 
reaching out his nose and probably touching it. He 
will soon, become accustomed to the stick, and mani¬ 
fest the same curiosity in regard to the halter. You 
will now take the halter with the noose well loosened, 
holding the end of the stick and the halter strap in 
both hands. The halter hanging on the nails as be¬ 
fore suggested, move it gently toward the colt, 
giving it a small swinging motion; and holding the 
stick pretty well up over the head, the colt will now 
extend his nose to examine the halter, and while his 
attention is attracted by its swinging motion, pass the 
head-piece gently over the ears, and turning the stick 
half around, drop it on his neck, then with a quick 
motion drop the stick and pull up on the strap, and 
your colt is haltered. You may now lay the stick 
aside. 

Having your colt haltered, your next object is to 
teach him its use. Take a position about opposite his 
shoulder, still keeping at a distance in order to secure 
your own safety, as well as not to alarm the colt too 
much. Give him a short, quick pull toward you, suffi¬ 
cient to move him, immediately slackening your pull. 
The object in doing this is to teach him that you have 
the power to move him; and by slacking immediately 
you do not give him time to resist; which, if the 
pull were steady, he will do, even to the extent of 
throwing himself. Repeat the side pulls a few times, 
till his disposition to resist grows weaker. You will re¬ 
peat the operation on the other side, alternating from 
side to side at every pull, but always avoiding a 
straight-forward pull. As you operate, gradually but 
slowly keep shortening your hold on the halter strap, 
until at last you can place your hand on his nose, 
with which he will examine it, that organ being the 
one made use of by all horses to test the danger or 
harmlessness of substances, which alarm them. As 
he becomes accustomed to your presence, which he 
will soon do, if you are gentle, you will then proceed 
to caress him over the face, gradually extending your 
hand down over his neck, being cautious not to touch 
his ears. As soon as he begins to be restive or cringe 
under your hand, remove it, and gently place it again 
on his face, repeating the former operation, extending 
the hand farther and farther at each repetition, until 
he becomes calm. You will now slacken the halter a 
little on his nose, and by tying a knot through the 
noose, you will avoid hurting him, as the halter will 
not tighten on his nose. 

Remember that up to this jxjint you have not hurt 


the colt, and have therefore not called out any undue 
resistance on his part. The main objection to a rope 
halter is, that it is sometimes used in such a manner 
as to hurt the colt. We obviate this objection,— first, 
by the short pull and slackening up before resistance 
is excited; second, by tying the knot as soon as prac¬ 
ticable, so that the noose cannot tighten around the 
nose. At any time after this, when you can safely do 
so, you may, if you please, change for a leather halter. 

You will now step back and repeat the pulling op¬ 
eration, being careful to get aside pull, and to change 
sides at each alternate pull. The reason for working 
on both sides is, that in this as well as in other lessons 
in which you attempt to instruct the horse, there are 
two sides to teach. What he learns to do on one side, 
must by the same process be learned on the other, in 
order to have the same understanding of what is re¬ 
quired of him. The reason in avoiding a forward pull 
is that you cannot easily move him in that direction, 
and he only learns your weakness by your unsuccess¬ 
ful attempts. As you move from side to side, if the 
colt be inclined to move before you pull up on the 
halter, instead of pulling, step forward and caress him 
gently over the face or withers, always encouraging 
the animal to do what is required of him. By the side 
pulls he is compelled to come, and by rewarding him 
for coming towards you, the animal learns your mean¬ 
ing and knows that by obeying he gains your approval, 
and he willingly obeys. Should the colt prove of a 
stubborn disposition, and refuse to move as you de¬ 
sire, take hold of the halter strap with your left hand, 
about a foot from the head, and with your right hand 
seize him by the tail, and give him a few sharp turns 
around, pulling the head towards you, at the same 
time giving him an occasional kick with the side of 
your foot across the buttock. This lesson will teach 
the colt that he can move, and that you have the 
power to move him whenever you choose. Now re¬ 
peat the side pulling as before, and if he remains 
stubborn, repeat the operation of turning twice or 
or three times. By this time he will probably appear 
to brighten up, and show signs of being willing to 
step. If he should not, you will take a bow-top whip 
in your right hand, and holding the halterstrap in your 
left hand; stand opjxjsite his left shoulder, reach the 
whip across and tap him gently on the right hip, at 
the same tune giving a slight pull on the halter. If 
he starts with this movement, caress him and repeat 
as before. If he does not start, use a little more force 
with the whip. If he is still stubborn, and does not 
show signs of moving, talk kindly to him and step 
back for a few moments, allowing him to get quiet, if 
he be angered, as the reason for this conduct is that 
the colt is frightened, and he can only be assured that 
you do not mean to injure him, by your kind and pa- 
dent usage. As soon as he becomes calm, you hav¬ 
ing taught him that he is not to be hurt, he will likely 
move in whatever direction you ask him. When he 
steps readily,_you may tie up your halter strap and let 
him go. This will do for the first lesson. 

The colt should now be left alone for half an hour, 















HORSE. 


715 


until he recovers from his excitement, when you can 
repeat the lesson. As soon as he obeys the side pull 
readily, you may then, and not before, commence to 
teach him to obey the forward pull. If he leads, no 
matter how little, caress him, and repeat, being care¬ 
ful to not pull too hard. 

If he does not move with a reasonable pull, give him 
two or three short side pulls, and try the straight for¬ 
ward pull again. In a short time, by this usage, he 
will lead willingly. It is necessary to avoid giving a 
determined pull forward, as it is likely to not succeed, 
and by an unsuccessful attempt to move the colt, he 
is only taught your weakness, and by inflicting pain 
upon him, he will naturally pull in the opposite direc¬ 
tion from whatever causes the pain. By teaching 
him to refuse in this way, you are apt to learn the 
colt the habit of halter-pulling. You are now ready 
for hitching the colt in the stall. 

The stall should be a common one-horse stall, about 
four feet wide; should be prepared by having two 
staples driven in the rear end of the stall, one on each 
side, so that a ^xile or rope can be stretched across, 
about the height that the breeching would be on the 
colt if harnessed. You will now lead the colt into 
the stall, and some assistant can be called to put up 
the rope or pole. Should no one be at hand, you can 
do it yourself by putting the halter strap through the 
ring or tying place, and hold the end in your hand, 
being careful to not tie the halter until after the pole 
or rope is up. The object for not tying the halter be¬ 
fore putting up the pole is that by holding the end of 
the strap in the hand, should the colt attempt to pull 
back, you can step forward, and the strap slipping 
through the ring, you will avoid hurting the colt’s 
head with the halter. You can at the same time pat 
and caress him, thus assuring him that he is not to be 
hurt. The reason for putting up the obstruction be¬ 
hind before tying is because you thereby avoid the 
risk of the colt through fear, or pain, where the halter 
presses on the head of halter pulling. When once 
tied, should he attempt to back out of the stall, he 
will come against the rope or pole, and step forward, 
instead of hurting his head with the halter and pull¬ 
ing harder to get free from what hurts him. In re¬ 
moving the colt from the stall, be sure and untie the 
halter before removing the obstruction in the rear, and 
for the first few days be careful to not tie him where he 
can have a chance to pull. By observing these rules 
for a few days there is no danger that the colt will 
ever become a halter-puller. Bear in mind that 
during the entire process of handling the colt, it is 
proper and necessary to speak to him in a mild and 
gentle manner, for the pur|X)se of familiarizing him 
with your voice, and as a partial guard over your 
own temper. Never speak sharp or over loud, but 
gently and firmly, always connecting the command 
with whatever motion you make, to cause the colt to 
obey. For instance, in your side pulls you combine 
the words “ come here;” this kept up will learn the 
colt to come at that command. 

To Accustom the Colt to the Bit. Place on the colt 


an ordinary head-stall with a joint bit, without clieck- 
strap or reins ; allow it to remain on a few minutes, 
then remove it; put it on again, allow'ing it to stay on 
a short wfliile; then remove it again, thus putting it on 
and off at short intervals for a couple of days; the colt 
becomes used to the bit, and is not likely to become 
alarmed on being drawn up by the bitting bridle. As 
soon as the colt shows no signs of alann at the bit 
being placed in his mouth, he is ready for 

The Bitting Attachment. Take a leather girth with 
crupper and check hook, and a ring in each side, ten 
inches from check hook. Use a common head-stall 
with two small loops on the head-piece, so that the 
check can run up between the ears. Use a joint bit. 
Take a small cotton rope, 16 feet in length, place the 
middle of the rope on the check hook, then pass the 
ends through the loops on head-piece, then through 
the rings of the bit, and bring one end back on each 
side and tie it slackly to the side rings. Put a small 
sliding loop on the checks upon the forehead, to 
keep them together, leaving it slack enough, so the 
checks will w-ork easily back and forward when the* 
colt moves his head. The advantage that this bitting 
attachment has over all others is that when on the 
colt, and drawn up tight, he has the power of holding 
his head in almost any position; he can raise or lower 
it, or turn to either side, the check not being fastened 
at the girth, runs around to suit whatever position the 
colt chooses to hold his head in. This change of 
lx)sition rests the muscles of the colt’s neck, and in¬ 
stead of overtaxing those muscles, as done by the 
ordinary bitting rig, they are developed, and the colt 
learns to carry a graceful head with a well-curved 
neck, and always gives him a good mouth. We have 
never known a colt, which was bitted with this bit¬ 
ting attachment, to become a bit-lugger; and by 
being able to move his head from one position 
to another, all danger of the colt throwing himself 
backwards is avoided. It is necessary to caution the 
reader against the use of the common old-fashioned 
bitting rig, as we have never known any good results 
from its use, and have known of serious damage to be 
done by it. The bitting rig referred to is made and 
used as follows: The old-time horse-breaker would 
take a rope surcingle and crupper, with rope bridle, 
and straight side reins; having this rig placed upon 
the colt, he will, in order to teach him to hold up his 
head, check him up tight, drawing his head up in the 
desired jwsition at once. With this torturing con¬ 
trivance he turns the colt loose in a yard, and will 
allow him to run for several hours at a time, with¬ 
out even unchecking him. \V'hen he returns to take 
up his colt, quite probably he will find him in a cor¬ 
ner of the yard, with his mouth open, standing in a 
sleepy posture, with the whole weight of his head rest¬ 
ing upon the bit. The colt does this in order to rest 
the overtaxed muscles of his neck, and to relieve the 
pain caused by the head being drawn up and held in 
one position. The old-fashioned breaker will wonder 
at the sleepy attitude assumed by the animal, and 
resolves next day to compel him to hold up his head 











HORSE. 


716 


by still tightening the rein, and will persist in so doing 
until the colt, whenever bridled, will push his head 
almost to the ground, in order to rest its weight upon 
the bit. How can a man expect that an animal so 
timid and sensitive as a horse can be brought into 
voluntary obedience with a harsh rope encircling the 
body, and burying itself in the tender flesh of the back 
and tail, so that at every move the torture to which he 
is exposed is increased; and in many cases that have 
come under our notice, the colt, in order to free him¬ 
self from such misery, would rear up, throw himself 
violently backward, and bringing his high-checked 
head in contact with the ground, he would either 
kill himself instantly or by violence of the blow bring 
on an attack of phrenitis, or an abscess on the brain. 
In order to teach the colt what is required of him we 
must use great gentleness, and not allow anything to 
touch him that will cause pain or alarm. 

How to Bit the Colt. In placing the bitting at¬ 
tachment upon the colt, care should be taken that no 
part of it be tightened enough to alarm or hurt the 
animal. The bridle should be carefully put on, buck¬ 
ling the throat-latch loosely, so that when the head 
is drawn in by the check, it will not choke him. In 
checking him for the first time, all that is necessary 
is to tie the side-reins to the rings of the surcingle, 
leaving them long enough that the colt’s head will not 
be drawn any out of his natural way of holding it. In 
this way you can leave the attachment on about half 
an hour, then remove, allowing the colt to go free a 
short time, when you may put it on again. The sec¬ 
ond time put it on, drawing the reins a little tighter, 
but only allowing it to remain on, say five minutes, 
when you will uncheck ; in a few minutes check him 
up again, making the side-reins a little tighter, being 
careful to uncheck him as soon as the colt shows signs 
of yielding to the pressure of the rein, and not until 
then. The reason for not unchecking him while he 
refuses to rein is that we desire to teach him that, 
while he remains stubborn, he cannot be released from 
the restraint of the bridle. After using him, as above 
described, for a few times, the side lines may then be 
taken from the side rings of the surcingle, and the 
right side rein drawn around the check-hook and fas¬ 
tened by a knot to the left side rein; thus by placing 
the side reins upon the check hook, the colt is en¬ 
abled to move his head into any position he chooses, 
and the rope not being fastened stationary at any 
place, will slip around to suit his convenience. 

On this account this attachment can be left on longer 
than any other in general use, without tiring the colt’s 
neck. It should not, however, be allowed to remain 
on for more than half an hour at the most, without 
unchecking, and the tightness of the check to be 
governed by length and form of the neck and shoulder. 

It must be remembered that in bitting colts, all 
that can be done is to teach them to rein as far as 
their form will allow. We cannot take a colt with a 
straight shoulder and a short, chubby neck, and teach 
him to rein as gracefully as one with a well-slanted 
shoulder and a long, curved neck; and should his head 


be drawn up and held in such a position by the check, 
the result would be that the muscles of the neck 
would be strained and the colt would carry his head 
more awkward than before. After using the colt as 
described for several days, you may proceed 

To Harness the Colt. You will, by having the colt 
well bitted, overcome a great part of the difficulty 
attending in harnessing him. In the first place, you 
have taught him by your gentle treatment that by 
handling him he is not to be hurt; next, by having 
the bridle, surcingle and crupper on you have him 
partly harnessed, and he becomes partly aware of 
what the harness is for. Use a neck collar, 
place your harness on gently, being careful that 
no part be allowed to hurt or scare him. Let the colt 
stand in the stall, say half an hour, then remove the 
harness. When convenient put on the harness again, 
letting him stand as before, then remove. The next 
time place on the harness, drawing the breeching 
straps through the side buckles of the tugs and buckle 
them moderately tight, so that both the breeching and 
collar will press against the body; after doing this a 
few times you may commence to drive him with lines. 
The lines should be put through the side loops of the 
harness, instead of the terrets, and buckled to the bit- 
rings. By having a line on each side, and kept down 
by the side loops of the harness, you can prevent the 
colt from turning around toward you. You will then 
move him gently forward, occasionally turning him 
from side to side by the use of the lines. When he 
gets so that you can start and stop him at will, you 
may start and stop him often, being sure that you can 
combine the word “ whoa ” with the pull which you 
give to stop him. By using him in this way about 
three days, he will likely obey the rein. 

To Hitch up the Colt. If you want to hitch him 
single, it would be necessary to accustom him to draw¬ 
ing before hitching him to a wagon; this may be done 
by tying a piece of rope about six feet long to each tug 
and getting a boy to hold each one; you can drive 
the colt forward, allowing the boys to pull gently back 
on the tugs, gradually pulling harder, until he will 
pull the boys around easily. The object of this is, 
that should the colt become alarmed and try to kick 
and free himself, the boys can let go and he is the 
same as if never hitched up; you therefore avoid the 
danger of your colt becoming a kicker or of breaking 
your wagon. When he draws the boys around easily, 
you may then take a piece of scantling, about seven 
or eight feet long, and tie a trace to each end and 
allow him to drag that around for awhile. As soon 
as he does this willingly, which will take two or three 
lessons, you may then hitch him to a wagon. Before 
hitching him, lead him up to the wagon and allow 
him to examine it. Rattle the thills and shake 
the wagon, thus making him accustomed to the 
rattle and noise. Lead him into the thills and allow 
him to examine it, until he is assured that the object 
which he so much dreaded is not calculated to 
hurt him. When all symptoms of fear have 
subsided, you may then, and not until then. 






































































































































HORSE. 


719 


proceed to hitch him to the wagon. In driving him 
for the first few times, a level piece of ground should 
be selected, and backing or turning carefully avoided, 
if possible. One mile is sufficient distance to drive 
the first time, after which you can by degrees increase 
the distance, gradually toughening the colt to his work. 
When it is convenient to hitch the colt double, and 
we consider that the safest way of hitching him for 
the first time, hitch him along with a well-broke horse, 
putting the colt on the off-side. Having your colt 
harnessed, you will then buckle a strap around the 
left front footlock of the colt, in which there is an inch 
ring; to this ring you will attach a line, pass the line 
through the belly-band, fetching it up outside the trace, 
and holding it with the lines in your right hand. 
You will then drive them around, and should the colt 
struggle to get away, or act in any way unruly, pull 
up on the foot-strap and hold his foot up until he 
remains quiet on three legs. After he becomes quiet 
you will then start him up, always stopping him by 
pulling up his foot—^bringing him to a standstill on 
three legs. A couple of lessons of this kind will suf¬ 
fice. You then have him ready to hitch to the wagon. 
After driving around a little as before, hitch and get 
into the wagon, holding the foot-strap in your hand. 
You now start up the team, walking them along slowly, 
and stopping occasionally, always using the word 
“ whoa ” distinctly. You will now find that the colt is 
under perfect control, and that by those proceedings 
there is no danger of injuring him. It may seem 
strange to the reader that the colt, when on a 
walk or run, can be safely drawn to a halt on three 
feet, but it has never occurred in the experience of the 
author that a colt, or horse either, stumbled or fell when 
stopped in that manner. When the colt moves along 
quietly, it will then be well to hitch him up twice every 
day for about a week, giving him short and lively drives, 
until he learns to obey the reins and the word “whoa.” 
You may then change sides with him, in order to 
teach him to go on both sides,—always, when chang¬ 
ing, removing the strap to the inside foot. When the 
colt becomes accustomed to being handled and driven 
freely, you may hitch him either double or single, as 
he is then fit to drive. 

Learning to Back. This should not be attempted 
until the colt is thoroughly tought to drive, obey the 
pull of the lines, and stop readily at the word “ whoa. ” 
The reason for not attempting to learn him to back 
sooner is, that it is necessary to first confirm the 
habit of going and turning to either side at the pull of 
the rein, so that he will not confound backing with 
those other movements. By so doing, you will avoid 
the risk of learning the colt to run back, throw him¬ 
self down, or balk. When he has been driven enough 
to warrant you in learning him to back safely, you will 
then put on a common bridle, and commence by 
standing in front of him, taking hold of the side reins 
and pulling back gently, and firmly using the word 
“ back,” Just as he is in the act of stepping back. 
When he will step back readily by pushing steadily 
backward on the reins, you may then put on lines and 

46 


take your position behind him, having the reins 
through the shaft loops, of the harness, and held well 
down on the sides, to prevent him from turning around 
towards you. Have him loosely checked. As you 
step behind him, pull gently on the lines, saying 
“ back,” slackening up immediately, when he obeys. 
A half an hour’s exercise is usually enough at a time, 
repeating the lesson, until he backs readily. Always 
select a favorable piece of ground on which to back 
' him, such as down hill, so that the wagon will back 
easily. Always preserve your temper in handling the 
colt, for in losing your temper you lose control of 
the animal, which by kind, patient usage is only too 
willing to become your servant. When he will drive 
quietly, you may proceed. 

How to Train to the Saddle. This should not be 
done until the colt has been thoroughly bitted and 
taught the use of the reins. Begin the lesson in the 
barn-yard or some other enclosure. Place on him a 
common riding bridle. Draw the reins tight over the 
top of the neck, and tie a knot, so that he will be 
checked up slightly. Stand on the left side opposite 
his shoulder. Throw a webbing line over his shoul¬ 
der, letting it hang down by the side of his off fore 
leg. Then gently caress the leg until he becomes 
calm, and quietly tie the webbing around the right 
fore fetlock. Should he be restive, and prevent you 
from tying the line upon his fetlock, or attempt to 
strike or kick at you, take him by the head and tail 
and give him a few lively turns around. While he is 
disconcerted by this movement, stoop down quickly, 
but gently, and tie the line. Having the foot-strap 
tied, you will then take hold of the near rein, about 
six inches from the head, and pull the colt toward 
you, causing him to wheel in that direction; and when 
he moves readily, pull up on the foot-strap, so as to 
fetch him to a stand-still on three legs; repeat this 
until he will stop readily by pulling up his foot. 

The lesson taught here is that the colt cannot get 
away while one foot is off the ground, and he learns 
that by being brought to a halt in that way, he is not 
to be hurt; so the danger of plunging, when you after¬ 
wards attempt to ride him, is avoided. 

By pulling the foot-strap across his back, the colt 
gets accustomed to bearing up the weight. By pulling 
his foot up and back, he has not got the ability to 
throw himself backwards, and combining kind usage 
with this mode of controlling, your desire is accom¬ 
plished more readily than in any other way known. 
Now draw up the foot, taking a short hold upon the 
foot-strap with your right arm well extended across 
the colt’s back, and your left hand holding the rein 
upon his neck. You will now make a motion as if 
going to get on. First, get up so that you can lie 
across his back. As soon as he becomes quiet with 
you in this position, get off; second, get up far enough, 
so that you can lay your right leg along his hip. While 
in this position, caress until he becomes calm, and 
slip off again. The third time, by the aid of an assist¬ 
ant, catching with his right hand your left foot, and 
with his left ir knee, and lifting up, you can light 






720 


HORSE. 


easily in the desired position upon the colt’s back. Be¬ 
ing seated upon his back, you will caress him until 
he becomes used to your jx)sition; you will then let 
his foot down, and move him to the right and left by 
pulling first on one rein, then on the other. Always 
be careful, while turning a colt around, to pull only 
one rein at a time; for by pulling on both reins he may 
acquire the habit of running back and sulking. When 
you move him a few times from right to left, you may 
then urge him forward. If he should remain stubborn 
or refuse to move, take a bow-topped whip, hold it in 
your right hand along with the foot-strap and tap 
him gently across the right hind thigh. By using him 
in this way, he will soon comprehend what you re¬ 
quire of him, and you will easily accomplish your 
desire. Only ride him a short distance for the first 
few times, and always repeat the lesson with the 
foot-strap until you can ride with perfect safety. 
There are several other ways adapted for riding the 
colt, but we give this as the only way whereby a wild 
colt can be ridden, insuring safety to both colt and 
operator. 

Bad Habits or Vices. Horses, notwithstanding 
their many excellent qualities, are likewise subject, 
more or less, to defects and disagreeable habits, termed 
vices. Of these, restiveness is one the most dangerous, 
and is generally the consequence of bad temper or 
bad training. It appears in the form of kicking, rear¬ 
ing, plunging, or bolting, and but rarely admits of a 
cure. A good and determined rider may, for a time, 
conquer a horse, but he generally returns to his old 
tricks the first opportunity; and the best thing that 
can be done with a very restive horse, in most cases, is 
to turn him over to some other work. Biting is a fault 
that is not easily corrected, and which requires cer¬ 
tain precautions to guard against. Kicking is another 
fault for which there is rarely any cure, particularly if 
not taken in time; it is very bad in the stable, but 
kicking in harness is much worse. Irritability in clean¬ 
ing is most generally the consequence of a tender skin 
and bad management. Viciousness to shoe is likewise 
usually owing to want of skill in managing, but should 
be corrected, since owing to it lameness is often occa¬ 
sioned, and not by any fault of the smith. Crib-bit¬ 
ing is a troublesome fault, and difficult to prevent; 
the horse will not only bite and destroy his wooden 
manger, but, if it is lined with iron, he will bite it and 
injure his teeth, as well as disperse and lose his feed. 
The best remedy appears to be muzzle sufficient to 
enable him to pick up his food, but not to allow him 
to lay hold of the manger. Some horses will not 
readily lie down at night, and stand still till their legs 
swell; sometimes a fresh, well-made bed, and casting 
him loose, will tempt him. Pawing is a bad habit 
which some horses have in the stable, by which they 
destroy their litter, and also the floor; shackles are the 
best remedy. Rolling in the stable is another bad 
habit, which must be prevented by not allowing him 
sufficient length of collar-rein. Shying is a vice which 
may be cured by a good horseman, except it be owing 
to a defect of sight. Slipping the collar in the night 


is a trick that some horses are very clever at; by this 
they sometimes get at food and gorge themselves, or 
do some mischief. Tripping is a dangerous fault, 
sometimes owing to lameness; a known stumbler is 
never safe to ride. * 

Shying generally arises from timidity, but some¬ 
times it is united with cunning, which induces the 
animal to assume a fear of some object for the sole 
purpose of finding an excuse for turning round. The 
best plan to adopt with such an animal is to take as 
little notice as possible of the shying, and when the 
horse begins to show alarm, speak encouragingly to 
him, and if necessary, use the whip or spurs. Never 
chastise him after he has passed the object, but use 
every means to induce him to go up to it. 

A horseman should never “ shy ” himself when the 
horse shies, or show the least nervousness, or notice 
it in the horse, and far less punish him for it. When¬ 
ever he notices his horse directing his ears to any 
point whatever, or indicating the slightest dispo¬ 
sition to become afraid, let him, instead of pulling 
the rein to bring the horse towards the object causing 
its nervousness, pull it on the other side. This will 
instantly divert the attention of the horse from the 
object exciting his suspicion, and in ninety-nine cases 
out of a hundred the horse will pay no more atten¬ 
tion to the object, from which he will fly away if 
forcibly driven to it by pulling the wrong rein. With 
some young horses this fault is the result of nervous¬ 
ness, and when that is the case the remedy is in 
strengthening the nervous system. A young horse 
given to this fault must be handled gently but firmly. 
When it has an opportunity, for instance when under 
the saddle, and has plenty of room, it will, if allowed 
to get off at a distance and do so, turn round and 
look at the object. This action indicates that if 
it could be brought up to the object and shown that 
it was harmless, all would be right; and that is true. 
Perhaps no better direction can be given for remedy¬ 
ing this fault than to lead or drive the horse up to 
the object when it is practicable. Judgment must 
always be used. Sometimes it is advisable to whip 
the animal up to the object, but the way nine-tenths of 
drivers do, is to whip the horse after he has passed 
the object, a* most reprehensible thing to do. If the 
horse is frightened the fright cannot be whipped out 
of him, and the whipping is rather associated in 
his mind with the danger he thinks he has incurred, 
and not being able to separate the two, he becomes 
confirmed in the belief that he was right in suspect¬ 
ing that he would be harmed. If the horse is per¬ 
mitted to pass the object without being driven up to 
it, that should be the end of it. No amount of whip¬ 
ping, or swearing, or jerking the mouth will do any 
good. 

The driver of such a horse needs to keep himself 
well in hand, and if one-half the drivers would devote 
two minutes of attention to themselves and one to 
their horses, there would not be so many horses ad¬ 
dicted to tricks and faults. Keep a steady rein, speak 
kindly to the horse, and use such means as judgment 






HORSE. 


721 


will suggest to show the horse that its fears are ground¬ 
less, is the best advice that can be given. 

Stumbling arises from a variety of causes, and the 
nature of any particular case should be thoroughly 
investigated before any remedy is attempted. Some¬ 
times it is merely dependent upon a law or “ daisy¬ 
cutting ” action, and then it is possible that it may 
not be attended with danger. We have known many 
horses which would stumble at least every half-mile, 
but yet they would travel for years with sound knees, 
the other legs always being ready to catch the weight. 
In other cases a stumble would only occur at rare in¬ 
tervals, but if the trip was made it was rarely recov¬ 
ered, and a fall was almost sure to follow. Again, it 
happens with some horses that when they are fresh 
out of the stable their action is high and safe, but 
after a few miles the extensors of the leg tire and they 
are constantly making a mistake. Inexperienced 
judges are very apt to examine the action of the fore 
legs alone, while that of the hind quarter is of quite 
as much importance to safety, and is more so as re¬ 
gards the ease of the rider. Lameness is a frequent 
source of a fall, from the tendency to put the foot too 
soon to the ground in order to take the weight off the 
other. And lastly, upright pasterns will produce 
stumbling, when the shoulders are so formed that the 
foot is put down too near the center of gravity. 

The best plans for remedying these several condi¬ 
tions are as follows ; If the cause is weakness of the 
extensors, no care can be of much service; all that 
can be done is to be on the look-out for a trip, and 
then take the weight off the fore quarter as much as 
possible by sitting well back, at the same time using 
such an amount of sudden pressure on the bit as to 
cause the horse to exert himself, without any attempt 
to keep up the head by mechanical force, which is an 
impossibility. When laziness is the cause, the stim¬ 
ulus of the spur or the whip will suffice; and it often 
happens that a horse is safe enough at his top pace, 
while a slower one is full of danger. In lameness, of 
course, the only remedy is to wait till the foot or feet 
are sound again. 

Rearing is seldom met with excepting among raw 
colts. When existing in an aggravated form it is a 
most dangerous vice. An effectual remedy is to deal 
the horse a very severe blow between the ears as he 
rises. Another plan is to wait until the horse is just 
on the balance, then slip off the left side and pull him 
over, learning him a lesson he will not soon forget. 
The ordinary running martingale is used with success 
to keep down the rearer. 

Kicking. Severity is the only remedy, and a strong 
application of the whip down the shoulder the best 
means of using it. At the same time the snaffle reins 
ought to be firmly held and by their means the head 
kept up. 

Biuking and Plunging. Simply saw the mouth 
with a twisted snaffle and the bucking and plunging 
may be slopped at once. 

Balking. There are a thousand remedies to break 
a balky horse. We will give a number of them. Nine 


cases out of ten the whip is not a successful remedy. 

If, perchance, you have an apple or {XJtato, give it 
to the horse; at the same time gently caress him 
for a few moments and start him again. 

Pat the horse upon the neck, examine the harness 
carefully, first on one side and then on the other, 
speaking encouragingly while doing so; then jump 
into the wagon and give the word Go; generally he 
will obey. 

Another way is by taking him out of the shafts and 
making him go around in a circle until he is giddy. 
If the first dance of this sort does not cure him, the 
second will. 

To cure a balky horse, simply place your hand over 
the horse’s nose and shut off his wind till he wants to 
go, and then let him go. 

The brains of a horse seem to entertain but one 
idea at a time; therefore, continued whipping only 
confirms his stubborn resolve. If you can by any 
means give him a new subject to think of, you will 
generally have no trouble in starting him. A simple 
remedy is to take a couple of turns of stout twine 
around the fore-leg, just below the knee, tight enough 
for the horse to feel, and tie in a bow-knot. At the 
first check he will go dancing off, and after going a 
short distance you can get out and remove the string 
to prevent injury to the tendon in your further drive. 

Take the tail of the horse between the hind legs, 
and tie it by a cord to the saddle-girth. 

Tie a string around the horse’s ear close to his head. 

Gelling Cast in the Stall. This is a habit attended 
with great danger, as we have known many valuable 
horses to be injured by it. To prevent it, tie your 
halter strap just long enough, so that the colt can just 
touch its nose to the floor; tie a rope to the headstall 
of the halter, just back of the ears, and attach it to a 
staple directly above the colt’s shoulder in the upper 
joists. Have this rope long enough to allow him to 
lie down, but not long enough to let him touch the 
side of his head to the floor. He cannot roll over 
while his head is kept off the floor. In preventing 
him from rolling for some time, he will forget the 
habit. 

Crowding and Cringing. If the colt crowds or 
cringes upon your entering the stall, you will, as you 
enter, gently caress him, gradually assuring him that 
you do not intend to hurt him. Proceed to enter the 
stall, being careful to avoid loud or sharp words, and 
on entering feed him something out of your hand. If 
this means is not sufficient, take a long bow-topped 
whip and stand far enough behind him to be out of 
reach of kicking, reach up by his side and tap him 
gently on the shoulder. Continue tapping him until 
he moves over to the other side of the stall, being very 
careful not to strike hard enough to hurt him, and 
always combine the words “stand around” with the 
motion of the whip. When he stands around, advance 
and caress him, and repeat on the other side. In a 
few lessons he will stand around by the simple motion 
of the hand and allow you to enter the stall. 

Halter Fulling. Put on a leather halter and a 








722 


HORSE. 


surcingle. Then take a rope about 20 feet long, place 
the middle of the rope under his tail, the same as a 
crupper, bring the rope up along the back, crossing it 
over a few times, to prevent it from sliding down on 
his hips. Pass the ends through under the surcingle, 
then one along each side of the neck and through the 
side rings of the halter, and tie to*the manger, about 
the same length as if tying him with the halter strap. 
You may then do whatever causes him to run back 
and pull at the halter. When he pulls, instead of the 
halter hurting his head, which would cause him to 
pull harder, the pull comes under his tail, which, 
to get rid of, he would spring forward. This method 
is perfectly safe and effectual. The author has never 
tried it on a horse that it did not stop from pulling at 
the halter in less than one day. Another: Attach a 
pulley to a rafter of the stable above where the 
horse stands; then take a long rope, attach a weight 
of about 50 ^xjunds to one end, draw the other end 
over the pully and down through the rack, or through 
a hole in the floor, pass it through the ring or place 
of tying and tie it to the halter. When the colt pulls 
back, the weight will rise and allow him to go back 
without much of a struggle, and when he ceases strug¬ 
gling to free himself the weight on the other end of 
the rope will pull him back to his place. This will 
break up the habit, but is not considered as safe or 
effective as the first. 

Pawing. Tliis is a very disagreeable habit and 
gives the colt or horse a great amount of unnecessary 
labor, and keeping all who live in the immediate 
vicinity of the stable awake by the continual pound¬ 
ing kept up through the night. Bore a half-inch hole 
in each side of the stall, opposite or a little in front of 
where the fore legs stand, put a rawhide in each hole 
and wedge them in tight, allowing the top ends to 
reach out to the middle of the stall. When he paws, 
he will catch the rawhide with the foot with which he 
paws, and in fetching it back, the end of the rawhide 
will hit him on the other shin, causing him to lift up 
the other leg quickly and stand on the one with which 
he paws. He will soon learn that whenever he paws 
he will get whipped on the other leg, and gives up 
the habit. 

Kicking at Night. A great many horses injure 
themselves by this habit. "When once the habit is 
fully established, the proprietor is likely any morning, 
on entering the stable, to find the stalls kicked 
down, the horse’s legs badly swelled, and perhaps a 
leg broken. He will probably consult some “ horse- 
tamer” on the subject, and the kicking-block or the 
sand-bag, or some other implement of torture, will be 
applied, all of which will render the horse a more con¬ 
firmed kicker at each application. The only remedy 
for this habit that has come under our notice is: Take 
a piece of two-inch plank six feet long and fifteen or 
sixteen inches wide, bore a hole through it edgeways, 
two feet from one end; set to upright studs directly 
behind the stall and the width of the stall apart; bore 
a hole in each of the studs, five feet from the floor; 
now take an iron rod and put it through the hole in 


one of the studs, then through the hole in the plank; 
and then through the hole in the next stud. Having 
this done, you will have the plank so that when the 
horse kicks and hits, the plank will swing back¬ 
wards and forwards. You will then bore a hole 
through the plank about two or three inches from the 
top end; take a little tree, about the size of a fish-jx)le, 
leaving all the brush on it, put the end of it into the 
hole in the plank and wedge it tight. Have it so that 
the bushy part will be over the horse’s back when he 
stands in the stall. When he kicks this plank he 
will put it into a swinging motion, and ever)' time it 
swings the brush will whip him over the back. He 
will soon find out that to kick will be only to get 
whipped over the back with the brush, and in a few 
nights will give over the habit. 

Shouldering is an attempt to crush the leg of the 
rider against a w^all, which some ill-tempered horses 
are fond of doing. It is easily avoided by putting the 
horse’s head around to the wall instead of from it. 

Putting 7 'ongue out of Mouth. To prevent this, 
take a thick piece of patent harness leather, about 
four inches long and two inches wide. Cut off the 
ends rounding; near the edge on each side punch 
two holes, through which put a leather string, and tie 
it on top of a joint-bit. When you put in the bit, 
place this on top of the tongue; take the side pieces of 
the head-stall up pretty well. This will prevent him 
from running his tongue out over the bit. If he runs it 
out under the bit, use a straight one, bore two holes 
through the bit from the under side, about an inch 
and three-fourths apart. To these attach a piece of 
large wire, bringing it under in the shape of the bowl 
of a spoon. When you put on the bit pull the tongue 
through between this wire and the bit, seeing that the 
space is large enough for it to sit easy. These plans 
will soon break up this bad-looking habit. 

To Break from Pulling Back. Take a long 
halter, pass the strap through the hole in the ix)st, then 

between the fore¬ 
legs and over the 
surcingle next to 
the belly, and tie 
to the fetlock of 
the right hind foot, 
as shown in Fig. 
25. Hitch the 
horse or colt in 
this manner for a 
few times, and he 
will be entirely 
broke from the bad 

Fig. 25. — Tied to Prez’eni Pulling- Back. habit. 

Running Away. When there is plenty of room 
apply the whip and let him run; but unfortunately 
runaway horses generally choose a crowded thorough¬ 
fare to indulge their fancies in. The most essential 
part of the treatment of a runaway is the proper selec¬ 
tion of a bit, which should be sufficient to control him 
without exciting opjxisition from the pain it gives. 
Runaway horses, which could not be cured in any 









































HORSE. 


723 


way, have been easily and perfectly managed and en¬ 
tirely and permanently cured by placing a leather 
hood on the head-stall in such a manner that when¬ 
ever the horse starts to run, a cord pulls the hood 
over his eyes. As soon as he finds that he is blinded 
completely, he will slacken his pace and soon come 
to a halt, or if he does not, run him against some ob¬ 
ject that will give him a brushing, and he will soon 
get tired of the trick. 

Feeding. In adapting the quantity and quality of 
horse feed to the wants of each horse, regard must be 
paid first of all to the small size of this animal’s 
stomach; secondly, to the work for which he is de¬ 
signed, and thirdly^ to the peculiar constitution of 
each individual. The horse should never be allowed 
to fast any long period, if it can possibly be avoided, 
it being found from observation, that at the end of 
four hours his stomach is empty, and the whole frame 
becomes exhausted, while the appetite is frequently 
so impaired if he is kept fasting for a longer period, 
that when food is presented to him it will not be 
taken. 

The kind of work for which a horse is intended 
affects not only the quantity of food required, but 
also its quality. Thus very fast work, as in racing 
and hunting, strains the muscular system as- well as 
the heart and lungs to the utmost, and therefore the 
food which is best fitted for the development of the 
former to the highest degree consists of those kinds 
which present the elements contained in the muscular 
tissues in the largest proportions consistent with the 
due performance of the digestive powers. These are 
found in oats and beans; but nature herself teaches 
every animal instinctively to keep within such limits 
as are safe, and hence it is found that, though every 
horse will greedily devour a peck or a peck and a 
half of corn daily, yet he will not go beyond this quan¬ 
tity, even though it is not sufficient for his wants, and 
in spite of his being deprived of every other kind of 
food. The demands of his muscular system are sup¬ 
plied by the corn; but there are certain saline matters 
in hay which are not found in the former, and being 
necessary for the performance of several important 
functions, the stomach receives its warning through 
the appetite, and no more corn is received into it. On 
the other hand, the hard-worked horse fed on hay 
alone craves for corn, and will greedily devour almost 
any quantity put in his manger until he upsets his 
digestive powers, when the appetite for it ceases. It 
is found by experience that a certain proportion of hay 
and corn is best adapted to each horse according to 
the work he has to do, and his own particular consti¬ 
tution, so that in laying down rules for feeding, it is 
necessary first of all to ascertain what demands will 
be likely to be made upon the system. 

Lastly, the peculiar constitution of each horse must 
be studied before it can be known whether the average 
quantity and quality of food which will suit the ma¬ 
jority of horses doing the same kind of work, will be 
enough or too much for him. Some washy animals 
pass their food through them so quickly that they do 


not absorb from it one-half of the nutritive elements 
contained in it. These must be fed largely if they 
are kept at work, and those articles of food must be 
selected for them which have a tendency rather to 
confine the bowels than to relax them. Independently 
of this extreme case it never can with certainty be 
pronounced beforehand what amount of food will keep 
an untried horse in condition, but in a large stable an 
average can easily be struck, and it is this quantity 
alone which can be estimated here. The blood of a 
horse fed on highly nitrogenized food does not differ 
on analysis from that of another which has been kept 
on the opposite kind of diet. Physiological research, 
however, tells us that muscle is chiefly composed of 
fibrine, and that every time a bundle of its fibers con¬ 
tracts, a certain expenditure of this material is made, 
calling for a corresponding supply from the blood, 
which cannot be afforded unless the food contains it. 
Hence the badly-fed horse, if worked, soon loses his 
flesh, and not only becomes free from fat, but also 
presents a contracted condition of all his muscles. And 
thus science is confirmed by every-day experience, 
and the fact is generally admitted, that to increase the 
muscular powers of a horse he must have a sufficient 
supply of nitrogenized food. 

The nutrition of muscle requires fibrine, but in ad¬ 
dition the brain and nerves must be supplied with 
fatty matter, phosphorus and albumen. The bones 
demand gelatine and earthy salts, and the mainten¬ 
ance of heat cannot be effected without carbon in 
some shape or other. But it is chiefly with nitrogen¬ 
ized food that we have to deal in considering the 
present question, there being plenty of the other sub¬ 
stances mentioned in all the varieties of food which 
are not largely composed of fibrine. It may therefore 
be taken for granted that the hardly worked horse 
requires oats, together with such an amount of hay as 
will supply him with the starch, gum, sugar, fat, and 
saline matters which his system requires, while on 
the other hand the idle animal does not use his mus¬ 
cular system to any extent, and therefore does not 
require much if any oats. 

Oats are extensively used for horse feed in almost 
every part of the world in connection with hay or 
straw. They are very nutritious, containing 743 parts 
out of 1,000 of nutritive matter. Oats for feeding 
should be old and heavy. New oats will weigh more 
than old, bulk for bulk, but the excess of weight con¬ 
sists mostly of water. New oats are not so easily 
masticated as the old, as they are generally soft and 
form a sticky pulp under the horse’s teeth, and are 
much more difficult of digestion than the old. Indeed, 
new hay, new oats, and especially new corn, should 
never be fed to a horse except in small quantities if 
anything better can be obtained. The habit of some 
farmers of feeding soft corn to horses is extremely 
bad and even dangerous, as it has caused the death 
of many a fine animal. Old corn is very much safer 
and better in every respect. 

In some countries barley is much used as food for 
horses. In Syria and Turkey nearly all the horses 









HORSE. 


724 


are fed 011 it, and they are in general very hardy, and 
capable of enduring very severe exercise without ex¬ 
hibiting symptoms of fatigue. Boiled barley is some¬ 
times found very effectual in restoring weak horses to 
strength and vigor. 'I'he best way it can be given to 
horses which are recovering from an attack of disease, 
is in the form of mashes, hay being also given to pre¬ 
vent relaxation of the bowels. 

Peas are sometimes used as food for horses, but 
their use is not general, and they are not considered a 
desirable kind of provender. In 1,000 parts they con¬ 
tain 577 of nutritive matter They should be bruised 
and ground before being used, as when they are fed 
whole they are not easily masticated, for they slip 
away from under the teeth of the horses. Some horses 
have died after eating a heavy meal of peas. In such 
cases a ix)st-mortem examination has shown that the 
stomach has been burst by the swelling of the peas. 
This fact will be sufficient to point out the necessity of 
caution in the use of peas as food for horses. They 
are nutritious and strengthening, but more than ordin¬ 
ary caution is required in managing them. 

Carrots are much esteemed for horses, but they 
should be given in moderation, and in connection with 
other food. When given in large quantities they cause 
inflammation of the eyes and a sluggishness of spirit. 
A small quantity given in connection with the usual 
amount of hay and oats has an excellent effect on 
the health of the horse, promoting digestion, impart¬ 
ing d fine gloss to the coat, and improving his con¬ 
dition in every way. Some persons feed horses 
exclusively on carrots, at certain seasons, and consider 
them valuable provender, but the majority of intelli¬ 
gent observers prefer giving them in small quantities 
in connection with other food. 

Wlien hay is scarce and dear, chopped straw may 
be substituted for it without having any visible effect 
on the condition of the animals fed with it. 

In feeding oats in the bundle cut the straw about 
an inch long, mix corn meal and bran in about equal 
quantities as to weight, so that each horse has about a 
bushel of cut feed and three quarters of the meal and 
bran twice in each day; 200 pounds per week of this 
mixture of corn meal and bran added to the cut feed 
will keep a pair of working horses in the best con¬ 
dition. It is less than two-thirds cost keeping them 
on uncut dry and whole grain. The human stomach 
will bear hunger far better than that of the horse, and 
if the rider feels his appetite keenly, he may be satis¬ 
fied the animal which carries him is still more in want 
of food; some washy animals pass their food through 
them so quickly that they do not absorb from it one- 
half of the nutritive elements contained in it. These 
must be fed largely, if they are kept at work, and 
those articles of food must be selected for them which 
have a tendency rather to confine the bowels than to 
relax them. 

In order to feed a farm horse so that he can work 
safely and comfortably, it will be necessary to give less 
hay and more grain than most farmers furnish. The 
hay should be cut and moistened with warm water. If 


meal is fed, it should be sprinkled upon and mixed 
with the cut hay. If oats are used instead of meal, 
they may be given with the hay or after it has been 
eaten. The feeding should be regular and no dry hay 
should be furnished between meals. When the horse 
is hard at work, the quantity of meal or oats should 
be increased, but no more hay should be given than 
usual. A few roots will be a good addition to the diec. 
Carrots are specially beneficial. After extreme hard 
work, a warm mash may be given with benefit. Still, 
it is not best to drive or work horses up to the point 
of exhaustion. It will certainly injure and may spoil 
them. 

Hard driving after hearty eating is more injurious 
than hearty eating after hard driving. A farm horse 
assigned to the unaccustomed task of making a long 
journey should be allowed his own time for it; start 
early, drive moderately, giving him an early and long 
nooning, with a good rubbing down before feeding. If 
the end of the journey cannot be reached early in the 
evening, stop for supper, and after another rest he 
may be driven a few miles farther. A case of extreme 
necessity only, can justify driving a horse in the eve¬ 
ning that has worked hard all day. 

Long fasts, followed by heavy feeds, is a sure way 
to bring on colic and inflammation of the bowels, which 
may be entirely prevented by an opposite system of 
management. Some disapprove of giving cooked or 
steamed food to farm horses; but our experience has 
long since convinced us that it is not only a useful 
au.xiliary to the dietary of the stable, but even an in¬ 
dispensable article. During summer and autumn, 
horses are chiefly fed on green food, and a sudden 
change to dry is not advisable. Not only the working 
horses, but the young colts, should be well cared for. 
It is the worst policy in the world to let farm stock 
get too low in flesh; for it will cost about double the 
money and trouble to bring them up again that it 
would have done to keep them so. They should be 
kept in a thriving state steadily from their birth. 
They should, besides, be housed in comfortable, well- 
ventilated stables. Certain it is, that many first-rate 
farmers keep their horses in an open yard, with sheds 
around. They will tell us that consequently their 
horses never suffer from cold. Still it is a question 
whether it be not cheaper in the end to have them 
properly housed during the winter, as there is not then 
the same exhaustion of animal heat, which requires 
an additional amount of nutrition to maintain. 

This point, as well as the general principle, will be 
found discussed at length in the article Feeding Ani¬ 
mals, page 437. 

]Vatering. The water which is given to the horse 
will materially affect his condition if it is not suitable 
to him in quality and quantity, or if he is allowed to 
take it when heated by work. Thirst is most- distress¬ 
ing to this animal, and if he has not his water regu¬ 
larly when his stomach demands it, he will not only 
refuse his solid food, but he will drink inordinately 
when he has the opixjrtunity, causing colic or founder 
to supervene. 







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HORSE. 


It is not desirable to have the water standing in 
the barns for the horses to drink at will; this luxury is 
so often abused by the troughs being allowed to get 
into a foul and dirty state that it is best to do without 
them altogether. Moreover, water standing in a 
stable readily absorbs any ammonia or other gases, 
and it is therefore rendered unsuitable for the horses 
to drink; for this reason water that has stood in a, pail 
in a stable over night is not fit to drink. Those who 
contend for this constant supply have overlooked the 
fact that the horse when he first comes into the stable 
is unfit to be allowed to “take his fill,” and yet he 
will be sure to do so if the water tank is open to him. 

If, after feeding hay and then oats, we allow the 
horse to take a large drink of water, a considerable 
part of the oats will be carried by the water into the 
intestines, and we get little of the advantage of feed¬ 
ing the oats after the hay. If such a drink is taken 
soon after eating hay alone, the effect will not be so 
injurious, because hay does not need so long a time 
for digestion as grain. If only one or two quarts of 
water are allowed, it will pass the food in the stomach 
without changing its position to any great extent. 
When the stomach has got rid of a considerable part 
of its contents it seems a difficult matter for it to force 
out the remainder, and fermentation and colic some¬ 
times result. A drink of water at such a time, by 
carrying on the substance which has remained long 
enough, relieves the condition. 

The quantity of water which will be imbibed by 
horses varies more than that of their solid food, yet 
ignorant men are apt to give all alike. If salt is 
given, it will produce considerable thirst at first, but 
after a time the effect ceases and in the long run will 
not make much difference. Green food will also 
make less alteration in the desire for water than might 
be expected, and it is necessary to be cautious in the 
allowance of water to horses which have begun to eat 
green grass, for if given in the usual quantity, when 
the stomach is full of green food, it will very prob¬ 
ably bring on an attack of colic. As a rule, no horse 
should go to any moderately fast work with more than 
half a bucket of water in him, and that should be 
swallowed at least half an hour. 

The quality of water best suited to the horse is one 
moderately soft, but it should not be rain-water col¬ 
lected in tanks, which soon becomes full of decom- 
ixjsing vegetable matter. Most horses are accustomed 
to hard water, and a change to that which is soft must 
be carefully avoided when work is to be demanded of 
them. Thus, in sending horses used in fast work from 
home when they have been accustomed to either kind 
of water, it often happens that their health is upset, 
and this is quite as likely to occur when the change 
is from hard to soft as from soft to hard water. Train¬ 
ers of valuable race-horses are so aware of this fact, 
that irrespective of the risk of poisoning, which they 
thereby avoid, they take water with them. 

The* proper temperature of the water given in the 
stable is a matter of serious importance, and the effect 
of a bucketful of cold water to a horse just come in 


727 


from his work is very serious. Even in a state of rest 
cold water will often produce cramp or colic, so that 
careful hostlers never give it without warming it, 
either by the addition of a little hot water, called “ tak¬ 
ing off the chill,” or by letting it stand for some hours in' 
the stable or saddle room. If the former method is 
adopted, it should not be made to feel actually warm, 
for in that state it nauseates a delicate feeder, but it 
should barely have the chill taken off, so that in dip¬ 
ping the hand into it no sensation of cold is produced. 

How TO Use A Horse. On this subject we can do 
no better than to quote from Henry William Herbert: 

“It is not, after all, every one who owns a horse,” 
says Mr. Herbert, “that knows how to use him, whether 
for his own pleasure or the horse’s, which is, in other 
words the owner’s best advantage. Nor is it very easy 
to lay down rules how a horse should be used, consid¬ 
ering the many different purposes for which horses are 
kept, the different natures and constitutions of the ani¬ 
mals, and the different circumstances of their owners. 

“Horses may, in general, be divided into two classes, 
—those kept for work, and those kept for pleasure. 
In the former class may be included farm-horses, 
stage, coach and omnibus horses, team-horses em¬ 
ployed in the transportation of goods and moving 
heavy and bulky masses, car men’s horses, and lastly, 
the road horses of all professional men, who, like law¬ 
yers, doctors of medicine, and the like, are compelled 
to drive or ride many hours per diem regularly, in the 
performance of their business. 

“In the latter class may be included tace-horses, 
match trotters, private gentlemen’s saddle-horses, 
carriage-horses, or roadsters, and many other animals 
belonging to business men, which being employed 
during half the time or more in actual service, are 
used during spare hours on the road for purposes of 
amusement. 

“ With regard to the first class of these horses, the 
exigencies of the business to which they are applied 
are for the most part such as to supersede and over¬ 
ride all rules. In some cases the natural hours of 
the day and night have to be reversed, and the ani¬ 
mals are called upon to do their work by night, and 
to rest and feed by day. Under these circumstances it 
may be laid down as an immutable law that at whatever 
hour the horses are to be worked, they must have full 
time beforehand to digest their food and water; they 
must be carefully cleaned, and made comfortable; they 
must have sufficient intervals for halting and baiting 
on the road, must be cleaned and well fed during the 
intervals of work, and must have ample time for un¬ 
disturbed repose. The distance which horses in per¬ 
fect condition can go upon the road varies greatly 
with the powers of the animal, the degree of pains 
bestowed on him, the skill of his driver, and the 
amount of his load, as well as the state of the roads. 
But it may be taken as a rule that strong, able horses, 
of moderate speed, can travel forty miles a day, with 
a moderate load, without distress, for many days in 
succession. It may be observed that it is the better 
way to start at an easy pace when on a journey, to 








728 


HORSE. 


increase it slightly in the middle of the day, and again 
to relax it before coming in at night, in order to allow 
the animals to enter their stables cool, in good order, 
and ready, after a short rest and cleaning, to feed 
with an appetite. 

“ It may also be observed, in this point of view, that 
it is a mistake to fancy that horses are benefited by 
being driven or ridden very slowly when they have a 
long distance to perform. If a horse has to get 
over forty miles in a day, the roads being good, the 
temperature of the day pleasant, and the load not ex¬ 
cessive, he will do it with more ease and less incon¬ 
venience to himself, going at the rate of seven or eight 
miles an hour, and doing the whole distance in five 
or six hours, with a single stoppage’ in the middle of 
the day to feed and rest, than if he be kept pottering 
along at the rate of four or five miles, and be kept out 
of his stable hungry, thirsty and leg-weary for a longer 
time. 

“Farm-horses, whose work is necessarily slow and 
continuous, lasting ordinarily from sunrise to sunset, 
with the exception of a mid-day halt for baiting, are 
under different circumstances. Their work being 
always slow, and rarely if ever severe at the moment, 
or toilsome except from its long duration, they need 
not be subject to the same conditions as fast-working 
horses, of being fed long before they are put to work 
and allowed to evacuate their bowels thoroughly be¬ 
fore being harnessed. They may, therefore, be fed 
and watered at the last moment, and put to slow work 
immediately, and will rarely take harm from traveling 
on full stomachs. In the same manner, when they 
are loosed at noon-day, being rarely overheated, after 
a slight rest and a slight rubbing down—which, by 
the w^ay, they rarely receive—they may take their 
mid-day feed without delay and without fear of evil 
consequences. In like manner may be treated car¬ 
men’s horses, and team-horses, the labor of w'hich is 
heavy and continuous rather than rapid. All horses, 
however, whatever the work to which they are applied, 
should have ample time to rest at night, and should be 
thoroughly rubbed down, dried, clothed and made com¬ 
fortable before feeding them and closing the stables 
for the night, and the more so the more trying the 
day’s work. 

“ With regard to pleasure horses, which are usually' 
in the stables, more or less, 20 hours out of every 24, 
that are only taken out for the gratification of the 
owner at such times as it suits his humor or neces¬ 
sity, they should never be taken out and driven fast 
on full stomachs, which can always be avoided by 
letting the groom know in case they will be required 
at an unusual hour or for unusual work—when he can 
adapt his feeding hours to the circumstances of the 
case. 

“ When harnessed and ready for a start the driver 
should mount his seat quietly, gather his reins, and 
get his horses under way slowly and gradually, by 
speaking or chirruping to them, never starting them 
with a jerk or striking them with a whip, allowing 


them to increase their pace by degrees to the speed 
required, instead of forcing it on a sudden. 

“ It is far better for horses to drive them steadily at a 
regular pace, even if it be ten or twelve miles an hour, 
than to send them along by fits and starts—now spin¬ 
ning them over the road at sixteen or eighteen miles, now 
plodding along at six or seven; and of two pairs of 
horses driven the same distance, after the two differ¬ 
ent methods, that which is driven evenly will at the 
end of the day be comparatively fresh and comfort¬ 
able while the other will be jaded and worn out. 

“ In regard to punishment, the less that is adminis¬ 
tered the better. A sluggish or lazy horse must, it is 
true, be kept up to his collar and made to do his share 
of the work, or the free-goer will be worn out before 
the day is half done, and for this the whip must be 
occasionally used. Even good and free-going horses 
will occasionally be seized with fits of indolence, at 
moments, induced perhaps by the weather, and it 
may be necessary to stimulate them in such cases; 
again at times when roads are bad, when time presses 
and certain distances must be accomplished within 
certain times, recourse must be had to punishment; 
as it must also in cases where the animals are vicious 
and refractory, and where the master must show him¬ 
self the master. Still, as a general rule, punishment 
should be the last resort. It should never be at¬ 
tempted with a tired, a jaded, or an exhausted horse; 
for to apply it in such cases is utter barbarity, little or 
no immediate advantage is gained to the driver, while 
it may probably result in the loss of an excellent ani¬ 
mal. It is common to see horses punished for stum¬ 
bling, and punished for starting; and whenever a new 
horse which one may chance ,to be trying starts off 
into a gallop after committing either of these offenses, 
one may be sure he is an habitual starter or stumbler, 
and that he has frequently undergone chastisement 
for them, and undergone it in vain. It is altogether 
an error to punish for either starting or stumbling; the 
one is the effect of fear, which cannot be cured by 
the whip; the other, in most cases, of malformation or 
of tenderness in the foot, which certainly cannot be 
treated successfully by chastisement, which, in fact, 
aggravates and confirms instead of alleviatingor curing. 

“ In speaking of driving at an equal pace we would 
not, of course, be understood to mean that horses 
should be driven at the same gait and speed over all 
roads, and over grounds of all natures. Far from it. 
A good driver will while going, always at the rate of 
10 miles (we will say) an hour, never perhaps have his 
horses going exactly at the same rate for any two consec¬ 
utive twenty minutes. Over a dead level, the hardest 
of all things except a long continuous ascent of miles, 
he will spare his horses. Over a rolling road he will 
hold them hard in hand as he crosses the top and 
descends the first steep pitch of a descent; will swing 
them down the remainder at a pace which will jump 
them across the intervening flat and carry them half 
way up the succeeding hill, and will catch them in 
hand again and hold them hard over the top, as we 
have shown before. 








HORSE. 


“Horses in traveling should be watered about 
once, with not to exceed two quarts, after every ten 
miles, or every hour, if one be traveling fast; and if 
traveling far they should be well fed once in the mid¬ 
dle of their journey. This point, however, has been 
discussed already under the head of feeding. 

“In closing we would say, always remember in using 
a horse that it cannot be done with too much cool¬ 
ness, too much gentleness, too much discretion, or too 
much kindness. 

“There is no better beast in the world than ahorse, 
nor any one which, though often most cruelly misused 
by man, so well deserves, and so amply by his ser¬ 
vices repays, the best usage.” 

For full directions for Driving, see that article. 

Stabling and Grooming. In a climate so uncer¬ 
tain, changeful, and in which the extremes of cold and 
heat are so great as in the greater portion of the 
United States, the question of stabling is of greatest 
importance. It is a matter of much regret that so 
ma#iy of the farmers of America make such poor pro¬ 
vision for their horses. The stables are often so illy 
ventilated, or not ventilated at all, that the ammoni- 
acal vapors and stifling odors from the urine and 
excrement and decomposed vegetable matter engen¬ 
der the worst forms of disease. The same laws affect 
alike the health of the horse and his master; and that 
of farm horses, as well as farm laborers, would often 
be much worse than it is were it not for the large pro¬ 
portion of time spent by each in the open air. The 
subject of stabling and the manner of the construction 
of the stable is fully treated under head of Barn. 

As to grooming, little need be said. When at work 
the farm horse needs more care and attention than 
they generally receive. Not only should their feeding 
and watering be regular, and of the proper sort and 
quantity, but they should be kept clean and comfort¬ 
able. After working in the mud, their legs should be 
washed clean, wiped and rubbed until dry. On the 
subject of grooming Youatt says: 

“ Of this much need not be said to the agricultur¬ 
ist, since custom, and apparently without ill effect, 
has allotted so little of the comb and brush to the 
farmer’s horse. The animal that is worked all day 
and turned oqt at night, requires little more to be 
done to him than to have the dirt brushed off his 
limbs. Regular grooming, by rendering his skin more 
sensible to the alteration of temperature and the 
inclemency of the weather, would be prejudicial. The 
horse that is altogether turned out needs nogrooming. 
The dandruff or scurf which accumulates at the foots 
of the hair is a provision of nature to defend him from 
the wind and the cold.” 

This, however, which may be true, and correct as of 
the horse that is turned out every night during the 
greater part of the year, and feeds only on grass, with 
some slight addition of oats and mashes, certainly is 
not applicable to the farm-horses of the United States, 
which are, for the most part, if not altogether, stabled 
for the greater part of the year, or in winter at least; 
fed on artificial food; kept warm, to a certain extent; 


729 


and which, of course, must be cleaned daily, especially 
after severe work or exposure to wet, if they are to be 
kept in health and working condition. 

“ It is to the stabled horse,” Youatt continues, 
“highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that 
grooming is of the highest consequence. Good rub¬ 
bing with the brush or the currycomb opens the pores 
of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of 
the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and 
stands in the room of exercise. No horse will carry a 
fine coat without either unnatural heat or dressing. 
They both effect the same purpose, but the first does 
it at the expense of health and strength; while the 
second, at the same time that it produces a glow on 
the skin, and a determination of the blood to it, rouses 
all the energies of the frame. It would be well for 
the proprietor of the horse if he were to insist, and to 
see that his orders are really obeyed, that the fine 
coat in which he and his groom so much delight is 
produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated 
stable and thick clothing, and, most of all, not by 
stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should be 
regularly dressed every day, in addition to the groom¬ 
ing that is necessary after work.” 

In speaking of grooming, Herbert says: “ It is true, 
in a measure, that the necessity of regular dressing, 
wisping, currying, brushing and hard rubbing is far 
greater in the case of highly pampered horses, fed in 
the most stimulating manner, principally on grain, 
kept in hot stables, always a little above their work, 
and ready at all times to jump out of their skins from 
the exuberance of their animal spirit; yet it is neces¬ 
sary to all housed and stabled horses; and the farmeq 
no less than the owner of fast trotters, will find his 
advantage in having his horse curried and washed 
before feeding in the morning in the increased ])lay of 
his spirit and in the gayety and fitness of the animal 
for his work; and if, when he brings him in at night, 
reeking with sweat, drenched with rain or snow, his 
thighs and belly plastered with thick Inud, and his 
legs covered, as cart-horses’ legs mostly are, with 
thick hair, saturated with cold water and clogged with 
particles of mud and sand, he neglects to have him 
thoroughly cleaned and made dry and comfortable for 
the night, he not only commits an act of gross cruelty, 
but wholly disregards his own interest. Unless a 
horse be cleaned and groomed when in such a con¬ 
dition, he cannot be kept in health; and if he be 
fed freely in such a state,—ralthough the cart-horse is 
less liable to such ailments, from his hardier habits 
and less impressive constitution,—the chances are 
that soon he will be attacked by inflammation of the 
bowels, or lungs, or with spasmodic colic—the race¬ 
horse, f^ast trotter, or highly bred and highly fed road¬ 
ster would be so attacked, to a certainty—and the 
failure to dry and cleanse the legs of such a horse, 
especially if there be a draft of cold wind blowing 
upon the heels from a crevice under the stable door, 
as is generally the case in common farm stable-s, will 
be almost certainly succeeded by that troublesome, 
dangerous and foul disease known as ‘grease,’ or 







73 ° 


HORSE. 


more commonly in America as ‘ the scratches,’ etc. 

“When the weather wiW permit the horse,” says 
Mr. Youatt, “ to be taken out, he should never be 
groomed in the stable, unless he be an animal of 
peculiar value, or placed for a time under peculiar 
circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of 
cleanliness, when the scurf and dust that are washed 
from the horse lodge in his manger and mingle with 
his food,—experience teaches, that if the cold is not 
too great, the animal is braced and invigorated to a 
degree that cannot be attained in the stable by being 
dressed in the open air. There is no necessity, how¬ 
ever, for half the punishment which many a groom 
inflicts uix)n the horse in the act of dressing, and 
especially on one whose skin is thin and sensitive. 
The currycomb should be, at all times, lightly applied. 
With many horses its use may be almost dispensed 
with; and even the brush need not be so hard, nor 
the bristles so irregular as they often are. A soft 
brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be 
equally effectual and a great deal more pleasant to 
the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate 
or tease, will be almost sufficient with horses which 
have a thin skin and which have not been neglected. 
After all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it 
ought to be done. It occupies no little time, and 
demands considerable patience as well as dexterity. 
It will be readily ascertained whether a horse has 
been well dressed, by rubbing him with one of the 
fingers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the 
■groom. When, however, the horse is changing his 
coats, both the currycomb and the brush should be 
used, as lightly as possible.” 

In ordinary cleaning, in the morning, the head 
should be first dressed. The hair should be lifted 
and deranged lightly, not stretched or torn with the 
currycomb, and then rubbed well in all directions, 
both against and across the grain of the hair, as well 
as with it, until it is entirely clear from dust and 
dandruff. The ears should be gently pulled and 
stripped with the hand, from the roots to the points, 
and the whole head should then be washed smoothly 
and evenly, as the hair ought to lie. The neck, back, 
shoulders, loins, croup and quarters follow, the same 
plan being used, except that in dressing these parts, 
while the comb is used lightly and dextrously with 
one hand, the brush is employed in removing the 
scurf with the other. The flexures of the skin at the 
insertion of the limbs are parts which require especial 
care, as the dust is most apt to collect in these places. 
This done, the horse must be thoroughly wisped all 
over with bunches of dry straw, till his coat is quite 
clean and glossy, when it may be gone over for the 
last time with a fine, soft brush, or a light duster. 

HOW TO BUY A HORSE. 

This subject is certainly deserving the attention of 
the farmer, even though he breeds and raises more 
horses than he buys. The farmer should know most 
thoroughly the horses that he breeds. Indeed, he 
should be a competent judge of this noble animal. In 


buying a horse the first things to be considered are, 
the use for which he is needed, and the amount of 
capital to be expended for him. These jxjints having 
been settled there are many other things to be.ob¬ 
served in buying a horse. Buy only of resjxjnsible, 
well known men. Remember that no matter what 
conditions horses may be in, a certain class of horse 
traders always attempt to put them off for what they 
are not. In buying of such men you cannot rely with 
any degree of certainty upon what they tell you, but 
must risk yohr judgment. Even then the horse is 
handled with such skill that the shrewdest judges are 
often deceived. Another point to be observed is to 
never buy a horse because he is offered at a price evi¬ 
dently far below his real value. When a horse is of¬ 
fered at what seems to be a sacrifice to his owner, 
rest assured that he has some disagreeable vice, or 
is permanently unsound. 

In reference to the uses for which a horse is de¬ 
sired a few observations may be made with profit, as 
the different kinds of horses have different points,of 
excellence and distinct qualifications. The regular 
farm horse requires strength, quickness, activity, har¬ 
dihood and courage. Light, shambling nags are not 
suited to turn up a good broad-shoulder furrow to the 
action of the winter’s frost. The heavy draft-horse re¬ 
quires only great power and weight, with fast walking 
action, or a moderate trot, and with an easy moving 
action to himself. The carriage horse is an entirely 
different animal in shape, action, etc. Size, symmetri¬ 
cal figure, stylish action and a moderate stroke of 
speed must be his chief characteristics.. The light 
harness horse is still different from the carriage or 
family horse. He must have more style, be capable 
of faster speed, greater endurance, and have a good 
mouth. The saddle horse is the most difficult to se¬ 
lect. He should be handsome, have a showy, stylish 
action, must be sure-footed, have a fine mouth, excel¬ 
lent temper, abundance of courage and perfectly docile. 
Above all, however, he must be an easy mover, both 
to himself and to his rider. 

For hard labor never purchase a narrow-chested ani¬ 
mal. It indicates weakness of lungs, and those liable 
to inflammation. For a saddle horse, however, avoid 
a very broad-chested animal, though sometimes they 
are found to be good trotters. A medium between the 
narrow and broad chest will be found the most perfect. 

What a Horse Should Be. In summing up the 
physical structure of what a horse should be we quote 
from Henrj^ William Herbert. On this subject he says: 

“ The points of the physical structure of a horse on 
which the most, indeed the whole of his utility de¬ 
pends, are his legs. Without his locomotors, all the 
rest, however beautiful it may be, is nothing worth. 
Therefore, to these we look the first. The fore shoul¬ 
der should be long, obliquely set, with a considerable 
slope, high in the withers and thin above. The upper 
arm should be very long and muscular; the knee broad, 
flat and bony; the shank or cannon bone, as short as 
may be, flat, not round, with clean, firm sinews; the 
pastern joints moderately long and oblique, but not 







HORSE. 


731 


too much so, as the excess produces springiness and 
weakness ; the hoofs firm, erect, or deep, as opposed to 
flat; and the feet generally large and round. In the hind 
legs, the quarters should be large, powerful, broad, 
when looked at in profile, and square and solid from be¬ 
hind. The hams should be sickle-shaped, not straight, 
and well let down, so as to bring the hocks well 
toward the ground. The hocks should be large and 
bony, straight, not angular or convexly curved in their 
lx)sterior outlines; the shanks corresponding to the 
cannon bones, short and flat; and the hind feet simi¬ 
lar in form to the front. The back should be short 
above, from the point of the withers and shoulder- 
blade, which ought to run well back to the croup. The 
barrel should be round, and for a horse in which 
strength and quickness are looked to more than great 
speed and stride, closely ribbed up. 

“ A horse can scarcely be too deep from the top of 
his shoulder to the intersection of his fore leg—which 
is called the heart-place—or too wide in the chest, as 
room in these parts gives free play to the most im¬ 
portant vitals. The form of the neck and setting on 
of the head are essential not only to the beauty of the 
animal, but to the facility and pleasure of riding or 
driving him; hence a horse with an ill-shaped, short, 
stubborn neck, or an ill-set-on head, cannot by any 
ix)ssibility be a pleasant-mouthed horse, or an easy 
one to manage. The neck should be moderately long, 
convexly arched above from the shoulders to the crest, 
thin where it joins the head, and so set on that, 
when yielding to the pressure of the bit, it forms a 
semicircle, like a bended bow, and brings the chin 
downward and inward until it nearly touches the 
chest. Horses so made are always manageable to the 
hand. The converse of this neck, which is concave 
above and struts out at the windpipe like a cock’s 
thropple, is the worst possible form; and horses so 
made almost invariably throw up their heads at a pull, 
and are those most exceptionable of brutes, regular 
star-gazers. The head should be rather small, lean, 
bony, not beefy, in the jowl; broad between the eyes; 
and rather concave, or what is called basin-faced, 
than Roman-nosed, between the eyes and nostrils. 
The ears should be fine, small and jx)inted; the eyes 
large, clear and prominent, and the nostrils wide and 
well opened. A horse so framed cannot fail, if free 
from physical defects, constitutional disease and vice, 
to be a good one for any purpose—degrees of strength, 
lightness and speed being weighed in accordance 
with the purpose for which he is desired.” 

Color. ISIuch stress is laid upon the colors of 
horses by many persons; indeed, long experience has 
shown that certain tints are usually accompanied by 
certain qualities of person or disiX)sition. As a gen¬ 
eral rule dark-colored horses are the best, but blacks 
form an exception, as they are extremely variable. 
Light shades appear unfavorable to strength and 
durability. Bay is a prevailing tint, and is generally 
admired; it admits of many shades; there are bright 
bays, dark and dappled bays; the latter is esteemed 
for beauty; brown bay is valued for service, and con¬ 


sists of bay and black in variable proportions; all 
bays have black manes and tails. (See article Bay.) 
Brown horses are highly prized; the dark varieties 
have sometimes beautiful tan markings. (See Brown, 
page 124.) Chestnut is also a good color, but is said 
to be less depended upon than some others. The 
sorrel is a variety of the chestnut, but not a favorite one. 
Dun is a color that has several varieties, the mane 
and tail sometimes lighter and sometimes darker than 
the body, with frequently a black list along the back; 
they appear to be of all qualities. White horses are 
not in much estimation, neither is it a very common 
color for young horses; but some become white 
through age. Black is a very usual color, and seems 
to be an original tint. The tempers of black horses 
vary extremely, being either sluggish or too fiery. It 
is seldom that a horse entirely black is seen; there is 
usually some sjx)t of white in the forehead, or a few 
white hairs on the breast. The roan is a mixture 
with white hairs. Gray horses are of many shades, 
compounded of black and white; there are the iron 
grays and dappled grays.. Various other names for 
mixtures are enumerated, scarcely possible to define. 

Examining a Horse. The criteria of the qualities 
of horses are derived from inspection and trial. To 
judges their outward appearance affords a pretty just 
indication of their powers, and a moderate trial usually 
enables the same judgment to decide on the disposi¬ 
tion to exercise such powers. The qualities indicated 
by color have been already noticed. The strength 
may be judged of by the general form. The spirit, 
vigor, or mettle, as it is termed, are best ascertained 
by trial. A horse of vigor and true courage is highly 
valued, and shows his mettle only when it is required 
of him. He walks securely and deliberately, and 
moves with readiness as well alone as in company. 
Without requiring the whip, he will go from the walk 
to the gallop, and as easily from the gallop to the walk 
again, champing the bit and trotting glibly. He is at¬ 
tentive and cheerful; loves to be caressed even when 
on his journey. He is easily managed, good-tempered, 
and quiet under difficulties. A hot, fiery horse is 
as objectionable as one of true courage is desirable; 
he is known by his disinclination to stand still, and 
by his mettle being raised by the slightest exercise, 
especially when in company. Such horses are not 
safe; they are impetuous, difficult to manage, and are 
easily frightened. 

In examining a horse for the purpose of purchasing, 
look at him standing quietly in his stable, to see he has 
no trick like that of putting one hind foot over the 
other. In doing this he often cuts the fore-part of 
his hind foot with the sharp calks of his shoe, thus 
making him lame perhaps for months. A stable ex¬ 
amination is the best for observing indications of 
wind-sucking, crib-biting, chronic cough, the state of 
respiration, and for discovering vice. For this pur¬ 
pose always have a horse shown quietly; when there 
is much noise and bustle there is generally some¬ 
thing wrong, and when the animal is agitated slight 
lameness will escape the eye. 








732 


HORSE. 


The first thing to be observed is that when stand¬ 
ing evenly the weight is thrown equally on both feet. 
If there be any complaint in the fore-feet, one will 
probably be “pointed,” that is, extended before the 
other, or he will frequently alter the position of them, 
taking one up and setting the other down; or the 
hind legs will be brought under the body to relieve 
the fore-feet of some portion of the weight. Any of 
these symptoms will direct your attention to the feet 
when you see him out. 

Respiration. To judge of his respiration, it is nec¬ 
essary to be acquainted with the indications of health. 
Observe if the flank alternately rises and falls with 
regularity. In health the respiration of the horse is 
from four to eight per minute, average six, in the day 
time; during sleep it is seldom more than four. If 
quicker than ordinary, it betokens present fever; other 
symptoms will be developed, such as increased pulse, 
heat of mouth and dullness, while the delicate pink 
appearance which the membrane covering the parti¬ 
tion of the nostrils assumes in health, will be increased 
in color. But if none of these symptoms of ill health 
are present and yet the horse heaves at the flank more 
than ordinary, if the weather be moderate, and the 
stable not oppressively hot, it is probable such a horse 
is thick-winded. 

When inspiration appears to be performed readily 
and quickly as in health by a single action, but expir¬ 
ation with difficulty by an irregular and prolonged 
movement, or double action, the respiratory muscles 
appearing as if interrupted in the act of expel¬ 
ling the air, and then the flank drops suddenly, it is a 
symptom of broken wind. His cough should then be 
tried. The cough of a broken-winded horse is a 
peculiar low, hollow grunt, difficult to describe, but 
when once heard easily recognized. It can generally 
be elicited by pinching the larynx or trachea., though 
occasionally this fails, for some sound as well as bro¬ 
ken-winded horses cannot be made to cough at all. 
In these cases, when there is any irregularity in 
the movement of the flank, which would lead to the 
suspicion of broken-wind, and there is unusual hard¬ 
ness of the wind-pipe, which does not give way on 
pinching, it may be taken as a symptom of disorgan¬ 
ization, in addition to the broken-wind. See page 197. 

Man^e. If the hair is rubbed off in some places, 
especially about the head, flanks and tail, or he is 
observed rubbing himself against the sides of the stall, 
there is danger of his being mangy; and in this case 
his coat will be found rough and staring. 

Kicking and Biting. The absence of the vice of 
kicking and biting may be inferred from the manner 
of the groom when entering the stall, and by the quiet 
method with which he unclothes and dusts him over 
and combs out his mane and tail. If he be a biter, 
his head will probably be tied short to the neck, or the 
groom will seize hold of him short by the halter or 
bridle, sometimes giving him a shake or looking sternly 
at him. Desire to see his hind and fore-feet, and by 
the manner in which he permits the groom to lift 


them, a guess may be made as to his quietness to 
groom his heels or shoe. 

While the horse is in the act of being led out of the 
stable to the light, closely observe his manner and 
action; if the ears move in quick changes of direc¬ 
tion, as if alarmed at every noise, and he hangs back 
on the halter, raising his feet higher than ordinary, and 
putting them down as if fearful and uncertain of his 
step, it leads us to suspect his eyes, though some¬ 
times these symptoms will be observed when the eyes 
are perfect, if the stable has been a dark one. 

Lameness. When the horse is shown out, notice if 
he stands firm on his feet, with his weight thrown 
boldly on his back sinews and pasterns. If there is 
any appearance of shaking or tottering of the fore 
limbs, indicative of grogginess, it will be endeavored 
to be disguised by the groom continually pulling at the 
bit to make him shift his legs and stand advantage¬ 
ously. A lame horse is never permitted to stand still 
a moment, and the groom, though pretending to soothe, 
is in reality agitating him, while'the shrewd and crafty 
seller will most probably endeavor to withdraw your 
scrutiny from the defective point by calling your atten¬ 
tion to his spirit or playfulness. If any of these 
maneuvers are apparent, be uix)n your guard. The 
groggy horse inclines a little forward at the knee, or it 
is readily bent by the least touch behind, he rests his 
weight on his toes, and when standing undisturbed 
brings his hind legs under him. Some young horses, 
before they had been backed, have this deformity from 
malformation of the knee; but if, in addition to this 
bending forward, there is any tremulous motion of the 
limbs, it is a decided proof of the existence of that 
most destructive affection, navicular disease. What¬ 
ever his age, he should be rejected. 

Another deception is effected by standing a horse 
up hill; the shoulder is made more sloping, and deal¬ 
ers, to give that appearance, desire the near leg to 
stand before the other. 

Though the dealer is perfectly justified in these 
little maneuvers to show off his goods to the best ad¬ 
vantage, more especially in so fancy an article as a 
horse, which is no more than is done and allowed by 
every tradesman, the prudent purchaser will not please 
his eye at the expense of his judgment, but see the 
horse on level ground, and with his feet placed even. 

General Action. When brought out, do not allow 
him to be jockeyed in his paces. Take your stand on 
one side of the road, and let him walk naturally and 
quietly by; then turn and walk by, showing his other 
side. Now stand behind and have him walk off in 
front of you and from you ; then turn and walk toward 
you. Observe if he goes freely and easily and plants 
his hind feet in the tracks of his fore feet. Next, have 
him trotted by you, and back and forth, watching his 
action closely. 

Taking our position in front of the horse, we exam¬ 
ine his fore-legs,—that they are in proper position; 
that there is no weakness in the pasterns, or enlarge¬ 
ment of the fetlocks; and that the feet are of the same 
I size, and stand square to the front. 
















» 








































































































































































































































HORSE. 


735 


Should one of the fore-feet be much affected, it will 
be evident by the up-and-down motion of the head, 
and the different degrees of force with which he puts 
his feet to the ground. Horses that are lame before 
drop their heads when stepping on the sound leg, and 
raise it when the weight is thrown on the lame leg; 
but when they are lame behind, the action (though 
not perceptible) is reversed; they throw up their head 
a little when the sound leg comes to the ground, 
and depress it when the lame leg propels the 
body, and the motion of the lame leg is slow, while 
the sound one is jerked quickly forward to sustain 
the weight. 

When both fore-feet are equally tender, which is 
not uncommon in groggy horses, it is more difficult to 
judge of his action ; it is not uneven, and the limp is 
not perceptible, but he steps short and feelingly, 
with a general appearance of contraction. Dishonest 
dealers, at fairs and auctions, resort to a scheme by 
which groggy lameness is disguised in one leg by 
making the motion even. It is known in various 
parts by the slang terms of diamonding, beaning, bal¬ 
ancing or wedging. It is performed by removing the 
shoe of the sound foot, and paring out the sole until 
it yields to the pressure of the thumb. The shoe is 
then replaced, and a wedge of wood, a pebble or a 
bean is driven in between the sole and the shoe, until 
sufficient pain is produced to make the horse equally 
lame on both legs. Although the lameness is less 
evident, yet a person accustomed to the action of 
horses will easily detect it; and if the animal is 
allowed to stand undisturbed, it will be evident that 
something is wrong by his repeatedly shifting his legs. 

Another trick of some dealers to conceal lameness, 
or to give an appearance of energy to the sluggard or 
worn-out horse, is the torture of the lash, termed 
firing. The poor animal, previously to being shown, 
is so barbarously flagellated that under the influence 
of terror of the further application of the whip, his 
attention is withdrawn from the disease, he feels not 
the lesser pain, but trots off heedless of his lameness, 
or at least showing it much less. Whenever there is 
much punishment, or a threat of it, while showing a 
horse, be sure there is something to conceal. 

In his trot, if the action is good, the foot is boldly 
delivered with what may be almost termed an allegro 
movement. Its course is straightforward and down¬ 
ward, not dishing to either side; the motion should 
be from the elbow as well as the knee, the hind-legs 
gathered well under the body, following with regularity 
and precision ; the toes fairly raised from the ground, 
and spread pretty accurately in the impress of the 
fore-feet; if they pass beyond they are likely to over¬ 
reach. In the trot, he should go lightly with the fore¬ 
feet, but strike the ground energetically with the hind, 
taking a long, darting stride. 

Though the best horse may stumble, if after trip¬ 
ping he springs out as if he feared the whip or spur, 
you may justly suspect him of being an old offender, 
which will induce you to look at his knees and head. 
Observe that he goes clear in all his paces, and that 


one leg does not interfere with the other; horses that 
go very near are more likely to cut when tired. 

The carriage of the head and tail are points to 
which the eye of a good judge will be directed. If 
the tail goes to and fro when in action, like the pen¬ 
dulum of a clock, it is a good sign of blood and 
steadiness. 

He should now be mounted, and the trial be re¬ 
peated on the stones or hard road, or what is prefer¬ 
able, on a rough and stony declivity, for there are 
many cases of slight lameness which do not show on 
soft ground, at a walking pace, or when the horse is 
unburdened. If he step away boldly, the toe in a 
direct line with the body, the knee fairly bent, and his 
foot up and planted firmly down again upon the 
ground, fearlessly and flat, without any dropping of 
his head, you may conclude him sound in action. 
His hind-legs, well lifted up and tucked well under 
him, should follow his fore-legs with regularity; and 
if in running him up hill he goes without drag¬ 
ging his toe, you may infer the same behind. In the 
gallop, if he takes up his legs quick and dashes in his 
haunches, not bringing his hind-legs after him, his 
action is good. During this display of action, the ex¬ 
aminer will have an opportunity of judging of the per¬ 
fection of his wind; if he does not ride the animal him¬ 
self he should stand close to the horse at the moment 
he comes into the gallop. 

General Health. We judge of the general state of 
the animal’s health by his breathing condition, the 
brightness of his eye, the color of the membrane lin¬ 
ing the lid, and that of the membrane lining the 
nostril, which in health is of a pale pink. If it 
is a florid red, there is excitement of the system; 
and if it is a pale, approaching to white, it is a sign of 
debility. Each nostril should be alternately closed 
by the hand to ascertain that the air passages are not 
obstructed by polypus or enlargement of the turbina¬ 
ted bones. 

Glanders. If there is any increased discharge from 
the nostrils, you will probably be told it proceeds from 
slight cold ; in that case an accelerated pulse and 
affection of the eyes are usually concomitants; never¬ 
theless, as a precautionary measure, the branches of 
the under jaw should be felt for enlargement of the 
glands; if, although enlarged, they are movable and 
tender, it is probably nothing more than a catarrhal 
affection. And here it may be necessary to observe 
that in deciding upon the disease with which the horse 
is afflicted, it is requisite to bear in mind the age of 
the animal. In examining the, head of a young horse, 
should the space between the branches be hot, tumid 
and tender, the membraneof the nose intensely red, with 
profuse discharge from both nostrils, and cough and 
fever present itself, we may more than suspect stran¬ 
gles. Where, however, there is neither cough nor fever, 
but one nostril, and that the left, affected, the dis¬ 
charge lighter in color, and almost with small circular 
ulcers, having abrupt and prominent edges, there can 
be no second opinion on the subject. 

But we caution the inexperienced examiner not to 


47 











73 ^ 


HORSE. 


mistake the orifice of the nasal duct, which is situ¬ 
ated in the inner side, just within the nostril on the 
continuation of the common skin of the muz¬ 
zle, and which conveys the tears from the eye 
into the nose, for an ulcer; and warn him, in all 
suspicious cases, to be careful he has no chaps or sore 
places on his head or face, as this dreadful disease is 
unquestionably communicable to the human being. 
As few persons will buy a horse with any symptoms of 
actual disease, however slight, if they can help it, the 
inquiry is better left to a professional man in case any 
of these symptoms make their appearance after pur¬ 
chase. 

Crest, Skin, Teeth and Eyes. His crest should 
feel hard and full, and firmly and closely attached to 
his neck; if it be lax, he is out of condition. His 
skin should feel kind and look glossy, and the mus¬ 
cles of the body feel hard and spong>' to the touch. 
In the old horse the head grows lean and fine, and 
the features more striking and blood-like, the neck 
fine, withers short, and the back sinks; the lips ex¬ 
hibit a lean and shriveled appearance, and the lower 
lip hangs considerably below the upper. In youth 
they are round and plump, and meet together, and 
the ridges of the roof of the mouth will be found 
prominent. In age, the middle of the nose will some¬ 
times be found indented by the long-continued 
pressure of the nose-band of the head-stall. In lift¬ 
ing his lip, if the incisor teeth shut close, even, and 
perpendicular, he is young. As he grows older, they 
project forward in a horizontal direction, and the un¬ 
der and upper edges do not meet with evenness, the 
upper projecting over the under teeth. The longer 
his teeth are, the gums being dry and shrunk from 
them, the more advanced he is in age. Examine 
the teeth and see that they are sound, strongly set 
and even. 

As to the age, this is readily told by the teeth till 
seven years old, unless they are “bishoped.” It is 
usual for jockeys to call a horse eight when he is all 
the way from ten to twenty, but an adept can give a 
pretty shrewd guess as to this, for after ten years old 
the eyes begin to sink, gray hairs come into the head 
and there is a want of youthful look and vivacity. 

If there are any marks of extraordinary wear in the 
central teeth there is reason to suspect crib-biting, 
and in old cribbers the outer edge of the front teeth 
are worn away, and little pieces are sometimes broken 
off by the attrition against the manger; if such is the 
case, look to the neck for marks of the “crib-biting 
strap.” 

Now look at his eyes and make a motion with your 
hand toward them, as if you intended to strike. If 
he winks quickly, or draws the head back, the vision 
may be depended on generally as good, and no blind¬ 
ness in him. The eyes should be moderately prom¬ 
inent. Sunken eyes are apt to get blind as the horse 
grows old, and often characterize a vicious temper. 

Thick Wind, Roar mg, etc. The thick-winded 
horse breathes with difficulty, and is soon distressed. 
The flanks heave much and rapidly; there is some 


little noise, but the laborious heaving of the flank is 
the principal indication. A horse unused to exer¬ 
cise, or if fat, or exercised on a full stomach, will 
show symptoms of thick wind; and it has been ob¬ 
served of great feeders, who never breathe freely 
until they have gone a mile or two, or begin to sweat, 
that they are able to do more work than others that 
do more labor under the same difficulty. 

Avoid all defects of wind, and be sure the defect 
has not been temporarily covered up. A whistler or 
roarer may exhibit no indications of his infirmity at a 
slow pace, or up to a certain speed. Let him go 
beyond that and it is readily apparent. Broken wind 
is an incurable infirmity. A horse may make iiioreor 
less noise and not have broken wind, yet such indica¬ 
tions should be regarded with suspicion. He then 
should be tried by a brushing gallop. 

The only other simple and practical plan to get at 
the state of the breathing is the common way of 
making the horse cough, which, if gross and accom¬ 
panied by a short groan, is conclusive, and the char¬ 
acteristic grunt when alarmed is not to be misunder¬ 
stood. But the cough is not always marked, and 
therefore, as a test, infallible. If, then, there is any cause 
for doubt and suspicion, it is better to call in a profes¬ 
sional man, more especially as the slighter affections 
are apt suddenly to terminate in the greater, without 
much warning, in a very short time. 

Look for Exterfial Blemishes. We now proceed to 
search for blemishes and those indications of unsound¬ 
ness, which are apparent to external examination, 
bearing in mind any symptoms or suspicious appear¬ 
ances in his action, that may lead us to suspect par¬ 
ticular parts, which should then be subjected to the 
severest scrutiny. Any scars about the head should 
direct attention to the knees, or they may lead one 
to suspect there may have been an attack of megrims 
or staggers. 

The neck should be searched to ascertain that both 
jugular veins are perfect, which is discovered by press¬ 
ing on the lower part of the neck, with sufficient force 
to stop the return of blood from the head; if the vein 
be perfect it will fill and swell from that point upward 
toward the head. The loss of one of them, if recent, 
predisposes the horse to staggers or apoplexy, and 
he cannot be turned out to grass or straw yard with¬ 
out risk. The withers should be examined for bruises 
from the saddle, as he is unserviceable as long as heat 
or swelling continues. 

The slightest tendency to sore back makes a horse 
unserviceable for many months, and not unfrequently 
causes him to rear and plunge on mounting. The 
shoulders should be examined for tumors. If there 
are any marks of setons or blisters about the jxiints, 
it is probable he has been treated for shoulder lame¬ 
ness, and the attention of the examiner will be 
directed to the foot, which, ninety-nine times out of a 
hundred, is the seat of lameness before. If that is 
found round and strong, with the heels high, we may 
suspect navicular disease. 

The chest and breast should also be searched for 


















HORSE. 


737 


marks of rowels, setons and blisters, for the remains 
of them render it probable that the horse has been 
under treatment for inflamed lungs or chest affections, 
and should in prudence direct the purchaser to ascer¬ 
tain by a smart gallop whether the mischief is of a 
permanent nature, more especially if the horse is nar- 
now-chested. 

Examination of the Legs. Look at his fore legs and 
notice if he has strong knee joints, and that they are 
not sprung. Examine the hind legs closely above 
and below the hocks for any swellings, and especially 
for curbs and spavins. Now look at all the pastern 
joints and see if clear of cuts from interfering, or if 
there are any scars on them in consequence of 
this. The pastern should be rather short for a car¬ 
riage-horse, and not much sloping. If the latter are 
long and elastic, they are apt to give out at a hard 
pull. In a race-horse such pasterns are less objec¬ 
tionable. In a heavy draft animal they are un¬ 
pardonable. 

In inspecting the leg, the eye alone should not be 
trusted, particularly in hairy-legged horses; but after 
minutely comparing the appearance of the two limbs, 
the hand should be deliberately passed down both 
shanks before and behind; any difference, before or 
behind, points to a deviation from health. 

In the sound, flat limb the tendon is well defined, 
perfectly distinct, and has a hard, tense feel that re¬ 
sembles the touch of a cord tightly strung. If the 
back sinews feel thick, the flexor tendons and their 
sheaths swelled and rounded, leaving no distinctive 
marks, as it were, between the one and the other, but 
all swelled into one mass with the bone, great mis¬ 
chief has at some time happened; either some of the 
ligaments have been ruptured, or there has been in¬ 
flammation, effusion and adhesion of the vaginal 
bursae or synovial sheaths of the flexor tendons; or 
such relaxation has taken place from strain and sub¬ 
sequent inflammation as will always keep him weak. 
When the injury is recent, it is accompanied with 
more or less swelling, heat and lameness; by time 
and treatment the first are removed, but the swelling 
remains, and the thickening of the tendons shows the 
mischief that has been done. Whenever there is 
manifest alteration of structure here, and yet the 
animal is apparently sound in action, the purchaser 
should bear in mind that the soundness is often the 
effect of rest, and should the animal be again put to 
work he will become lame. And bear in mind in 
such case you cannot return him, for no man in his 
senses would give a special warranty against it. 

Every excrescence on the cannon bone, in horse¬ 
man’s language is termed a splint. The true splint 
is in fact a local conversion into bone of a part of the 
temporary cartilage connecting together the large 
and small metacarpal bones. The inflammation is 
set up by concussion or strain. Horses are lame 
from them while there is inflammation in the cartil¬ 
age. But when the tumor is formed, the inflam¬ 
mation has subsided, and the periosteum has 
accommodated itself to the enlargement, the horse is 


no longer lame, nor more likely to become lame from 
that splint than one without; the same causes that 
produced the first may produce a second. 

The splint, if so large as to interfere with action, 
rendering the horse liable to strike, is objectionable, 
or so near the knee or ligaments as to interfere with 
their freedom of action; otherwise they are of very 
little consequence beyond the blemish destroying the 
line of beauty. The worst splints are those not dis¬ 
cernible but by the lameness they produce. 

Any marks of firing or blistering should make the 
purchaser cautious, and endeavor to ascertain the 
cause of the treatment; after blistering, the hair is 
sometimes a shade different in color, and stares a 
little, is shorter and bristly, and wants the natural 
gloss. 

The fetlock joint from being the principal seat of 
motion below the knee, and from its complicated 
structure, is particularly subject to injuries. The fet¬ 
lock should be subjected to the strictest examination 
for enlargements, which are best ascertained by care¬ 
fully comparing them with each other, as any differ¬ 
ence in size is indicative of strained or even ruptured 
ligaments, and consequently permanent weakness of 
that important part. If the injury is recent, there 
probably will be heat, and pain on pressure; and any 
signs of blistering or other treatment, though no en¬ 
largement or lameness is apparent, should induce the 
buyer to view the animal with the utmost suspicion. 

If there are any sore or callous places about the 
fetlocks or pasterns, he is a cutter, and possibly the 
marks of the foot may be visible. If there is no mal¬ 
formation to account for it, it may have been done 
when fatigued or it may have arisen from improper 
shoeing; his feet should then be examined. 

If an old offense, he may probably have a peculiar 
shoe, rather' thicker and narrower in the web on the 
inside than the outside, and nailed only on the out¬ 
side of the foot and around the toe; or the opposite 
shoe is found filed away or beveled off, with the hoof 
projecting a little over the shoe. Where the feet, 
though well formed, are placed closer than desirable 
in narrow-chested liorses, and therefore apt to cut, 
particularly when tired, we sometimes find a shoe is 
adopted thinner on the inside than the outside. 

At other times various ingenious devices, calcu¬ 
lated rather to increase than remedy the evil, have 
been resorted to, such as putting on shoes narrower 
on the inside, and set within the crust, and the wall 
of the quarters reduced in thickness by the rasp. If 
none of these schemes have been resorted to, to ob¬ 
viate the defect, the horn of the op^xjsite foot will 
sometimes be found polished by the attrition; for it is 
not the shoe that cuts once in a hundred times, but 
the hoof. In horses that interfere, we generally find 
the inside quarter lower than the outer, or the toes 
turned outwards, the fault being in the leg that re¬ 
ceives the mischief while sustaining the weight, not 
in the foot that gives the blow. The tired horse 
throws his legs about, and frequently cuts himself; 
and it is the fault of most young, uneducated horses. 












738 


HORSE. 


especially if they have been backed or inconsiderately 
worked too early. 

The pastern is the seat of a bony tumor termed ring¬ 
bone. It is the result of inflammation and partial 
conversion into bone of that portion of the cartilages 
of the foot which rise above and nearly encircle the 
coronet. These cartilages, extending backward con¬ 
siderably beyond the coffin-bone, form the elastic 
frame of the posterior parts of the foot; they here 
take on the name of the lateral cartilages. When 
once ossified, inflammation is set up in this part; 
from its tendency to spread around tire pastern joint, 
it has taken its name of ring-bone. Upon the in¬ 
tegrity of these parts depend the elasticity and con¬ 
sequent usefulness of the foot. However triflng the 
apparent alteration of structure, it is a serious detrac¬ 
tion from the efficiency of a hack; though on soft 
ground, at a slow pace, the draft horse will work ap¬ 
parently sound. 

The feet are often passed over, but a thorough 
examination of these is of the utmost importance. 
They should be reasonably large, the hoofs clear and 
tough, free from cracks, not shelly, and well set up at 
the heels; otherwise they will soon wear down on 
pavements or hard roads, and the horse become 
foot-sore. If always to be kept in the country to work 
on a farm or dirt roads, low heels are not so objection¬ 
able ; lastly, regard the inside of the hoofs and see 
that they are free from corns, and that there is a good- 
sized frog to soften the jar to the leg when the foot 
stamps on the ground. 

The best way of judging whether there is any mal¬ 
formation of the feet, either natural or the result of 
disease, is to front the horse and compare the two feet 
together. Small feet are objectionable, and so a very 
large foot that is disproportionate to his size is to be 
avoided. 

Its wall should be round, smooth, level and of a 
shining dark color; full in front, of a proper obliquity, 
and free from ribs or seams, and perfectly cool. Its 
proper obliquity ought to be at an angle of 45° with 
the plane of the shoe. If the angle is materially less, 
the sole is flat, or perhaps convex; if the angle ex¬ 
ceeds it, the foot is contracted. 

When the outward line or profile of the hoof is 
irregular, it marks what is called a “shelly foot.” This 
is decidedly bad. If there are any protuberances or 
rings around it, they indicate that the feet have been 
affected with fever to such a degree as to produce an 
unequal growth of horn, which frequently leaves some 
injurious consequences in the internal part of the 
hoof, such as a deposition of lymph between the horny 
and cartilaginous processes, which connect the foot 
and hoof together. If there is any depression or hol¬ 
low it betrays separation of the foot from the hoof, 
and sinking of the coffin bone, and the sole will be 
found bulging. 

No man should trust to a superficial judgment of 
the foot, for though he may see the form and shape 
of the foot to be promising, yet there are other things 
to be considered. It may be well formed, yet thin 


and weak; and those feet, externally the most perfect, 
are sometimes contracted internally, and are liable to 
the insidious affection termed navicular, or joint cap¬ 
sular disease. Contraction is a serious defect; it is 
apparent and general, or occult (hidden) and partial. 
But, though a contracted foot is often an indication 
of past disease, and there is a diminution of elasticity, 
it by no means follows that it is an unsound ness, or 
incapacitates a horse from work. With care such 
feet will work soundly to the end of their lives; for 
this change in shape has been effected by gradual and 
slow absorption and deposit; so that nature has had 
time to adapt the internal parts and accommodate 
itself to the change, for elongation of the foot has 
taken place. When such feet feel hotter than ordin¬ 
ary, distrust should be awakened, more especially if 
there is a marked difference between the temperature 
of one and the other. If there is indisputable point¬ 
ing, then the horse is unsound. 

The inner quarter hoof must be most minutely 
inspected for sand-crack; and it is not always easy, 
without minute scrutiny, to detect a sand-crack, 
where an attempt has been made to conceal it. A 
month’s run in marshy ground will often close it up, 
and low dealers, particularly at fairs and markets, 
and others who gain a livelihood by dealing in 
“ screws,” have a knack of neatly covering the crack 
with pitch, and the foot oiled, so as adroitly to conceal 
the crack. Any oily appearance about the hcof should 
excite suspicion, and any fissure at all resembling 
sand-crack should cause the horse to be peremptorily 
rejected. Cracks indicate a dry and brittle hoof. 
The heels should be examined for any cracks, or ap¬ 
pearance of heat and tenderness, as they are exceed¬ 
ingly troublesome to cure. 

The frog, in its healthy state, must be firm yet 
pliable and elastic. If there is any smell, or if on 
squeezing the frog matter exudes, there is a thrush. 
By many people thrushes are considered of little im¬ 
portance ; but the pus proves there must have been 
inflammation; and knowing that when a horse with 
a thrush steps on a stone, he frequently drops with 
the pain as if he was shot, to the peril of his rider 
and the ruin of his knees, it must be admitted they 
are serious objections in a saddle-horse. If it can be 
ascertained that they are not of long standing, or that 
the horse has been placed in a situation so as to favor 
their approach, such as confinement in a hot, moist 
litter, they are of no more consequence than so much 
diminution in his price will cover the expense of keep 
and attendance while healing; but when a thrush ac¬ 
companies a foot smaller than usual, the heels wind 
in, and the frog is rotten, let him go as he will, he will 
not long remain sound. 

The sole of the foot should be subject to close 
examination. In its healthy and natural state it is 
inclined to be concave; but if in connection with high 
heels an extraordinary concavity is present, it is a 
sign of internal contraction; if the sole is morbidly 
thick, and does not give way during great exertion, 
the elasticity of the foot must be diminished. If the 










HORSE. 


739 


sole is less concave than natural, or approaching to 
flat, the foot is weak. 

If the foot appears to have been cut unusually deep 
at the angles where the shoe meets the inside heel, or 
if there is any peculiarity of shoeing at that part, the 
examiner may infer that all is not right, and that he 
has corns; and if he waits for the proof, send for the 
farrier to remove the shoe. The stifle is very rarely 
diseased, but it should be examined for enlargement or 
any marks of firing or blistering ; and the groin should 
not be overlooked for rupture. 

The hock is one of the most imix)rtant joints in the 
animal machine, and should always undergo a most 
rigid examination previous to purchase, as from its 
complicated structure, and the work it has to perform, 
it is' the seat of lameness behind in nine cases out of 
ten. 

When standing behind the horse, if one of the 
hocks is diseased, the observer will perceive the bone 
does not incline gradually, as in the sound limb, but 
there is an abrupt prominence. Though to the 
impracticed eye this is not always perceptible on com¬ 
paring them, yet by passing the hand down the inside 
of both hocks this abruptness will be felt. If there is 
any tenderness or heat on pressure, or the marks of 
recent cutting on the inside of the fetlock, or unequal 
wear of the shoes, especially at the toe, you may sus¬ 
pect spavin. Sometimes both hocks present an 
enlarged appearance, though there is neither heat, 
pain nor lameness (for hock lameness is frequently 
intermittent); such hocks should always be looked 
ujxjn with suspicion; they are, in fact, unsound; for 
though the animal may, with natural malformation or 
exosteal growth, the result of disease, discharge his 
usual functions through life without a return of lame¬ 
ness in careful hands, yet the probability is he will 
fail if called uix)n for any unusual exertion, and that 
one day’s extra work will ruin him forever. In this 
case the examiner must be guided by circumstances; 
if the horse has excellencies which counterbalance 
the defect, the price is correspondingly low, and if the 
work required is but moderate, he may be serviceable 
for many a year. 

Curb. Curb is a longitudinal swelling at the back 
of the hind leg, three or four inches below the hock, 
seen best from the horse’s side; the enlargement is 
the result of a sudden strain of the annular ligaments, 
or inflammation of the sheaths of the tendon. It is 
attended with a good deal of lameness and swelling 
at first, but when this has subsided, and if any time 
has elapsed without a recurrence of the lameness, it 
is of no more consequence than the unsightly blemish; 
but it should be remembered that curby hocks are 
liable to spavin. 

Thoroughpin is situated above the hock joint, be¬ 
tween the flexors of the hock and foot, projecting on 
each side; it is of the same nature as wind-galls, 
being an enlarged mucous capsule, and is indicative of 
severe work or over-exertion. 

Bog or Blood Spavin, is a swelling situated in 
front of the hock, towards the middle of the joint; it 


is also an enlarged mucous capsule, but deeper seated, 
over which one of the subcutaneous veins passing, 
the blood in which becoming obstructed in the return, 
increases the size of the tumor. 

Back. If he backs with difficulty, his hind quarters 
swaying from side to side, and when compelled to 
retrograde suddenly he appears as if about to fall, he 
has received some injury. Some horses cannot be 
trade to back, but when urged, rear on their hind 
legs. His loins should be searched for marks of 
setons, or blisters. Among stable-men it is termed 
“chinked in the chine,” or rigged in the hock. 

If the tail lifts hard and stiff, it is usually an evi¬ 
dence of a strong back and quarters. If it lifts quite 
limber and easily, the reverse is apt to be the case. 

Examination of the Eyes. The horse should now 
be returned to the stable for the purpose of examining 
his eyes, the most favorable position for which is 
about half a foot within the stable door. There 
should be no back or side lights, or the rays, falling 
between the examiner and the animal, will prevent 
him seeing distinctly. The head should be so placed 
that a moderate light should fall on the eye of the 
horse, and the quantity of light can be easily regulated 
by bringing the horse’s head more or less forward, 
until it is placed in the most favorable direction for 
observation. 

Though eveiy horseman can detect absolute blind¬ 
ness, yet the eye of the horse is susceptible of so 
many diseases, in which defective vision or partial 
blindness exists in such a form, long before the sight 
is lost, that it requires not only more observation than 
most people imagine, but a person unacquainted with 
its anatomical structure, and the different appearances 
it assumes, cannot perceive it at all. There are cer¬ 
tain forms of the eye, and structural peculiarities, that 
show a constitutional pre-disposition to disease; thus, 
small, sleepy eyes, of a bluish-grey color, or when 
they have a flat, retracted and sunken appearance, or 
those of a longish, oval figure, are predisposed to 
ophthalmia; or when the eyes appear full, with a fleshy 
circle around them. These are all symptoms of badness 
of eye, and are the forerunners of blindness, particu¬ 
larly in the heads of coarse and fleshy horses, with 
heavy countenances, who usually go blind with cata¬ 
racts at seven years old. 

Slight thickenings of the lid or puckering toward 
the inner corner of the eye, a difference in size, a 
cloudiness or dullness of the iris, are several indica¬ 
tions of disease that a purchaser should beware of. 

In examining the eyes, both must have an equal 
degree of light; if any difference is apparent between 
them, one must be diseased. The cornea, or trans¬ 
parent part of the eye, should be perfectly clear. 

Specks are best detected by standing at the 
shoulder; if one is evident, and it can be clearly 
proved to be no more than the effect of accident, no 
importance need be placed on it. But it is impos¬ 
sible to ascertain this; and iherefore the safest course 
is to assume that natural irritability and consequent 
inflammation of the eye is the cause. 






HORSE. 


740 


If there is an excess of tears, it denotes debility, 
and should occasion a more than ordinary scrutiny; 
in fact, all horses with weeping, dull, cloudy eyes, 
should be rejected as unsound. 

It niay be remarked, as a general rule, that all dis¬ 
eases of the eye are incurable. Have nothing to do 
with a horse when the slightest trace of disease of the 
eye is visible, as it is impossible, from a super¬ 
ficial examination, to distinguish between simple 
ophthalmia and inflammation of the conjunctiva, the 
cause of which has been a blow, or the introduction 
of some irritating matter, such as a piece of dirt or 
hay-seed, which is curable by simple means, and the 
specific ophthalmia, as spontaneous affection, which 
ultimately terminates in cataract and blindness. 

Viewed in front, the depths of the eye should be 
looked into; then sidewise, which will assist in ascer¬ 
taining the clearness and absence of specks on or 
within its surface. 

The iris varies very little in color in the horse, 
though it bears some analogy to the color of the skin. 
It is rarely lighter than a hazel, or darker than a 
brown, except in milk-white, cream-colored or pied 
horses, when it is white, and they are termed wall¬ 
eyed. If it is a pale, variegated, cinnamon color, it is 
good. 

It is imix)rtant that the oval shape of the pupil be 
perfect, for if any irregularity or uneveness is per¬ 
ceived, it is a symptom that the organ has received 
partial injury. In looking into the depth of the eye 
through the pupil, in a strong light, it should exhibit 
a lively bluishness; in a moderate light, it should be 
perfectly transparent; if milky or turbid, it is the 
remains of former inflammation, which will probably 
recur. 

In bringing the horse out of the stable to the light, 
if the pupil is large it is a bad sign; by alternately 
shading and admitting light, if it enlarges and lessens 
under its stimulus, it is an infallible sign the eye is 
good. But if the retina is unmovable, the pupil larger 
than natural, and of one invariable size when shaded 
or exposed to intense light, though no disorganization 
is apparent, the eye appearing bright, of a peculiar 
glossy aspect and of a greenish color, the animal is 
blind from the disease termed “ glass-eye ”—a palsy 
of the optic nerve. 

A decided cataract, or opacity of the crystalline 
lens, or its capsule, is easily detected; but when very 
small they may escape observation. It appears as a 
cloudy or pearly-white substance within the pupil 
towards the bottom of the eye. If the pupil be round 
instead of a flat oval, it is an indication of cataract; 
when there is the slightest deep-seated cloudiness, the 
eye should be condemned; but if there is any white 
object before it, such as a white hat, neckcloth, waist¬ 
coat, or wall, the reflection on the cornea produces a 
mark having so much the appearance of a cataract as 
to have misled many an experienced observer. There¬ 
fore, before deciding, hold the crown of a black hat 
against the eye and observe at the same time if the 
mark disappears, which it will, if it is only a reflection. 


The Horse Bought. If your examination has 
proved satisfactory and you decide on purchasing, 
before you part with your money learn something of 
the seller. For, should your bargain not turn out as 
you anticipate, upon further acquaintance, trial, and 
second examination, you will know what chance of 
remedy you have against the vendor. 

The horse, if returned, must of course be in the 
same condition in which he was received, except so 
far as the disease for which he is returned may have 
progressed in the meantime. It is advisable to inquire 
of the seller how he has been accustomed to diet and 
clothe the animal; whether his feet were stopped; 
and the same treatment should be pursued till his 
soundness is ascertained. 

Beware of putting a saddle on a new horse that 
does not fit him; while the question of soundness is 
still doubtful, it is far better to use the saddle he has 
been accustomed to. If his back becomes galled 
while trying him, which is not an unusual occurrence, 
the dealer will olqect to taking him back unless full 
compensation is made—and reasonably so, for he is 
unfitted for sale or for work until it has healed, which 
is not to be effected in a day; and it is also a ix)int 
for calculation, whether he may not chance to fall 
sick while standing in high condition in the stable; 
in which case the dealer would be subjected to heavy 
loss. It is therefore not prudent to remove his shoes, 
or in fact to do anything with the animal which may 
cause doubt or cavil, until you have finally decided 
upon keeping him. 

Guaranty. When a horse is purchased with the 
conditions that he is warranted sound, free from vice, 
or quiet to ride and drive, and of certain age, the 
warranty must either be in writing or given in the 
presence of a third person. To be on the safe side 
and to save future litigation, have a plainly written 
guaranty given you. The following is a simple form 
of warranty; 

$75.00. Chicago, June i, 1882. 

Received of John Chapman seventy-five dollars, for a bay gelding, 
by Lance, warranted five years old, free from vice, sound, and quiet to ride 
and drive. T. L), TRENOR. 

It is imixirtant to observe that the age, freedom 
from vice, quietness to ride and drive should be men¬ 
tioned, because warranty as to soundness alone does 
not include these. Many disputes have arisen as to 
what is legal soundness or unsoundness. A horse is 
considered sound in which there is no disease nor any 
alteration of structure which impairs his natural use¬ 
fulness, and he is unsound if he labors under any dis¬ 
ease, or had any accident that has impaired his 
natural usefulness by an alteration of the structure of 
any part of his body. The term unsoundness does 
not apply to any original defect in the temper of the 
horse, or any deficiency in the strength or power of the 
animal. The principal circumstances which consti¬ 
tute unsoundness, besides the great number of actual 
diseases, are broken knees, which may indicate a 
stumbler, though not always; for any horse may meet 
with an accident, and the knee may now be quite well, 
though it requires great judgment to distinguish in 



































































































































































































































































HORSE. 


743 


this case. Contraction of the foot is sometimes, but 
not always, unsoundness; for it is occasionally natural 
and not a fault. 

The following defects are considered unsoundness ; 
Lameness, through any cause; pumiced foot; sand- 
crack; spavin; splint; thickening of the back sinews 
of the leg; thrush ; ossification of the cartilages of the 
foot; defects or diseases of the eyes ; coughs ; roaring; 
broken wind or any defect of the lungs ; quidding or 
imperfect mastication; crib-biting; biting; kicking. 
Corns are considered as constituting unsoundness, but 
they must be discovered within a short time, say a 
few days of the purchase ; curbs constitute unsound¬ 
ness ; founder is unsoundness whether it produces 
lameness or not; quittor may render the horse per¬ 
manently unsound ; ring-bones and side-bones con¬ 
stitute unsoundness; string-halt; breaking down, even 
though the horse has recovered so as not to go lame ; 
farcy and glanders ; grease and mange; megrims, if 
it can be shown the horse had an attack before the 
sale; cataract however slight; broken knees, when the 
jointisinjured; balking; rearing; shying when habitual; 
weaving in the stable, that is, the horse throwing his 
head and body from side to side with a peculiar mo¬ 
tion. 

Clipping the hair of the horse is practiced but little 
outside of the cities. Even in these centers, where 
horses used for fast driving receive the best of atten¬ 
tion, many contend that it is cruel, others claim that 
when the horse is humanely treated, when he is driven 
from one warm stable to another, and is never sub¬ 
jected to stoppage. under uninclosed sheds or in the 
open air, undoubtedly clipping him in the winter 
season, when he is devoted to fast work, is a decided 
benefit. Under other circumstances, there are so 
many benefits and so many injuries, pro and con, that 
clipping will forever remain a debatable practice, on 
the ground of preponderating cruelties and abuses. 
The objections become less potent as we consider the 
turf horse. He is the object of more tender nursing 
and more scientific care. Clipping the turf horse, 
therefore, is attended with the least ^xissible amount 
of abuse. He is provided with a warm box and a 
multiplicity of comfortable blankets, that buckle closely 
about his throat, chest, body and limbs. He is never 
tied after a severe drive, particularly in winter, in 
front of club houses, ex^xised to cold winds, provoca¬ 
tive of congestion, that terminates either in founder, 
or lung fever, or inflammation of the stomach, bowels, 
or kidneys, as the constitutional weakness or the sys¬ 
tem may locally determine. But his winter work, 
whether it be fast or jogging, is begun and ended with¬ 
out intermission, and his treatment is indicated by ex¬ 
treme anxiety to prevent any injurious results. 

The mere operation of clipping is as painless as 
that of cutting the human hair. Some horses are ex¬ 
ceedingly restive during the process, simply because 
of the tickling sensation to their more susceptible 
nervous organization. 

Necessarily, in clipping horses, machines for that 


purpose had to be improvised. There are now in the 



Fig. 29. —Power Horse Clipper. 


market clipp i n g m a- 
chines of many patterns 
and for any use desired. 
We here illustrate some 
of the best make, and 
speak of their leading 
features. 

The principal features 
of the clipper represent¬ 
ed by Fig. 31 are the 


double set of teeth, self-sharpening and visible plates. 



Fig. 30. —Handle 0/Power Horse Clipper. 

the arch spring pressing the plates firmly together. 

The Power Horse Clip¬ 
per has vibrating cutters, 
and the power is conveyed 
from the balance arm to the 
handle by a belt. It also 
has the advantage of being 
noiseless. 

Fig. 30 represents the 
handle of the “ Power Horse 
Clipper ” with rotary cutters 
complete. 

Fig- 33 is a representa¬ 
tion of a pair of clipping 
shears with leather-covered 
handles. They are a use¬ 
ful and necessary article in 
clipping the horse. 

Another necessary, or at 
least very convenient arti- 
Fig -ix.-Horse Clipper. cle in dipping horses, is the 
circular comb, illustrated by Fig. 32. 

Clipping may be done, however, with a comb and 
two or three pairs of variously curved scissors and a 
singeing lamp, which must be used at least to re¬ 
move any loose hairs which may have escaped the 
blades of the scissors. Two men generally work to¬ 
gether, so as to get the operation over in from 16 to 
20 hours, which time it will take to clip the average¬ 
sized horse properly. While the process is going on, 
the horse ought to be clothed as far as possible, care¬ 
ful men removing only so much of the quarter piece 
as is sufficient to exjxise the part they are working at, 
and no more. 


















744 


HORSE. 


After the removal of a long coat of hair, the animal 
must not be kept standing out of 
doors, even blanketed, and extra 
protection in-doors should be giv¬ 
en. In trimming, the jaws, nos¬ 
trils and ears can be singed with 
a small lamp. The tail should be 
carefully combed out and great 
care taken in its trimming, for the 
tail and mane are two great ob¬ 
jects of admiration in the horse. 

The process of clipping should 
certainly be discouraged among 
farmers. Horses tliat are driven 
to town and left to stand for hours 
sometimes, should never be rob- 3^—Circular Comb. 
bed of the protection given by nature. It is only in 
cities where careful and conscientious grooms have 
constant care of the animal it should be practiced. 

Trimming. Some degree of trimming is generally 
necessary to all horses required to look well, and great 
care should be observed in the operation when carried 
to any great degree, especially when 
trimming the hairs on the nostrils, 
jaws and ears. These may be 
singed, but the nostrils must not be 
touched inside, as the internal hairs 
are clearly a protection of the deli¬ 
cate lining membrane of the ear 
from the cold and wet. The long 
bristles of the nostrils may either 
be cut off, pulled out, or singed off, 
but the first plan is the easiest and 
the most humane. There are, also, 
some bristles about the eyes which 
are generally removed, but it is 
very doubtful whether many an 
eye would not be saved from a 
blow in the dark if they were left 
untouched. The hair which grows 
an inch or more in length beneath 
the jaw, being of the same nature 
as the rest of the coat, can only be 
singed off with advantage, and it 
should be done as fast as it grows, 
especially if the singeing is not 

Fig. zz.— Clipping universal, or there will be a differ- 
Skears. Golor presented in these parts. 

Nothing gives a horse such a low-bred appearance as 
a goat-like beard; and the trimming of this part alone 
will completely alter the character of the animal, 
where the hair has been at all long. 

^ The legs are trimmed partly by singeing, and partly 
either by clipping or pulling out the hairs. Great 
dexterity is required to manage this performance in a 
workmanlike manner, so as to avoid the stale and 
post-like appearance which is presented by a leg clip¬ 
ped all over (without a corresponding clipping of the 
body), and at the same time to remove all, or nearly 
all, the superfluous hair. In the summer an undipped 




leg is totally inadmissible, and even from the legs of 
a badly bred horse the hair may be pulled by grad¬ 
ually working at it for a little time every day with the 
fingers, armed with powdered resin. This prevents 
the hair slipping through them, and by its aid such a 
firm hold may be obtained that, as we said before, 
■perseverance will enable the groom to clear the legs 
entirely, with the exception, generally, of a strong lock 
of hair behind the pastern. When this is very obsti¬ 
nate, it is allowable to use the scissors to clear away 
the hair below the horny growth which is found there; 
but there should always be left a slight fringe round 
this, so as to avoid the sharp and stiff outline pre¬ 
sented by the clipped leg. In the winter, the arms 
and backs of the knees, as well as the breast and the 
insides of the quarters, will generally want singeing, 
whether the body is submitted to the lamp or not; 
but in the summer, even if any long hairs are left 
there, they are easily removed by the hand armed 
with resin. Unless general clipping or singeing is 
practiced, the front surfaces of the legs do not require 
trimming at any season of the year. 

The mane is not now usually cut, but formerly it 
was a very common practice to “ hog ” it, that is, to 
cut it to a sharp-pointed ridge, sticking straight up¬ 
wards from the crest, and giving that part the appear¬ 
ance of extraordinary height. Sometimes, however, 
the mane is very thick, and then, for the sake of 
appearances, it is necessary to thin it, which is done 
by twisting a small lock at a time round the comb, 
and pulling it out; this gives some little pain, but 
apparently not much, and evidently not more than 
the trimming of the legs, and not so much as in pull¬ 
ing out the feelers or bristles growing out from the 
nostrils. A small lock of mane is generally cut just 
behind the ears where the head of the bridle rests, as 
it would otherwise lie beneath that part in an untidy 
manner. 

In trimming the tail, various methods are adopted, 
when it is cut square; for if the hairs are allowed to 
grow to the full length, no interference is necessary 
beyond an occasional clipping of their points to pre¬ 
vent them from breaking or splitting. A square tail, 
however, whether long or short, demands the careful 
use of the scissors or knife, without which the horse 
to which it belongs is sadly disfigured. Two modes 
are practiced : in the first, the tail is carefully combed 
out, and then, allowing it to fall in its natural position, 
it is gathered up in the hand just above the part to 
be cut off, and here a sharp knife is drawn across it 
backwards and forwards, without notching it, till it 
passes clean through. The tail is then released, and 
any loose hairs projecting are removed with the scis¬ 
sors. The second mode is not so easy, but when well 
carried out is more satisfactory to the eye, inasmuch 
as it is capable of giving a sharper and more defined 
edge to the square tail. As in the first method, the 
tail IS carefully combed out; it is then held by an 
assistant’s hand, placed beneath the root of the dock, 
p nearly as may be in the ^xisition which it assumes 
in the animal out of doors. While thus jx)ised, the 








































HORSE. 


745 


operator takes a pair of sharp scissors, and holding 
the blades horizontally open, he insinuates one of 
them through the middle of the tail at the place to be 
cut, passing it straight backwards, and cutting the 
hair quite level from the central line to the outside on 
his own left. Then, reversing the blades, and keep¬ 
ing to the same level, he cuts towards the right, and 
if he has a good eye, and can use his hands in accord¬ 
ance with its dictates, he will have presented a very 
prettily squared tail. On the other hand, if these 
organs are defective, or if he wants experience, he 
will have notched the end of the tail in a most un¬ 
sightly manner. For the mode of docking the tail see 
Docking, page 304. 

'I'o make the mane lie smoothly on its proper side, 
which it sometimes obstinately refuses to do, it must 
be plaited in small locks, and the ends loaded with 
lead, if it cannot be made to lie down without. An 
experienced groom, however, will generally succeed in 
so managing the plaits that they lie close to the neck, 
which is all that can be effected by the aid of lead, 
but sometimes the hair is so obstinate that nothing 
else will effect the object in view. 

Docking. For the mode of performing this opera¬ 
tion see the article Dock. 

Shoeing. The varied uses to which the horse has 
been subjected since taken from a wild condition, 
and the willing and cheerful manner with which he 
has undergone fatigue and performed duties which are, 
one would think, quite foreign to his nature, have cer¬ 
tainly all been owing to his combined and unequal 
quality of strength, courage, speed, fidelity and obe¬ 
dience, as well as docility'; and, though his great 
value has mainly depended upon a just disposition of 
these, yet it cannot be doubted that to the presence 
of a wonderfully contrived foot, the horse largely 
owes his exalted position over all those creatures which 
have submitted themselves to domestication and 
toil for the human species. It may be said that with 
the horse in a state of nature the hoof requires no 
protection, and before paved and hard roads were 
' made, probably no defenses were contrived for the 
protection of the feet of the horse, and the first that 
were made use of appear to have been copied from 
those of his master. A sort of sandals are mentioned 
as occasionally employed by the ancient Greeks, and 
by the Romans as late as Constantine, and these 
were stiffened by plates of iron, and sometimes orna¬ 
mented with the precious metals. The injurious ef¬ 
fects of fastening with thongs have given place in 
modern times to the present method of nailing on 
iron shoes; and Beckman states that the first account 
of the modern horse-shoe occurs in enumerating the 
furniture of the Emperor Leo, of Constantinople; burit 
was not until long afterward that its use became gen¬ 
eral. It was first introduced in England by William 
of Normandy, and of course came to our shores with 
the early pilgrims. 

Even in the most favored countries the usefulness 
of the horse-shoe can be but limited without some 


means of protecting the hoof from undue wear and 
doubtless this fact was soon recognized by the people 
who, at a very early period, trained and employed 
this animal, and who, no doubt, were compelled to 
resort to various devices to protect it from inefficiency 
from this cause. For, with the increasing spread of civ¬ 
ilization, the demands upon the services of the horse 
became more urgent, and the diversities of climate to 
which he was carried, as well as of races which 
resulted, would lead one to suppose that greater wear 
and modification in nature and consistency of the 
hoof would render some kind of defense absolutely 
necessary. 

It is obvious that the horse’s foot was designed to 
meet every natural demand, so far as the weight and 
movements are concerned, but when a heavy load is 
imposed on his back, or attached behind, and when 
he is compelled to travel, particularly over hard roads, 
in all kinds of weather, nature’s arrangements are 
overtaxed, and the wear of the hoof is greater than 
repair. Consequently, art must step in to assist na¬ 
ture. It is a fact, however, that great injury results 
from shoeing. 

The injurious effects of bad shoeing only require to 
be pointed out to excite every endeavor to avoid 
them, and the importance of shoeing is evinced by 
the great pains that have lately been bestowed on 
the subject. There are some circumstances in the 
common practice of country smiths which ought to 
be guarded against by every one who possesses a 
horse likely to come under their hands; but the shoes 
at present made, and their mode of shoeing, are in 
in general nearly always objectionable. 

Many persons are very careless as to the state of 
the horse’s feet and his shoes. The shoes are often 
worn till they drop off in the middle of a journey, 
and time is lost, the foot broken or destroyed, and, 
very likely the horse lamed. If the horse be doing 
little work, perhaps the shoes are left on too long, and 
the horn is suffered to grow so as to accumulate too 
much; then the horse’s action is fettered ; he cannot 
step out; he cannot place his foot firmly on the 
ground, and he is very liable to corns. Hence at 
certain intervals the superfluous horn must be pared 
away; a month is the usual time; some may go five 
weeks. If the heels are weak or the seat of corns, 
the shoes may require removal every three weeks. 

If the shoes of fast workers are not worn at the end 
of a month, the feet should be pared and the old 
shoes replaced. 

Almost all of the myriad diseases of the horses’ foot, 
such as contractions, corns, quarter and toe-crack, 
drop-sole and pumice-foot, thrush, bent-knee, inter¬ 
fering, stumbling, etc., are caused by indolent and 
ignorant shoeing. The frog and sole are soft and 
cheesy, and yield readily to the blacksmith’s knife, • 
leaving a clean, white surface ; hence they are whit¬ 
tled and shaped without reference to the divine pur- 
[X>se in their location and form. 

The part of the hoof which suffers most from un¬ 
due wear, is that which was intended to encounter it. 













746 


HORSE. 


the wall; and when this is too much worn the sole 
becomes broken around its margin and sensitive 
parts within wounded and contused. I'lierefore, all 
that the hoof requires, in order to enable the horse 
to remain serviceable, is merely some kind of protec¬ 
tion for the lower border of the wall; but this protec¬ 
tion should not be heavy, else the muscles which 
were destined to move a marvelously light foot will be 
unduly strained, as will also tendons and ligaments; 
for the muscles (the moving power of the limb) are 
all situated at the upper part of the leg and act upon 
short levers, the mechanical means being designed 
rather for speed than strength. This protection must 
be durable; it should not damage or interfere with the 
functions of the foot, but allow every part to perform 
its office unimpaired; it ought to be easily applied, and 
secure when attached to the foot; it should not render 
the animal less sure-footed, if possible, than before it 
was applied; and finally itoughttobe simple and cheap. 

The preparation of the foot for the shoe is a subject 
of much moment. It is, of course, commenced by 
pulling off the old shoe. It is better not to take more 
than one off at a time ; otherwise the horse is apt to 
break away the edges of the horn while standing on the 
bare ground or pavement. In removing the old shoes 
which were fastened by nails clinched, great care 
should be taken by the smith to raise the clinches 
thoroughly, or file them off, until the shoe can be taken 
off easily, instead of wrenching them off with violence, 
as is sometimes done, by which the nail holes are en¬ 
larged, and the future hold weakened by portions of 
the crust being detached; and the horse shows by his 
flinching how much he suffers by this violent operation. 

When the foot is tender, or the horse to is be exam¬ 
ined for lameness, each nail should be partly punched 
out, and care should be taken that no stubs remain in 
the crust, the source of future annoyance. Next, the 
rough edges of the crust should be rasped, which 
prevents its breaking away when set down, and also 
detects any stubs of old nails left behind, and re¬ 
moves loose portions that would hold gravel, either 
of which might turn the nail that may be introduced. 
The whole thickness of the crust, be it more or less, 
ought to be left perfectly flat for the bearing of the 
shoe. Habit, and a correct eye, can detect any in¬ 
equalities in this surface, without a momentary appli¬ 
cation of the heated shoe to try the bearing parts, as 
is usually done, and which, if the shoe be also 
previously tried with a plain iron, may very well be 
avoided. Nevertheless, the outcry raised against 
this practice is, in a great measure, unnecessary; for, 
unless the shoe be very hot, and held on too long, no 
harm probably results from its application. In com¬ 
mon rough shoeing, also, this error is infinitely less than 
the application of the unequal pressure, which it is in¬ 
tended to prevent, would prove. 

Some claim that the portion of sole between the 
bars and quarters should be always pared out; and, 
if properly done, is the surest preventive against 
corns. The heels should be an object of great atten¬ 
tion, and ought to be carefully reduced to the general 


level of position which it may be supposed the hoof 
was originally placed in, and which may always be 
judged by observing the line of the pasterns with it. 
It is of great consequence that the inner heel should 
not be reduced beyond the outer, for its natural weak¬ 
ness gives it a tendency to increased wear; instead, 
therefore, ofparing both equally, in case the outer is the 
highest, pare only the outer; and moreover set the 
shoe very lightly on the inner heel. A want of atten¬ 
tion to this circumstance of inequality in the heels 
lays the foundation for corns and splints. 

The paring of the insensible frog is an important 
part of the process ; but it is highly improper to cut it 
much away, as is the practice of some smiths, par¬ 
ticularly when employed by dealers to give an appear¬ 
ance of “ opening the heels; ” nor should it be pared 
too much, since it is intended by nature as a resisting 
prop to support the internal parts of the foot from 
pressure ; it ought not, however, to be suffered to pro¬ 
ject too much. The most judicious mode is, instead 
of beginning with the frog, to attend first to the crust, 
sole and heels, and then a mistake in paring the frog 
is less likely to arise; for it may be regarded as a gen¬ 
eral rule, that when the frog is a very little beyond the 
level of the return of the heels and the crust, it is as 
large as it ever ought to be ; and the heels of the shoe 
will raise it up enough for protection against too much 
wear, but will not elevate it against a proper share of 
pressure. With respect to the intermediate portion of 
horny substance that fills up the angles, it should be 
moderately pared out in every instance, for it is the 
seat of corns; and if accidental pressure alight and 
remain there, a corn is the inevitable consequence. If 
even a small particle of gravel should lodge here, each 
step forces it farther; and as soon as it has reached 
the sensible parts, inflammation and suppuration ensue. 

Sometimes, with a view to prevent slipping, two 
projections, or calks, are raised at the ends of the 
branches of the shoe, and these, though they may to 
a trifling extent answer their purpose, nevertheless 
throw the foot and limb into a most unnatural and 
uncomfortable position, the pain and inconvenience of 
which we may realize by walking in very high-heeled 
boots. These mutilations and their consequences are 
quite common, and one can scarcely pass a horse in 
the street without noticing them. Great, clumsy, un¬ 
sightly masses of iron, the weight of which is perfectly 
outrageous, are attached to the feet of horses which 
have to travel sometimes at a rapid pace, carrying or 
drawing heavy loads. This weight is not only injurious 
to the feet, through the strain it imposes on them, but 
is extremely fatiguing to the muscles, so that a large 
portion of the animal’s power is expended in carrying 
about unwieldy clogs of iron. 

The foregoing are only some, not all, of the evils of 
shoeing as commonly practiced, even as late as this, 
the nineteenth century; and it must be confessed that 
they are ve’r>' serious, and sooner or later lead to pain¬ 
ful traveling for the horse, as well as impaired effi¬ 
ciency; and yet this art which the farrier makes so 








HORSE. 


difficult and costly, both directly and indirectly, should 
be neither. 

To shoe a horse properly, if we take observations 
and study of nature’s plans into consideration, is cer¬ 
tainly not a very difficult operation ; and neither need 
it be a very expensive one. The object should be to 
protect the hoof from wear—nothing more; and in 
doing so we ought to maintain the integrity and sound¬ 
ness of the hoof, while we do not overburden or dis¬ 
turb the natural direction of the foot and limb; and as 
a secondarj^ object, we should endeavor to increase 
the animal s foothold on the ground, if possible. The 
first object is attained by leaving the sole, frog and 
bars in their natural condition; for when they have ac¬ 
quired a certain thickness the outer surface falls offin 
flakes and dead horn, so that they never become too 
thick. It is different with the wall, which would grow to 
an indefinite length, because it is not thrown off in flakes 
and the shoe prevents it from being worn. This, 
therefore, every time the horse is shod, has to be re¬ 
duced in length at its lower border to a degree corre¬ 
sponding with the growth which has taken place since 
the previous shoeing. 

The unmutilated hoof only requires as much iron 
as will protect the lower border of its walls, say for a 
month or six weeks, and insure security of foothold, 
nothing more; and all beyond this is loss or injury; 
while, if [wssible, the sole and frog should be allowed 
to play their part. With regard to security of foot¬ 
hold, and adding to the horse’s power in draft, partic¬ 
ularly with those horses which travel at a slow pace 
with heavy loads in our cities, there can be no doubt 
that calks are necessary; but their utility is greatly 
diminished, and they do harm to the limb and joints 
if a toe-piece is not added. 

The horse’s foot is naturally broad at the heel, and 
has a wide elastic frog, intended to take all the jar 
from the foot. If a shoe has a high or projecting 
heel the frog is not allowed to touch the ground, and 
becomes dried and shriveled, the heel contracts and 
pinches the coffin-bone, and the motion of the unsup¬ 
ported bones within the hoof produces ulceration of the 
heels in the form of corns; or acting upon the dead, 
dry, unsupported frog and sole, so that drop-sole or 
pinched foot results. 

Farmers are apt to insist on having their horse’s 
shoes “ put on to stay,” making this point the only 
one insisted uix)n. The rapid growth of the hoof 
soon renders the best shoe unfitted for the foot. Shoes 
for farm horses should be so put on that they will 
stay tight, or nearly so, for five or six weeks, and then 
be taken off and refitted. It causes the expense of 
“ setting ” some five or six times more during the year, 
but saves many a lameness, besides keeping the feet 
always sound. 

On the question of horse-shoeing Professor Slade, 
of the chair of Agricultural Zoology, Harvard Univer¬ 
sity, makes the following observations: 

“ Horse-shoeing, in the estimation of many intelli¬ 
gent people, is invested by certain mysterious princi¬ 
ples, a knowledge of which they have neither the 


747 


courage nor the dis^xisition to acquire. They are be¬ 
wildered by the numerous theories and arguments 
which are advanced for this or that mode of proced¬ 
ure, until they give over the subject in despair, and 
leave it in the hands of those who know even less than 
themselves. This obscurity, however, vanishes, if, 
laying aside all theories, the matter is presented in a 
simple and intelligent manner, based, as it should be, 
upon anatomy and physiology. 

“ Let us consider, in the first place, whether shoe¬ 
ing is necessary in all cases, and if necessary, how it 
shall be done. In the undomesticated condition of the 
horse, the equilibrium between the growth and wear 
of the hoof, which is but a horny appendage to the 
skin, is exactly maintained; but when subjected to 
labor upon hard and stony roads, this balance is de¬ 
stroyed, and the wear exceeds the growth. Hence 
arose the necessity of providing a defense against 
this excessive wear, resulting in the application of a 
metallic rim to the edges of the ground surface of the 
hoof. Such was the origin of the art of the farrier. 
Under certain circumstances, however, as in strictly 
rural districts, upon soft and sandy roads, this excess 
of wear does not occur; and I am persuaded that in 
many cases shoeing might be entirely dispensed with, 
much to the relief of man and beast. Especially 
in the case of a young animal that has never 
been brought to the forge, the feet are eminently 
fitted by nature to a certain amount of hard usage, 
and we but blindly follow a custom when we subject 
him to the constant wearing of shoes. Even during 
the winter months, and upon slippery roads, the un¬ 
shod horse will in most cases do his full share of 
labor, as any one can testify who has had expe¬ 
rience. 

“ The preparation of the hoof for the shoe where 
this last is actually required, is of vastly more imix^rt- 
ance than the particular kind of shoe, and necessi¬ 
tates, first and above all things, the proper leveling of 
the hoof. When the unshod foot comes to the ground 
every part of its surface sustains some of the weight, 
and also undergoes an amount of wear. The mo¬ 
ment, however, that a shoe is applied the weight is 
unequally distributed, especially when armed with 
high calkins, and the growth of the horn exceeds its 
wear, obliging the removal of the shoe at stated 
intervals, and the reduction of the foot to its normal 
condition. 

“ In the young animal, shod for the first time, we 
have the appearance presented by a perfectly normal 
foot, which requires no preparation whatever for the 
proper application of the shoe, beyond slightly lev¬ 
eling with the rasp the ground surface of the outer 
crust. In the case of the horse that has previously 
been shod, it will be found that in the great majority 
of cases the excess of horn which is to be removed 
exists at the toe. The wear at this point is prevented 
by the firm nailing of the shoe, and the consequent 
absence of all attrition ; while at the heels constant 
friction goes on between the two op(X)sing surfaces, 
owing to the non-use of nails, and modifies the growth. 







748 


HORSE. 


The amount of this friction may readily be seen by 
examining the foot surface of any iron shoe that has 
been worn for the usual length of time. In so import¬ 
ant a matter as bringing the foot to a proper level we 
must be governed by certain rules. Any excess of 
growth at the toe renders the pasterns more oblique, 
and consequently throws greater weight upon tendons j 
and ligaments at the ixjsterior portion of the limb, ! 
whereas too great height of heels throws undue vio¬ 
lence uix)n the bones and joints of the extremities. 
Both of these conditions must be guarded against. 
Sufficient accuracy of level may be attained by the 
experienced eye, either in looking across the upturned 
foot, or by viewing it on the ground either from the 
front or at the side of the animal. In this last posi- I 
tion the ground surface of the foot should present a 
level parallel to a line drawn transversely to the direc¬ 
tion of the pasterns, or what, perhaps, may constitute a 
more practical rule to the majority of readers, the sur¬ 
face of the outer rim or crust of horn should be brought 
to a level with the firm, unpared sole. The sole re¬ 
quires no reduction whatever, and should be left un¬ 
touched. Nature provides, by a process of exfoliation, 
for any excess of growth, and it needs no argument 
to convince the unprejudiced that we cannot improve 
upon her plans. Those who advocate the removal 
and paring out of the sole for the purpose of giving a 
supposed elasticity to this part, forget that by so do¬ 
ing they take away the natural defense against injury 
and disease, for which no substitute can be em¬ 
ployed. 

“ The frog is also to be retained in its full integrity, 
re(4uiring neither paring nor cutting, however great the 
temptation to do these may be. The almost universal 
custom of destroying the natural buttresses which ex¬ 
ist at the ix)sterior portions of the foot by cutting deep 
notches in them is as irrational as it is barbarous. No 
process could be devised which would lead more 
speedily or surely to the contraction and consequent 
destruction of all the tissues of this region, than this 
‘opening up of the heels.’ I have never yet met with 
the man who could offer a satisfactory reason for this 
mutilation of the foot. 

“ Rasping the crust of the hoof should never be 
allowed. The removal of the external horny fibers 
expose those beneath to atmospherical influences 
when they are not fitted for such an exposure, where¬ 
by the crust is weakened, rendered brittle, and liable 
to crack. Moreover this process of rasping removes 
the natural external ix)lish which gives such a beauti- 
tiful surface to the healthy foot, and which no substi¬ 
tute in the form of oil or blacking can supply. The 
very existence of such a polish or varnish is ignored 
by many farriers, who mercilessly rasp the entire wall 
and think to conceal their ignorance by giving it a 
coat of some vile compound. 

“Thus it is seen to what a simple and perfectly 
plain operation the preparation of the foot for the shoe 
is reduced, and it is this preparation which, after all, 
constitutes the important part of the science of shoe¬ 
ing. If no mutilation of the foot is practiced, either 


before or after the application of the shoe, it cannot 
be doubted that the organ is in a condition best fitted 
to withstand the amount of labor and strength re¬ 
quired of it. The form and kind of shoe, the fitting, 
the treatment of limbs, etc., are all important, but 
secondary.” 

Many attempts have been made to improve the 
fonn of the shoe, and not entirely without success; 
but it must be observed that no form of this defense 
for the foot can be adopted as a universal pattern; 
and it is only by understanding the anatomy of the 
the foot, and the defects and diseases to which it is 
liable, that the peculiar form can be devised best 
suited to each animal. As a general principle, the 
form of the defense should be adapted to the foot, 
and the foot should not be altered to the shoe; yet, 
in some cases of diseased feet, even this rule admits 
of modification. The foot of an unshod horse expands 
as soon as it is placed upon the ground and has 
received its share of the weight of the body; but when 
such foot is bound within a solid rim of iron firmly 
round the homy crust, the expansion being thus pre¬ 
vented, reaction takes place, and turgescence of the 
blood-vessels, by which heat is evolved, and the horny 
segment so heated contracts its dimensions, and thus 
presses painfully upon the sensitive part, and dis¬ 
organization is the ultimate consequence. To form a 
horse-shoe, therefore, such as will protect the foot 
effectually, while at the same time it is left in full 
possession of its natural elasticity and expansive prop¬ 
erties, has been the aim of many veterinarians and 
many ingenious smiths; but perhaps nothing has yet 
been contrived completely adapted to the natural 
action of the horse’s foot. 

There are many gcx)d shoes in use, and if one can 
not be bought to fit the foot, instead of cutting and 
rasping the foot to fit the shoe, it is best to have it 
made. In doing so, remember the points we have 
mentioned. As a general rule, varying, of course, 
with the rapidity of the growth of the shell, and the 
kind of work required of the horse-shoe, it should be 
re-set after five or six week’s wear. 

Colts should not be shod at all until they come to 
rapid and long-continued hard work on hard roads, 
and then only slightly. Leave the hind feet bare and 
shoe the fore feet with tips that only cover the toe. 

M.-vnagement of Feet. In the stable-horse the 
feet require constant care, for they are not only arti¬ 
ficially shod, but they are allowed to stand on material 
which is a much worse conductor of heat than the 
surface of the earth, by nature designed to bear them. 
Hence, if neglected, they either become hard and 
brittle, or they are allowed to be constantly wet, and 
then the soft covering of the frog is decomixtsed and 
emits a disagreeable smelling discharge, which soon 
wastes it away, leaving no other protection to the 
sensitive organ beneath, and constituting what is 
called an ordinary thrush. It is found by experience 
that not only must the shoes be renewed as they wear 
out, but even if no work is done they no longer fit 














































































































































HORSE. 


751 


at the expiration of about three weeks, and they must 
then be removed to allow of a portion of the sole and 
crust being cut away before they are again put on. 
The groom must therefore attend to the following 
ix)ints: First, to prevent the feet from becoming too 
dry; secondly, to take measures against their becom¬ 
ing thrushy from wet; thirdly, to see that the shoes 
are removed at the end of every three weeks, or more 
frequently, if necessary; and fourthly, examine care¬ 
fully every day that they are securely nailed on with¬ 
out any of the clinches having started up from the 
surface, so as to endanger the other leg. 

Dryness of the feet is prevented by the use of what 
is called stopping, which is composed either of cow- 
dung alone, or cow-dung and clay mixed, or cow-dung 
and pitch. If three parts of cow-dung and one of clay 
are used, the feet may be stopped twice a week. On 
the night before shoeing, every horse will be the better 
for having his feet stopped, the application softening 
the horn so as to allow the smith to use his knife to 
slice it without breaking it into crumbling fragments. 

Thrushes are prevented by keeping the frogs free 
from ragged layers of the elastic substance of which 
they are partly composed, and at the same time main¬ 
taining a dry state of the litter on which the horse 
stands. The grand principle is to prevent thrush 
rather than cure it; but when horses are brought or 
come home from grass with it, the curative method 
must be carried out, which see, under head of 
Thrush, in this article. 

The removal of the shoes at regular intervals, 
whether they are worn out or not, is a most important 
part of the groom. On examining the shape of the 
foot, it will be seen that the diameter of the circle in 
contact with the shoe is greater than that of'the cor¬ 
onet, and hence, as the shoe is forced away from its 
original position by the growth of the horn, it confines 
the walls to the extent of the difference between the 
diameter of the foot at its old position and that of the 
part which it now occupies. For this reason a shoe, 
when it has not been removed at the end of a month, 
will be found to lie within the heel of one side or the 
other, by which to some extent contraction is pre¬ 
vented, but at the expense of the heel, into which the 
corresponding part of the of shoe has entered. This 
is a frequent cause of corns, and horses which have 
once been subject to that disease should have their 
shoes removed once a fortnight. 

Every morning when the feet are picked out it is 
easy to look the shoes over and feel if they are tight. 
The clenches also ought to be examined, and if they 
are not raised at all it may safely be predicted that 
the day’s journey will be completed without the shoe 
being lost. A raised clench may severely cut a horse 
on the inside of the other leg, and in those who are 
predisjxjsed to “ speedy cut” it may cause severe in¬ 
jury, and perhaps cause a fall of the most dangerous 
character. 

General Hints. Match horses with reference to 
size and motion particularly; to color if you can, and 
have the other requisites. 

48 


Always have inside lines on double team quite 
long, and back-strap short. 

Never check a horse if you wish to have him last 
long, except while training. 

Feed in low mangers, water and oats to be given 
first, hay afterward. 

If worked, very little water to be given in the 
night. 

Stop at the top of a hill, and let your horse get 
breath. 

The shoe should fit the foot, not the foot fit the 
shoe. Never cut the bars or frogs. 

Wet the hay and not the oats for a coughing 
horse. 

Never let a horse stand long facing a cold wind. 

Feed light when changing feed. 

When training in a building, have carriages, etc., 
removed. 

Always approach a strange horse near the shoulder. 

Use but a few words with a horse, but have them 
understood. 

Be earnest and prompt, but not harsh. 

Teach before whipping, and when whipping do it 
to frighten, not to enrage. 

Never jump from a wagon when your horse is run¬ 
ning away. More lives and limbs are lost in that way 
than by remaining in the wagon. 

Throw away the blinds. 

Burn the cruel check-rein. 

Warm the bits in frosty weather. 

Protect the head in hot weather with green 
branches. 

Do not strike them when they stumble or scare. 

Do not cut off the tail in fly time, and in muddy, 
wet weather keep it nicely tied as shown by Fig. 34, 



Fig. 34. —Horse Tail Tie. 

which represents a tie manufactured by W. P. Emniert, 
Chicago, Ill. Any one can put it on or take it off 
quickly and without trouble, and the cost is trifling. 

Do not cut the frog of the foot, in shoeing, more 
than possible. 

Change the diet of the horse if you would keep 
him in good condition. 

After work, in the evening, wash your horse’s 
1 shoulders clean with salt water. If farmers commence 









752 


HORSE. 


this practice a couple of weeks before hard work be¬ 
gins in the spring, keeping it up during the first month 
of the spring plowing, their horses will suffer very little 
from sore shoulders if the collars are only half-way 
decent. 

Never startle a horse by striking him suddenly or 
unexpectedly. This caution is specially important if 
he has a blind bridle. 

Uniformly gentle treatment will secure faithful and 
steady work. Anger, severity and sudden jerking en¬ 
danger your harness, your vehicle and your life, be¬ 
sides permanently injuring your horse. 

Wash the inside of the collar frequently with cas- 
tile soap-suds, and when it has thoroughly dried 
gently warm the leather and soak it with oil, so as to 
soften it. But do not allow any oil to remain on the 
surface of the leather unabsorbed. 

Do not be tempted by extra pay to overload your 
team. Overloading occasions blindness, spavin, 
splint, glanders, farcy and other painful and fatal 
disorders, and thus risks the loss of your capital, be¬ 
sides injuring yourself by encouraging a cruel dis¬ 
position. 

See that the harness fits easily in every part, and 
that the shoes are tight and well put on. If there 
are chains connected with any part of the the har¬ 
ness, let them be well covered with soft padded leather 
or fur. 

Let your tones, in addressing the horse, be always 
gentle, soothing and pleasant. Pat him often, and 
encourage every sign of attachment that he gives. 

Curry, rub and clean well and thoroughly, at least 
once every day. The effect is worth half the feed. 
A dirty coat and skin, w^hen the animal is deprived of 
exercise in pasture and of rolling on the grass, can¬ 
not fail to produce disease. 

In hot w'eather, keep a w'et sponge on the head of 
the horse or mule; cool the mouth and face with wet 
sponges; furnish drinking water often, and sponge 
the legs and such parts as are liable to chafe by per¬ 
spiration or otherwise; drive slowly, and lessen the 
weight usually imposed in cooler weather; see that 
the harness is not unnecessarily cumbersome and 
heavy; the discomfort may be materially relieved by 
taking off the eye-blinds, which are useless append¬ 
ages, and cause much annoyance to the animal. 

In icy weatlier keep your animal sharp shod, re¬ 
newing the sharpening as often as the shoes become 
blunt. A few dollars expended in this way will un¬ 
doubtedly save your horse from serious injury, and 
perhaps from loss of life. 

Standing on fermenting manure softens the hoof, 
produces thrush and brings on lameness. Keep the 
litter dry and clean, and cleanse the stall thoroughly 
every morning. 

Sharp bits make the mouth tender at first, and 
afterwards callous so that the horse becomes un¬ 
manageable. 

If your horse kicks and plunges on mounting, look 
to the stuffing of your saddle, and see if it has become 
hard and knotty with use. 


Keep your wheels well greased, and thus reduce 
the labor of drawing the load. 

Keep the feet well brushed out, and examine every 
night to see if there is any stone or dirt between the 
hoof and the shoe. Change the shoe as often as 
once a month. 

Disease or wounds in the leet or legs soon become 
dangerous if neglected. 

When a horse is fatigued and hot from labor, walk 
him about till cool; groom him quite dry, first with a 
wisp of straw, and then with a brush; rub his legs 
well with the hand, to remove any strain; soothe the 
animal, and detect thorns and splinters, and give 
him his grain as soon as he is cool, dry and willing 
to eat. 

On the evening before a long journey give double 
feed; on the morning of starting give only half a 
feed of grain, or a little hay. 

When horses are long out at work provide them 
with nose-bags and proper food. The nose-bag should 
be leather at bottom and of basket-work or open text¬ 
ure above. On coming home give a double feed of 
grain. 

Lead the horse carefully into and out of the stable. 
Accustom him to stand quite still till you are seated. 
Start at a walk, and go slowly the first and the last 
mile. 

Never use the whip if you can help it. It will then 
always be available as a last resource. 

Be always on your guard, just feeling the mouth 
with the bit, lightly and steadily. 

If a horse shies, neither whip him nor pat him, but 
speak encouragingly, and let him come slowly to¬ 
wards the object. 

If you value your own life, the lives of others, or 
your horse, never drive fast in the dark, or in town. 

Never add yourown weight to a load that is already 
heavy enough. Get out and walk when you ascend a 
hill. If you stop on a hill, put a stone behind the 
wheel. 

Never tease or tickle the horse. 

A good horse blanket does not cost much, and is a 
good investment. Horses suffer much from cold when 
left unblanketed after being driven, and contract dis¬ 
eases that result in the disabling or death of the 
animal. Some stables are nothing but poles between 
wide spaces. We have heard about stables being 
made too warm for horses; but if they be properly 
ventilated there is very little danger of this. Take 
your hatchet and nail a few clapboards over the 
cracks; build a straw shed if you can do no better; 
in half a day you can make a whole winter full of 
comfort for the faithful beast that does such a great 
variety of valuable labor. 

Many men proceed to scratch horse’s legs with a 
new, sharp curry-comb, and then get angry if the 
horse does not patiently endure this torment. A new 
curry-comb should never be used on a horse’s leg. 
In fact, it is only in extreme cases that the legs should 
be curried with any kind of a comb. A blanch of hay 
or straw and a good brush is all that is necessary ex- 










HORSE. 


753 


cept in extraordinary cases. We consider a good 
brush indispensable; and in this, as in everything else, 
the best is the cheapest. We have found it to be a 
good plan to make a scraper of oak, and scrape the 
mud off their legs at night when put in the stable,, 
'bhis saves much time in the end. Some horsemen 
wash the mud off, but this is a bad plan, cooling the 
extremities and making the skin tender and the pores 
open. 

The eye of the horse is very sensitive, and, stand¬ 
ing out from the head, is extremely liable to injury. 
Blindness among horses is very prevalent. How 
many horses we see whose eyes have been “ knocked 
out.” Generally this is done by some person in a fit 
of anger ; sometimes sharp projections are left in the 
stable against which the horse unfortunately strikes its 
eye, destroying all use and value of that organ. It is 
cruel and a sin to strike a horse over the head, and 
sinful carelessness to leave nails and other sharp pro¬ 
jections in the stable. 

Do not put a collar on over a horse’s head. Did 
you ever notice that the eye of the horse, like that of 
the giraffe, stands out from the surface of the head 1 
As both depend upon their heels for defense it is nec¬ 
essary that they should see behind them as well as in 
front; and this is secured by placing the eye out from 
the face. It is almost an impossibility to put a collar 
on over a horse’s head without bruising or injuring 
the eyes. 



Fig, Muzzle /or Horse. 

Gedney’s improved wire horse muzzle (Fig. 35), 
which is made of the best material, is now in general 
use at the racing stables. It is recommended for its 
ventilation, cleanliness and durability. 

For record of the time made by the fastest horses, 
both trotting and running, see Speed. 

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

'Their Causes, Symptoms and Remedies. 

The diseases of the horse are numerous, as the pres¬ 
ent artificial mode of his life and his complicated 
structure might lead one to suspect. Kxternal dis¬ 
eases and cases of unsoundness are much more easy 
to understand than those which are internal, which 


can only be conjectured from symptoms. In general 
there are two obvious indications of disease— a refusal 
to work and a refusal to feed. Lameness speaks for 
itself; but there may be something the matter with 
his collar or part of his harness. Every farmer should 
acquire some skill in detecting the symptoms of dis¬ 
ease, and should know how to treat the most ordinary 
complaints; but it should be borne in mind that the 
difficulty of treating a sick horse is not only as great, 
but in one respect greater than that of treating a 
human patient, since he cannot, like the latter, de¬ 
scribe his sensations. The methods of recognizing 
and distinguishing diseases of horses, as well as cattle, 
are very fully treated on page 197, where we refer the 
reader. 

Before the veterinary art became a distinct profes¬ 
sion, the ignorant farrier, pretending groom, or shoe¬ 
ing smith, were all that the owners of horses had to 
consult; and the fate of these animals was commen¬ 
surate with the wretched treatment they were subjected 
to. These men, without any scientific education, 
often committed the greatest blunders, though they 
frequently performed cures, as is the case with other 
quacks. 

That portion of this article treating of the causes 
and symptoms of, and giving the remedies for, all the 
principal diseases that the horse is subject to, has 
been carefully collected from the best of most modern 
authors of both continents, and revised and enlarged 
by an eminent veterinary physician and surgeon of 
large experience, and a gentleman of modern, original 
and progressive views in the veternarian art. He has 
successfully treated, in the most simple and practical 
manner, many diseases that have heretofore baffled 
the skill of the veterinary world. Among these is 
tetanus, or lock-jaw, of which he effectually cured 11 
cases of the 13 treated within less than three years, 
with apparently a simple, yet powerful remedy. This 
and the novel manner of administering it won for him 
much favor. He has also saved the lives of many 
noble animals by an operation called tracheotomy, 
by the use of the trocar in flatulent colic, and per¬ 
formed many other critical surgical operations most 
successfully; he has also most signally brought to a 
successful termination quite a number of cases of 
cerebro-spinal meningitis, big head, etc. We speak 
of these things that those who consult this article for 
the treatment of their horses may have all confidence 
in the remedies prescribed. 

Several of the favorite remedies with which this 
veterinarian has performed these cures have never 
before been given to the public. They are the result 
of many years of hard study and practice of the pro¬ 
fession, and up to this period he has reserved them 
for h-is own use. Several of these he has frequently 
refused liberal offers for. He has, however, incorpor¬ 
ated them in this article. 

In explanation of the system of medication adopted 
here we have but to remark that it has been this 
veterinarian’s motto during his long and successful 
practice to stand as nature’s hand-maid and en- 



















754 


HORSE. 


deavor to assist her by removing obstructions and 
aiding her in harmony with her laws, instead of trying 
either to reverse them or to prove a hindrance. He 
has eyer guarded against the barbarous treatment 
which results as the cause of disease, by weakening 
the vital energies of life, as practiced by the schools 
of the past. Indeed, he has done much toward arresting 
the streams of blood that has for centuries flowed in 
consequence of an evil system of medication. He 
regards drastic cathartics, firing and the indiscrimin¬ 
ate use of the strong liquid blisters as articles of an 
ignorant and barbarous age. For years he has en¬ 
deavored to help others to usher in a milder and more 
rational system of medication. 


go without any medicine than to dose him *with 
“every man’s remedy,” with the expectation that some 
of them will hit the case and bring about the desired 
result; and many valuable horses are killed by the 
over-anxiety of the proprietor, who will allow medi¬ 
cines to be administered without having the faintest 
idea of the ailment, or what particular remedy is 
adapted to the case. By a careful perusal of the 
diagnosis ^ven, a correct study of the symptoms 
shown by the horse, a fair understanding of rules laid 
down for recognizing and distinguishing diseases on 
page 197, and observing the principles of administering 
treatment and the various methods as given on pages 
190,193, 194 and 197, the reader may venture to pre- 



Fig. 36. —ExternaL ManifestfUions 0/ Some 0/the Diseases 0/the Horse. 


Technicalities and obscure language, such as 
quacks frequently used in order to cover their ignor¬ 
ance, are not used in this work. Nothing but jrlain, 
comprehensive language is employed, so that all may 
understand and no mistakes be occasioned. 

With a word on the general treatment of this 
noblest of beasts when in ill health, we will proceed with 
the treatment of diseases, giving them in their alpha¬ 
betical order. To treat diseases properly, it is 
necessary for the reader to give particular attention to 
the symptoms, so that he may form a correct diagnosis 
of the diseases and prescribe the medicines adapted 
thereto. It is in this particular that the most mistakes 
occur, where non-professionals find it necessary to 
treat sickness. It is much better to allow a horse to 


scribe for horses with a fair prospect of success. 

External Manifestations of Disease. Before 
entering upon the treatment of diseases of the horse, 
we wish to present an illustration of some of the 
principal diseases of the bones and tissues, showing 
their location and speaking of general character and 
causes. The explanation of the letters and figures 
indicated on the cut (Fig. 36) is as follows; 

A. Caries OR Ulceration of the Jaw. Ulcer¬ 
ation of the lower jaw sometimes ends in mortification. 
Caused by bruises from barbarous bits and curb-chains. 

B. Fistula of the Parotid Duct. Fistulas are 
caused by bruises or undue compression of the parts 
producing inflammation and abscess. 
































HORSE. 


755 


C. Bony Excrescence, or exostosis of the lower 
jaw. A blow upon a bone will produce inflammation, 
followed by exostosis (long growth through increased 
nutrition), that of the joints being very painful. 

D. Swelling by pressure of the bridle, causing 
inflammation and sometimes tumors. 

E. Poll Evil. This is exactly similar in its nature 
to fistulous withers, being produced by a blow on the 
prominent ridge which is situated on the top of the 
poll. 

F. Inflamed Parotid Gland. Caused by a bruise 
or compression. 

G. Inflamed Jugular Vein. Caused in various 
ways; often by carelesssness after bleeding. 

H. Fungus Tumor, produced by pressure of tne 
collar; the result of galls and subsequent want of care 
and inattention. 

I. Fistula of the Withers, generally caused by 
pressure of the saddle. 

J. Saddle Gall, caused by a bad-fitting saddle. 

K. Tumor of the Elbow, caused generally by 
interference of the shoe in lying down; sometimes by 
a blow. 

L. Induration of the Knee, caused by blow in 
falling. 

M. Clap of the Back Sinews, caused by severe 
exertion in running and leaping, destroying the integ¬ 
rity of the sinews of the leg. 

N. Mallenders, scurfy manifestations of flexions 
of the knee, sometimes becoming cracked and itchy. 

O. Splint, caused by blows, etc., on the shins, 
more often by using the horse too young. They are 
to be dreaded as interfering with the action of the 
sinews. 

P. Ringbone, caused by starting heavy loads, or 
excessive pulling in going up hill, or bruises. 

Q. Tread upon the Coronet, the contusion of 
the shoe of the one foot by treading on the other, 
causing larceration of the coronet and of the horn of 
the hoof, 

R. Quittor. confined pus from prick of the sole, 
corns, or injury to coronet. 

S. Quarter Sand Crack. Imperfect secretion 
caused by dryness of the hoof; rupture of the laminae. 

T. Contracted Hoof, or ringed hoof of a foun¬ 
dered horse. The result of laminitis. 

U. Capped Hock. Injuring the point of the hock. 

V. Sallenders. Scurfy eruptions on the seat of 
flexion of the hock; similar to mallenders. 

W. Spavin. Inflammation causing painful bony 
enlargement, sometimes stiff joint; caused by blows, 
slipping and hard work, often from weak limbs. 

X. Curb. Inflammation and lameness of the 
posterior part of the hock, ending in bony formation; 
caused by wrenching or straining the limb, or bruise. 

Y. Swelled Sinews, caused by strains or bruises, 
producing inflammation and ending in enlargement. 

Z. Thick Leg, caused by various injuries to the 
joint. Any inflammation may result in a thickening 
of the integuments. 

I. Grease, caused by debility, excessive labor and 


neglect, filthy surroundings, from stoppage of the 
secretions. Scratches are from the same cause, as 
working in the mud without proper cleaning, etc. 

2. Toe Sand Crack, caused by the same difficulty 
as quarter sand crack. 

3. Quarter Crack. See Sand Crack. 

The last two are occasioned generally by severe labor 
of animals not strong in the feet, by which the walls are 
ruptured, by breaking the hoof with the calk of another 
foot. False quarter is occasioned by the absence of the 
outside and harder ^xirtion of the hoof 

4. Ventral Hernia. Rupture by which the 
bowel lies next the skin. When hernia is accom¬ 
panied with strangulation it becomes dangerous. 

5. Rat Tail, loss of the hair of the tail. 

For more extended facts relative to the symptoms, 
causes and treatment of these disorders, we refer the 
reader to each subject in its alphabetical order in this 
article. We wish ’here to observe that besides the 
remedies prescribed for the respective diseases, the 
horse must have the best possible care—warm, dry, 
clean, well-ventilated quarters, good, nourishing food, 
pure water and rest. 

Prevention of Disease. A word should be 
said in reference to the prevention of diseases, which, 
if strictly observed, the farmer will seldom need the 
aid of the veterinarian. 

When a horse is simply out of health and spirits, 
without showing symptoms of any specific disease, 
he should be allowed to rest and have a change of 
food, and, if jxissible, of location. Nature’s own 
remedy, rolling, should never be denied a horse, no 
matter what his ailment. In acute diseases and 
serious accidents, unless the farmer has had unusual 
experience and knows exactly what to do, he should 
call the best veterinarian in reach. Farmers who are 
far removed from such a physician would do well to 
purchase a set of remedies, with the accompanying 
directions, which will enable them to use them intelli¬ 
gently. Large doses of powerful remedies, adminis¬ 
tered by inexperienced owners, or equally ignorant 
country “boss doctors,” will be apt either to injure or 
kill the animal. 

There are two classes of farmers who do great in¬ 
justice to horses. One neglect their animals or abuse 
them, producing many diseases from which they suffer 
or die; the other class are always dosing or doctoring, 
using ointments or pouring drugs into them of the 
medicinal properties of which they now nothing. 
Farmers spend hundreds of dollars upon condition 
powders and other useless drugs. We often see 
horses overworked, exposed, or improperly fed and 
cared for. Many times these animals are kept in 
this condition and dosed with medicine, with an 
imagination or hope that they can create an 
unnatural appetite, purify the blood, loosen the skin, 
smooth the hair, or give good health and spirits. 
This is all useless and expensive. There are quack 
doctors all over the country who want to sell useless 
ointments, condition powders, and all sorts of nostrums, 
simply to make money out of the farmer, and not 







756 


HORSE. 


that his horses need them.’ The same farmer who 
purchases these will frequently produce all the dis¬ 
eases his horse has by bad management. Medicines 
do not cure bad treatment or prevent it, and nothing 
but good treatment will permanently relieve the horse. 
Horses, like men, recpiire the observance of proper 
rules and laws of health, without which medicines are 
valueless. The sensible farmer realizes the truth of 
this assertion, and governs himself accordingly. 

Mkuicine Case. Every farmer who has much to 
do with horses should j)rovide himself with the princi¬ 
pal medicines reciuired and a pocket-case of instru¬ 


ments. With a case of this kind the farmer is enabled 
to perform many simple operations, which, in the 
absence of the same, he will be at the expense^ of 
employing a veterinary surgeon to do. 

Abdomen, Dropsy oe the. This is a collection 
of water in the abdomen which is generally the re¬ 
sult of chronic inflammation of the peritoneum, a 
tough, white membrane which lines the abdomen and 
embraces the bowels within its folds. When this 
membrane has been subjected to violence and is 
associated with a local inflammation of the muscular 
tissues, the effusion is directed inward. 

Sometimes it arises from obstructed circulation 
caused by diseases of the liver, lungs, or heart, and 
again from a }X)or, watery state of the blood, superin¬ 
duced by e.xhaustion or by scanty and innutritions 
food. It is more frequently found in old than in 
young, vigorous animals. 

Sytnptoins. Generally a low state of health pre¬ 
cedes the more unmistakable manifestations ; there are 
thirst and loss of appetite; the pulse is hard and 
small; the membrane of the nose is pale; the eye is 
dry; the head droops; there is a condition of weak¬ 
ness and languor; and there are some signs of heart 
and liver diseases; pressure upon the abdomen is so 
painful as to cause a groan. 

Sometimes there is local dropsy of the sheath, legs 
and breast, as well as of difficulty in breathing. In 
the chronic stages of the disease the progress 


is slow, but the belly becomes more and more 
baggy, and in some instances the hair of the tail 
comes away easily or drops out, showing that the 
skin and capillary glands of that part of the body are 
affected. 

The presence of the water, when it has collected 
in any considerable quantity, may be detected by 
placing the ear to the abdomen and having some one 
slap the horse on the opixisite side with the open 
palm. 

In mares this enlargement of the belly is sometimes 
mistaken for a pegnant condition, but it may be 
readily distinguished by a fluctuating feeling 
which follows a pressure upon the parts with 
the fingers,—a sort of fluid motion, as of 
water forcibly displaced. 

Treatment. If it is known to proceed from 
local injuries, or from diseases of the vital 
organs, it is scarcely necessary to adopt any 
course of treatment, unless, indeed, the pri¬ 
mary disease itself can be removed; but when 
it depends upon inflammation of the peri¬ 
toneum, or when it results from bad or defi¬ 
cient food and unwholesome surroundings, 
place the horse in a good, dry and well venti- 
ated stall, feed him generously, and give him 
the following tonic ball night and morning; 

4 drachms golden seal, 

I ounce powdered digitalis, 

% ounce sulphate of iron. 

The treatment is the same as for dropsy 
of the brain, except wetting the head. 
Albuminous Urine. See Urine. 

Amaurosis. See diseases of the Eye in this 
article. 

Ankles, Swelled. This affection invariably arises 
from a diseased condition of the feet. Its origin 
may sometimes be traced to diseases of the 
navicular and lower pastern joints, but is known to 
proceed for the most part from the hoof rot. It seems 
occasionally, however, to result from a plethoric 
condition of the general system, a superabundance of 
blood, hard work, severe strains, etc. 

Symptoms. Confined almost wholly to the ankle 
joints. It is not difficult of detection,-—the only ^wint 
of importance being to determine wdiether the swell¬ 
ing is merely spasmodic and temporary, or w'hether it 
is the result of a primary disorder wdiich requires 
attention. It is generally perceptible of a morning, 
and disappears during the day, because exercise re¬ 
stores healthful action; but when there is really dis¬ 
eased condition of the bottom of the foot, the fever 
caused thereby inflames the membrane of the 
joint, under the skin, while the horse is inactive, and 
the swelling again takes place. If the ankles present 
a swollen appearance from morning to morning, at¬ 
tention should be directed to discover the real condi¬ 
tion of the foot, and appropriate treatment must be 
resorted to before the disease takes the chronic and 
more advanced form of swelled legs, cracked heels or 
' scratches. 






























































































































































































































5,<P._TR0TTING STALLION, FAIRY GIFT. 





































































































































































































































































































































































































HORSE 


759 


Treatment. If the swelling proceeds from plethora 
or too great fullness of the general ’ system, give an 
occasional dose of Epsom salts, to reduce the ten¬ 
dency to inflammation, and feed upon green and suc¬ 
culent food.' If it proceeds from soreness of the 
bottom of the foot, apply the same treatment as for 
grease and scratches, every day for four days; then 
omit for two days and apply again. If there is any 
appearance of thrush or cracked heels, treat as 
directed for the removal of these. 

Aphtha or Thrush. This is a disease of the 
mouth and occurs among sucking animals and young 
horses. 

Symptoms. White patches will appear on the 
tongue, cheeks and lips, which assume a whitish color, 
caused by a fungous growth. The lips swell; the 
tongue hangs out of the mouth; vesicles form con¬ 
taining a clear, gelatinous fluid. At length these 
burst; crusts form and recovery ensues. 

Treatment. To purify the blood and promote the 
general health, give the following; 

I ounce hypo-sulphite of soda ; 

1 bounce powdered sassafras bark ; 

2 ounces powdered golden seal ; 

4 drachms of cream tartar ; 

I ounce flowers of sulphur. 

Mix, divide into four portions and give one every 
night in scalded shorts, allowing it to get cold. Or 
give it in cold gruel as a drink. 

Take i ounce of powdered borax and 3 ounces of 
molasses; mix and apply with a soft brush, or soft 
piece of cloth. Give the animal soft feed or grass. 

Arteries, Enlargement of the. Dilatation of the 
arteries is rarely found. It is a thinning and weak¬ 
ening of the coats of the vessels, sometimes to burst¬ 
ing, causing a pulsating tumor containing blood. 
Severe strains in the vicinity of an artery, blows, 
kicks, stabs, or weakening from overstretching, as in 
fatty degeneration, are the causes. In the mesenteric 
arteries of horses, they are common from immature 
worms in the circulation. 

Symptoms. There is a soft, fluctuating, visible 
tumor if near the surface, which may be reduced by 
pressure, but which instantly re-appears. 

Treatment. Treatment is not successful except 
when near the surface. Then steady pressure by a 
pad if taken early will sometimes cause its disappear¬ 
ance. An animal with enlargement of the arteries is 
unsound and should never be bought. The same 
rule applies to all diseases of the heart. 

Big Head and Big Jaw. These are but one form 
of disease, only located in different parts. When the 
upper jaw becomes the seat of affection, and enlarge¬ 
ment of the facial bones will be observed, the attention 
will be attracted by the unnatural appearance of the 
face. We might say at the outset that the disease is 
incurable,, in so far as the enlargement, dilation and 
softening of the jaw bone are concerned; yet, like spav¬ 
in, ring-bone and various other diseases, they may be 
relieved so that the animal may be able to perform 
his ordinary duties. 

It finally breaks out in small holes, which discharge 


a thick pus, and at last ends, if not treated oppor¬ 
tunely, in a complete decay of the bone. The bone 
continually enlarges, and cells or channels are formed 
as the minute bony plates become thinner and thinner 
till the structure can be easily cut with a knife or 
crushed with the fingers. The interstices are filled 
with a red bloody mass. 

In some cases the ligaments and tendons are sep¬ 
arated by decomposition of the bone, and crumblings, 
dislocations and fractures take place for want of firm 
attachment for these supporting ligaments. 

The primary cause of the disorder is not known, 
but it may have been hereditary. In speaking of this 
disease Prof. Dadd savs: “In certain localities, under 
the ordinary mode of feeding and general manage¬ 
ment, we grant that at first the disease might have 
had an accidental or spontaneous origin, and finally 
become permanent and transmissible. For example, 
glanders and farcy afford illustrations of a spontane¬ 
ous disease becoming contagious and transmissible. 
There must have been a time when neither of the two 
latter diseases existed; hence, when the first subject 
became glandered, he could not have taken it by in¬ 
fection or contagion, but it must have had a sixmta- 
neous origin, and finally became permanent. We do 
not pretend to urge that the active disease itself is 
transmissible; yet, in certain cases, a predisposition 
is transferred to the progeny. This may be called the 
predisposing cause; the ordinary exciting causes are 
those which disturb and derange the digestive func¬ 
tion. The digestive or nutritive function is deranged 
both by excessive and defective functional labors, or by 
the animal existing on food that does not contain the 
necessary amount of nitrogenous or muscle-making 
matter. This is the case when Indian corn is used as 
food for a great length of time. It is hard to digest, 
is deficient in nitrogen, and almost always over-dis- 
tends the stomach; for, when submitted to the action 
of heat and the gastric fluids, it increases in bulk to 
about five or six times its original capacity. I have 
noticed that where much whole corn is fed, as in Ohio 
and Indiana, the disease is most prevalent. Associ¬ 
ated with the predisposing causes are others—for 
example, hard usage, sore abuse, and bad stable man¬ 
agement.” It is difficult to assign any reason why 
the general predisposition should be determined pri¬ 
marily to the face. 

Symptoms. Before the visible swelling of the face 
there will generally be evident weakness, loss of appe¬ 
tite, laziness; a slight suffusion of the eyes with tears 
—one or both according as one or both sides of the 
facial bone is affected; then a swelling, about half 
way between the eye and the nostril, small and hard, 
but gradually increasing in size. If the swelling is 
pressed ujxin with some force the horse will wince 
with pain, but gentle rubbing seems to give ease. The 
lower jaw, under the chin, will next appear thickened ; 
a degree of general stiffness sets in ; at last the joints 
are swollen, and seem puffed up with wind; the horse 
rapidly fails in flesh ; and the head becomes enor¬ 
mously swollen, and finally breaks into little openings 









760 


HORSE. 


which discharge a pus of a very offensive odor. 

Treatment. It is well, perhaps, to warn the reader 
in the outset not to do any of those foolish things 
which characterized the old practice, such as boring 
into the diseased part and injecting corrosive poison; 
laying open the jaw and sawing out a portion of the 
bone; blistering, burning, etc. The disease is not 
local, but constitutional, and though perhaps having 
no other visible manifestation than on the face, it has 
extensive connection with various portions of the 
frame, so that purely local treatment is of little conse¬ 
quence. 

The first step will be to see that the patient is well 
stabled or otherwise cared for according to the season 
of the year, and put upon a systematic course of food, 
drink, and moderate exercise in the sun. Give him 
from five to seven quarts of oats per day, and if these 
are boiled and mixed with a little wheat bran, all the 
better. When green vegetables can be had, they 
should be fed liberally, to counteract a sort of scorbutic 
or scurvy tendency which marks this disorder. Apples, 
beets, carrots, turnips—whatever fruit or vegetable 
you can get him to take is good. When seasonable, 
put him upon a bountiful pasture. 

Give the following dose night and morning in such 
food as he will most readily eat: ounce stramo¬ 

nium seed; also take i drachm corrosive sublimate, 
finely pulverized; add i drachm Venice turpentine, 
and apply every two weeks, greasing between times. 

Bladder, Inflammation of the. A disease very 
rare in animals, and when occurring, the effect of vio¬ 
lent external injury, or the result of irritating medi¬ 
cines, as croton oil, cantharides, administered by the 
ignorant. 

Sy?nptoms. The principal symptom is frequent 
urination accompanied by straining and pain. Some¬ 
times the urine dribbles away, involuntary or not, as 
the case may be. It appears that the least distension 
of the bladder causes pain; hence the effort to keep 
it empty. The urine is usually high colored, or 
rather of a dull red color. 

As a sure test, grasp the horse by the mane, half¬ 
way between the head and shoulder, with the left 
hand, place the right hand under the flank when all 
nervousness has passed, press more or less strongly 
on the abdomen. If inflammation be present, the 
animal evinces intense pain. If the muscles be tense 
and hard there is no inflammation. A better treat¬ 
ment is to insert the hand into the rectum up to the 
elbow, turn the hand down and see if there is more 
heat than need be. 

Treatment. Give full doses of opium, 2 drachms, 
to relieve pain. Give linseed tea, milk, and white of 
egcs beaten up with water as drinks. As a laxative 
to relieve the bowels give i to 2 pints of olive oil as 
may be needed. Inject into the bladder the follow¬ 
ing, if you have an instrument: 

I drachm opium, 

I drachm gum arabic, 

I pint blood-warm water. 

In severe cases, the ammoniacal blister may be ap¬ 


plied (see Fig. 39), if there is paralysis of the parts, 
with or without fomentations. 



Fig. 39. —Application o/ Ammoniacal Blister. 

The acute symptoms having subsided, give small 
doses of copaiva i to 2 drachms, or buchu, 2 to 3 
drachms, as may seem to be needed. Let the animal 
drink slippery-elm bark. Give soft or sloppy diet 
with linseed tea or other mucilaginous drinks. 

Bladder, Rupture of the. This difficulty oc¬ 
curs only in the female, except in stricture, the result 
of difficult parturition. The animal strains violently, 
and on examination a red, tumid, rounded mass is 
shown between the lips of the vulva. 

Treatment. Wash the parts carefully with tepid 
water, in which an ounce of laudanum has been 
mixed with each quart. Then return carefully by 
pressing the center of the mass inwards to correct the 
eversion. The difficulty will be in returning it through 
the neck of the bladder. There will be more or less 
inflammation and softening; therefore, care, judg¬ 
ment and time must be used not to tear the tissues. 
If there is renewed straining, place a truss or com¬ 
press the vagina. 

Bladder, Stone in the. This is a formation of 
carbonate of lime and common chalk held together 
by the secretion of the mucous membrane. Cystic 
calculus may be present for a long time before the 
animal shows symptoms of its presence. 

Symptoms. Frequent endeavors to urinate will be 
made. The urine is of a whitish color and is voided 
in small quantities, abdominal pains are present, the 
back is hollowed, often the point of the penis is con¬ 
stantly exposed, and going clown hill the horse often 
stops suddenly, pawing, kicking at the belly, rolling, 
lying down and getting up quickly, are svmptoms gen¬ 
erally present. 

Mr. Youatt says that the symptoms of stone 
in the bladder much resemble spasmodic colic, ex¬ 
cept that, on careful inquir)', it will be found that there 
has been much irregularity in • the discharge of urine, 
and occasional suppression of it. When fits of ap¬ 
parent colic frequently return, and are accompanied 
by any peculiarity in the appearance or the discharge 
of the urine, the horse should be carefully examined. 
For this purpose he must be thrown. If there is stone 

















HORSE, 


761 


in the bladder it will, while the horse lies on his back, 
press on the rectum. Several cases have lately oc¬ 
curred of successful extraction of the calculus, but to 
effect this it is always necessary to have recourse to 
the aid of a veterinary practitioner.” 

Treatment. Administer 2 drachms of muriatic 
acid in a pail of water once a day; by these means 
the calculi may be dissolved. Should this fail, the 
operation of lithotomy is necessary, by which the stone 
can be removed. This, however, is the business of 
a veterinary surgeon. 

Preventive Measures. The seed of Jamestown 
weed, or thorn-apple, has been given widi good effect 
in preventing the formation of large calculi. Give 
an ounce of the powdered seed in the feed every day 
until six doses are given. In connection with this 
give the following; 

I ounce bicarbonate of soda, 

I ounce oil j uniper, 
i ounce oil of sassafras, 

4 ounces sweet spirits of niter. 

B'orm into four doses, and give one morning and night 
for two days. Animals predisposed to gravel should 
be fed on sound hay from old meadows, sound grain 
and watered only with soft water. 

Bleeding. This relic of barbarism, so far as do¬ 
mestic practice of medicine is concerned, has been 
entirely discarded. In veterinary practice it has grown 
into great disrepute, and is looked upon by the pro¬ 
fession of to-day as needful only in rare cases, and 
indeed, by some, as never retiuired. Upon this sub¬ 
ject Prof. McClure says: 

“ Avoid these measures and substitute a rational 
and successful system of treating the diseases of your 
animals. Ascertain whether your horse is suffering 
from a disease of an e.xalted or inflammatory kind; 
substitute aconite, pure air and cold water for bleed¬ 
ing, and in a few hours you will have no cause to regret 
the change. If the disease be of a depressed kind, 
accompanied with weakness and debility, give nux 
vomica, iron and a generous diet. If the disease be 
an eruptive fever, give sulphite of soda to purify 
the blood. In rheumatism, administer colchicum 
and carbonate of soda. In mange, apply the sul- 
phuret of ]X)tassa to the skin, and thereby destroy 
the small insects which cause the trouble. 

“ In hard swellings use the preparations of iodine, 
to cause'their absorption. In lameness, allow absolute 
and entire rest, and apply hot or cold applications and 
slight irritants to the parts, to remove the products of 
-the sprain. Ascertain the cause of disease, and hav¬ 
ing found it, have it removed, and the effects will 
cease. If the animal be costive from eating dry, con¬ 
centrated food, remove it by giving green feed or bran, 
but do not give physic. If diarrhoea be present,- 
leave it, at least for a time, to itself, as it is nature’s 
plan of getting rid of the offending matter. But, if 
it should continue,, chalk and opium, as an astringent, 
are what is wanted. The reader cannot fail to see 
how simple, and his experience will demonstrate how 
successful, these measures are in arrestin^j and curing 
the diseases of all our domestic animals. 


Undoubtedly Prof. McClure’s theory is an excellent 
one, yet many good veterinarians regard the useof the 
lancet as necessary in some rare cases. 

These are brain disorders and some form of inflam¬ 
matory disease. The jugular vein is the one to be 
bled from, and when the object is to deplete the sys¬ 
tem, two, three and even four quarts should be taken. 
Sometimes even six or seven quarts must be taken 
from a large, plethoric animal. Always catch the 
blood in a vessel, as it is necessary' to know how much 
we take. 

First moisten the hair and smooth it down. By 
pressing on the jugular vein along the neck, below 
the spot selected for the incision, it will soon rise up 
prominently. In bleeding, always make the incision 
in the line of the vein, never across it. Make 
the incision large, but never through both walls of the 
vein. When sufficient blood has been taken, raise 
the lips of the vein between the fingers, thrust a pin 
through and wind some thread dipped in the blood 
about it to hold it. In a couple of days the pin may 
be withdrawn. 

In staggers and diseases of the brain it is usual to 
bleed in the roof of the mouth. 

Whenever a horse is to be bled it is better to blind¬ 
fold him, since it prevents his starting, and thus caus¬ 
ing a miss with the lancet or fleam in the hands of an 
inexpert person. 

Bleeding from the Nose. This often occurs 
from various injuries to the mucous membrane of the ' 
nostrils, from hard pulling up hill, too tight a collar, 
and from other causes, especially if the animal be 
full of blood. In these cases the bleeding is from one 
nostril and in drops, accompanied by sneezing. If 
the bleeding comes from the lungs, it will be bright 
red and frothy, and there will be a cough. If from 
the stomach, it will be black, clotted, sour and accom¬ 
panied by retching. 

Treatment. In simple cases tie the head up 
as high as possible, blow strong alum water from a 
tube at each inspiration, and if obstinate, plug the 
nostrils with pledgets of tow. Give internally one 
scruple of acetate of lead, to be followed in half an 
hour with another if necessary. Inject well up in the 
nostrils a weak solution of muriatic tincture of iron. 

If both nostrils are involved, and the flow is con¬ 
tinuous, only one nostril must be stopped at a time, 
unless tracheotomy is performed, since the horse can¬ 
not breathe through the mouth. 

Blind Staggers. See Staggers in this article. 

Blistering. See page 194. 

Bloody Urine. See Urine in this article. 

Bog, and Bog Spavin. See Spavin in this article. 

Bots. For a description of the fly that causes 
the bots in horses and the manner in which it gets 
into the stomachs, we refer the reader to the article 
on Gad-fly. So long as the animal is in perfect health, 
they do little if any harm while in the stomach. But 
in case of disease or insufficient food they may be¬ 
come troublesome. Much has been written upon 










762 


HORSE. 


the subject as to whether bots were a source of pain 
or injury or not. Prof. Dadd says: 

“Veterinary surgeons have long since discarded 
the absurd notion that bots are the cause of pain and 
and suffering to horses. In fact, some of the most 
distinguished of them assert that these little creatures, 
with their rough exterior, are rather beneficial 
than otherwise, and that, by friction and irritation, 
they arouse the sluggishness of the stomach, and thus 
promote digestion. Persons unacquainted with these 
facts are, therefore, apt to attribute effects during life 
to causes which happen after death, and consequently 
the poor horse has to be dosed with all sorts of 
nostrums.” 

Upon the same subject Mr. Percivall said: 

“ You may boldly assert that bots are in nowise in¬ 
jurious. Still you cannot persuade the world so, and 
therefore you must be prepared to meet the complaints 
of those unbelievers who will now and then declare 
that their horses have bots which must be got rid of. 
But I know of no medicine that has the power of 
destroying; and even if we possessed such, I am not 
sure that we could, even when dead, detach them 
from the cuticular coat of the stomach, to which they 
are attached by small horns.” 

In speaking of the location of the bot and its re¬ 
markable ix)wer to resist the action of medicines. 
Prof. Dadd says: 

“ He may be said to be a ‘ slow coach,’ and when 
once located in the stomach of a horse, he generally 
makes it his abode for a season at least. He is a 
sort of aristocratic entozoon. He lives in the upper 
region, the stomach. He seldom condescends to mix 
with the lower orders that infest the alimentary 
regions. The little creature seems to exercise con¬ 
siderable tact in selecting his location. Although he 
has but a squatter’s title to it, yet it is best and safest 
in the whole diggings. He is in the upper part of 
the stomach, where the fluids (poisons or medicines) 
with which you are about to coax or drive him off, are 
inoperative (for they merely give him a sort of 
shower-bath) and pass immediately through the 
stomach into the intestines, where all the fluid a horse 
drinks is generally found; therefore they cannot act 
on the bot. Then, again, he is located on the cuticu¬ 
lar coat of the stomach, a membrane as insensible as 
the horse’s hoof, and therefore not liable to become 
diseased, nor to be acted on by either medicine or bot 
nostrums. You may kill the horse by the same, but 
the bot, being within his own castle, can refuse what¬ 
ever you offer him. 

“We cannot make medicine act on the external 
surface of the bot, for it does not absorb fluid; it is 
impervious. These creatures have been put into 
muriatic acid, and kept there for a time without being 
injured. You may put them into new rum, and keep 
them for weeks, and on taking them out and exposing 
them to the sun’s rays, they will manifest vitality. 

“We often hear wonderful stories related of bots 
burrowing through the coats of the stomach. This, 
we think, rarely takes place while the horse is alive. 


That cavity is the home of the bot, its natural habita¬ 
tion; for we know of no other. Here it generally 
remains until it is capable of exercising an indepen¬ 
dent existence. In this situation the little creature 
is too comfortably located to burrow through the 
stomach into a cavity where it might perish for want 
of food. If the time has arrived for it to vacate its 
stronghold, instinct teaches it the most safe and ex¬ 
peditious route, which is through the alimentary canal. 
Turn a horse out to grass in the spring, or give him 
some green fodder in the stable, and the bots will 
soon leave him, if they are matured; otherwise they 
must remain until that period arrives, unless nature 
has some work for them to perform. We shall not 
contend that bots are never found in the abdominal 
cavity, for some persons have testified to the fact; but 
during a practice of several years, and having op¬ 
portunities of making many post-mortem examinations, 
we have not yet been able to observe the phenomenon, 
except in cases of ruptured stomach. Still, a few 
solitary cases are on record, and hence it remains for 
us to explain how they got there.” 

In the spring when the horse is hungry and there 
is indication of intestinal difficulty, they may be sus¬ 
pected. If the horse turns up his upper lip, and if 
the edges of the tongue are red and fiery-looking, it 

will be evi¬ 
dence of their 
existence. The 
only remedy 
for ridding the 
system of them 
is to turn the 
horse to grass 
in May. At this 
time physic will 
hasten them 
away. They 
may also be 
hastened by the 
following: pop¬ 
lar bark and 
rock salt, 
ounce each, 3 
times a day. A 
ViG. ^o.—The Bot Fly. Strong decoc- 

I. The female about to deposit an egg. r\f worm 

2» The egg magnified. 3. The bot. 

4. The chrysalis. 5. The male fly. WOOd IS alsO Si 





good vermifuge, used as an injection. 

As a preventive against bots, keep the long hairs of 
the jaws, breast and fore-limbs trimmed close, and 
apply a little oil daily; and brush off any eggs that 
may be found. Animals kept in stables and well- 
groomed are seldom troubled with bots. 

When ready to pass away, they sometimes cause 
irritation of the bowels and anus by sticking there. 

Bowels, Inflammation of the, or Enteritis. 
This most painful and dangerous malady is often 
brought on by sudden changes from heat to cold. 
Horses are sometimes driven fast and compelled to 
draw heavy loads, undue exertion quickens the cir- 













HORSE. 


763 


dilation, the blood is driven to the skin and copious 
lierspiration is the result. The animals are hitched 
to a post, or perhaps put into the stable, or let stand, 
facing a cold wind. The heat of the body produces 
evaporation, and cold of the lowest degree ensues. 
'I'he animals shiver, the blood is repelled to the in¬ 
ternal organs, the intestines, being debilitated by 
fatigue, are prepared for inflammation, and enteritis 
is the result. Colic wrongly treated or prolonged, or 
congestion, may end in enteritis. 

Sympto 7 ns. 'Fhe horse appears heavy and dull, 
picks over his food, shivers, rolls, plunges and kicks, 
bringing the hind feet up to the belly; the breathing 
is quickened, the mouth is hot and dry, the pulse is 
quick and wiry, the legs and ears are cold, pressure 
on the abdomen gives pain. 

Treatment. The animal should be placed in a 
roomy box-stall, the legs should be bandaged with 
flannel bandages, the body should be warmly clothed. 
The speedy use of the lancet is here called for; open 
the jugular and abstract ^ gallon of blood. Give 
upon the tongue every hour for the first three hours 
10 drops of tincture of aconite; or, laudanum, 2 
ounces; aconite root in powder, ^ drachm; tincture 
belladonna, 5 drops; water, i pint. Take aqua 
ammonia 2 parts,and water i part; saturate a woolen 
cloth, large enough to cover the abdomen, in the 
mixture; hold the cloth under the abdomen by means 
of a blanket folded and held uptight by girths. See 
page 670. This blister often acts quick, and one must 
examine it often. Throw up copious injections of 
soap and water gruel. Tobacco-smoke injections are 
also beneficial; avoid purgatives. Hay and bran 
should not be given. Boiled roots should constitute 
the food on recovery, after which a few ground oats 
may be added. The post-mortem examination alone 
shows the violence of the disease. The intestines are 
black and swollen, often presenting a greenish hue. 
Their structure is destroyed. They tear upon the 
slightest touch, and are gorged with inflamed blood. 
Prompt and energetic treatment is required to check 
a disease whose ravages will take the life of so power¬ 
ful an animal in so short a time. The disease runs 
its course in from 8 to 12 hours. 

Brain, Abscess of the. Man’s brutality often 
brings about this serious affliction. Almost every 
person deems himself equal to the task of breaking 
and training his own colts. It is customary to begin 
this operation by bitting the animal. A surcingle, 
crupper and bridle are placed upon it; the reins are 
tightened and the head is drawn up to suit the vanity 
of its proprietor. The torture of a living body is an 
expensive mode of gratifying vanity. The animal, 
trying to free itself from torture, throws itself back¬ 
wards. The head being checked up is the first part 
to come in contact with the earth; the concussion is 
liable to create an abscess on the brain. Sometimes 
teamsters gratify their passions by striking the horse 
upon the head with the butt end ol a whip, and abscess 
on the brain is the result. 

Syynptoms. The animal for some time is dull and 


stupid; at length it falls down and commences dash-' 
ing its head upon the ground. While life lasts this 
dreadful occupation is carried on, nor can any power 
quiet the sufferer until death closes the scene. No 
treatment is of any use; but as a matter of charity the 
horse should be killed, that his sufferings may be 
ended. 

Brain, Dropsy of the. This is the termination 
of some disorder in the brain itself, or the membranes 
surrounding it. The immediate causes, or the excit¬ 
ants to its development, are various, as castration, 
foot puncture, staggers, acute diseases of the stomach, 
defective nutrition, etc. 

Symptoms. At first an unnatural sleepiness will 
appear, with apparent unconsciousness and a tendency 
to reel when moving on foot. The pupil of the eye 
is perceptibly dilated; the animal breathes in a hard 
and grunting way; he tosses his head about and 
throws it upward or backward, as though in much 
pain. When down, with neck lying prone, as is often 
the case, he will sometimes raise his head, then drop 
it spasmodically, beating it iqxin the ground. If 
unrelieved, convulsions finally set in and death 
ensues. 

Treatment. If the head is hot with fever, denoting 
an acute attack, sponge frequently with cold water 
and see that the bowels are kept moderately open. 
If there is decided constipation, as is sometimes the 
case, use an injection of soap-suds at intervals, until 
the bowels are moved. Then give the following, in 
doses of two ounces, morning and evening : 

4 ounces fluid extract of buchu, 

2 ounces iodide of potassium, 

6 ounces water, 

4 drachms hypo-sulphite soda, 
s drachm cream tartar. 

Clothe the body well; keep cold-water bandages 
constantly on the head. Continue this, keeping the 
horse from labor and as quiet as possible, until all 
symptoms of feverishness disappear from about the 
head and the unnatural torpor no longer manifests 
itself. 

Brain, Inflammation of the. Of all diseases to 
which the horse is liable, this is the most terrible. 
The symptoms commence with loss of spirit; the 
animal is dull and stupid; the horse, which was for¬ 
merly a willing and obedient slave, seems altogether 
changed. The lines may be tugged, the whip applied, 
the voice of the driver may bawl in the highest key, 
and the usage which formerly would strike the timid 
creature with terror now seems to be unheeded. The 
eyes have a vacant stare, the membranes of the nose 
are much reddened, the pulse is quick and full, the 
appetite is lost. Ultimately the mad stages come on. 
The animal is unconscious of its surroundings and 
seems bent on self-destruction. 

Treatment. If observed in its earliest stages, before 
violent frenzy attacks it, resort may be had to bleed¬ 
ing. Open both jugulars as quickly as possible and 
allow both streams to flow until the animal falters. 
Give the following ball: Aloes, i ounce; croton oil, 
10 drops; ginger and gentian, of each i drachm; 








764 


HORSE. 


molasses or honey sufficient to form a ball. Give 
upon the tongue every two hours tincture of aconite, 
10 drops, until the pulse vibrates more naturally. 
Bags of ice, or cloth saturated with cold water, should 


be kept uixjn the head. Give cold water to drink. 
The most nutritious food should be given on recovery, 
but only in very small quantities. Should the animal 
recover, treat it very kindly ; any thing winch excites 
it is liable to bring on another attack. In ninety-nine 
cases out of a hundred, however, relief will come in 
death. Phrenitis is caused by blows upon the head, 
powerful stimulants, over-feeding, etc. 

Broken Hock, Broken Knees and Broken Wind; 1 
see respective subjects in this article. , 

Bronchitis. This is an inflammation of the mucous | 
membrane lining the bronchial tubes, or air passages 
of the lungs. Exposure of a heated and steaming 
horse to chill or over exertion, and leaving the horse 
in the stable when the system is (piite rela.xed, or rid¬ 
ing to town and leaving a horse in the cold and wind, 
while the owner is making himself comfortable, are 
the chief causes of bronchitis. There is first a cold, 
enlarged glands and swelled throat. 'Phe inflamma¬ 
tion extends down from the larnyx through the trachea 
into the bronchial tubes and air passages of the lungs, 
and ends sometimes in confirmed and incurable bron¬ 
chitis. 

Symptoms. In the acute stage there is difficulty 
and rapidity of breathing, from the filling of the mem¬ 
branes with blood and the consequent diminishing of 
the size of the tube. After a time mucus is formed 
and increases the difficulty of breathing and causes a 
cough. The pulse will be 60 or 70 beats per minute; 
the cough will become hard and dry, and the sound in 
the throat will be rattling, and after the secretion of 
mucus a gurgling sound will be given similar to that 


made in blowing soap-bubbles. In extreme cases the 
breathing becomes extremely laborious, the cough is 
constant and distressing, the legs are extended, and at 
length the animal dies of suffocation. 

Treatment. The first step is to find the 
extent of the inflammation. Never bleed. 
Clothe the animal warmly and give an 
injection of warm water to relieve the 
bowels. Avoid all strong purgatives. In 
fact, give none unless the bowels are de¬ 
cidedly bound up. Let the food be soft 
and laxative, green grass in summer, or 
mashes and gruel in winter. For the 
throat, scalded soft hay fastened by band¬ 
ages will be good, \\ffish the neck with 
a weak decoction of tobacco as hot as it 
can be borne. When dry, shave the 
hair from the chest and apply a blister of 
better strength than that advised for chest 
founder. The following will be good : 

I ounce aqua ammonia ; 

1 ounce powdered cantharides; 

I ounce powdered resin ; 

4 ounces lard oil. 

Melt the resin and lard together, add 
the cantharides and stir until it sets to¬ 
gether. Apply to the chest and throat if 
the case is desperate. If only irritation is 
desired, the following will be good : 

4 ounces lard oil ; 

I ounce turpentine ; 

6 drachms powdered cantharides. 

Shave the hair and apply by rubbing in. 

Brushing, or Speedy Cut. This is a bruise, abra- 



Fic;. 42.— A Case of Incurable Bronchitis. 

sion of the skin, or contused wound, produced by the 
shoe of one foot striking the opposite fetlock ankle, or 
even the knee. It is more owing to weakness than 
other causes, though a horse striking once is more 
liable to the same injury thereafter. It is really the 
foot that is resting on the ground that causes the 
hurt, from its being put down out of the proper line. 

Treatment. For horses of slow or moderate driv- 
ing, the difficulty is confined to striking the ankle and 
below. The usual remedy is to cause the horse to set 
his foot in proper line by raising that side of the shoe. 






























































































































































































































































































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HORSE. 


thus throwing the inside of the ankle slightly up. 
Any common-sense blacksmith should know how to 
do it. For fast horses the limbs must be further pro¬ 
tected by means of pads (see Fig. 43) and other 

appliances to be found at 
all saddlery establish¬ 
ments. 

Burns and Scalds sel¬ 
dom occur in horses on 
the farm or employed on 
the road. They are, how- 
Ankle Pad. ever, of frequent occur¬ 
rence where horses are employed about mills or 
factories where steam is used; or in iron foundries 
and in cities. 

Treatment. Sprinkle common baking soda thickly 
on the part, or moisten with water into a thick paste 
and bind or lay it over the injury. For slight burns 
which sometimes cover a large surface, there is nothing 
better than several coats of thick white-lead paint laid 
on with a brush; cover the whole with cotton and 
bind on close. Sometimes indolent sores follow burns 
and scalds. If so, the ulcers should be well and 
carefully washed with tar water, and the following 
mixture dusted over the parts: i ounce oxide of zinc; 
2 ounces jxjwdered starch. Mix intimately and sprin¬ 
kle on thickly to form a crust. Whenever the moisture 
appears through, keep adding the mixture until the 
crust becomes permanent and fixed. In chronic 
cases, sprinkle the part with powdered slippery elm, 
charcoal, golden seal and powdered myrrh. 

Among the best treatments for burns is an applica¬ 
tion of one pint of linseed oil and half a pint of lime 
water, stirred together, or rather whipped (as cooks 
usually do eggs) till the mixture is like thick cream. 
This is to be applied for a few days; then the sores 
are to be dressed with green ointment. 

Cancer, Epithelial, is a nipple-like cancer, which 
sometimes appears on the lips of horses. It should be 
promptly removed with the knife, after which the part 
should be burned over with lunar caustic. 

Canker. This is a fungoid secretion into the 
horny-sole of the foot, from whence fungoid granula¬ 
tions start up. The fluid secreted has an offensive 
smell and often the horn sloughs off in large quanti¬ 
ties. The fungus is secreted in the largest quantity 
near the edge of the sole, and the granulations at¬ 
tain their greatest size, as the papillae are largest in 
that region. Canker is generally the result of neg¬ 
lected thrush, and often baffles all attempts to cure. 
It may arise from the prick of a nail. 

Symptoms. It is most prevalent in heavy, coarse¬ 
boned horses. The frog will become large, spongy, 
and covered with a fungous growth of cheesy text¬ 
ure, and throwing out an abundant colorless bad 
smelling liquid. If cut away it will again quickly 
spring into growth. The discharge is more offensive 
than in thrush, and the disease more obstinate, often 
resisting treatment a long time. 

Treatment. The horse must be kept in a clean. 


7C7 


dry, well ventilated stable. All diseased portions of 
the hoof must be neatly pared off so far as the knife 
may be able. 

The cure consists in destroying the fungoid granu¬ 
lations. Thus, in cutting do not be alarmed at the 
sight of blood from the canker. Over the well por¬ 
tion of the hoof apply corrosive liniment and cover 
the diseased parts with the following; 

I drachm carbolic acid, 

Yi ounce chloride of zinc, 

4 ounces flour. 

As the canker improves, the dressings may be ex¬ 
tended to the third or fourth day, and during the 
whole time of treatment the horse should be liberally 
fed, and be exercised for an hour every day. 

Capped Hock ; see Hock. 

Caries. This term means an ulceration of the 
bone. The most frequent form of caries is seen on 
the lower jaw-bone. Caries of the lower jaw bone, 
between the tushes and grinders, is caused almost 
wholly by the barbarous use of bits and curb-chains. 
Injury is also sometimes inflicted upon the bony plate 
of the roof of the mouth by pressure of the curb, when 
a tight nose-band keeps the mouth shut down. The 
gums of the lower jaw are very often hurt, and not 
unfrequently the bone itself is so bruised as to result in 
this ulceration. When this is the case the gum, unless 
forcibly opened, must slough, so that the injured 
portion of the bone can be castoff. Thus a stinking sore 
is made, and one of long continuance, as the sealing 
of the bone and the escape of the loosened particles 
is a tedious process. 

Symptoms. Examine the gums, and if it is a bruise 
the spot will appear of a different color from the adja¬ 
cent parts, and pressure upon it will cause the animal 
to wince with pain. On contact with the bit, how¬ 
ever, there is a mixture of blood and watery xnatter, 
and some of this escapes constantly while the horse 
is in use. 

Treatment. When the discharge has somewhat 
thickened, and is peculiarly offensive to the smell, 
showing that the bone is decaying and that nature is 
making an effort to cast off the injured portion, wash 
it out with the syringe, several times a day, with the 
following solution: 

I scruple chloride of zinc, 

4 drachms essence of anise seed, 

I pint water. 

If treatment is deferred, however, till there is an 
open, ulcerous gum, with existence of proud flesh, 
push a stick of lunar caustic deep into the unhealthy 
granulation in the cavity, so as to destroy it. Then 
keep down the fungous growth by the use of the 
caustic, day after day, until the stinking discharge has 
ceased. This will not be until the bone has ceased 
to scale away; and the wound may now be safely left 
to heal. 

A cure effected, the next thing to do is to select a 
bit that shall press upon another part of the mouth or 
one that will not hurt the mouth. The bit may be 



40 








768 


HORSE. 


covered with a rubber covering, as shown by Fig. 44 

snaffle may be used with 
comparative safety where the curb 


Yic.. j^i,.-Covtrfor Bit. has iiifflcted serious hurt. 

If the upper teeth be ulcerated to any extent, a 
fetid discharge will run from the nostrils upon the 
side on which the diseased teeth are situated. This 
has often been mistaken for glanders by ignorant 
persons. If caries of the bones of the head exists, 
the swelling of the head will be enormous. It is then 
termed Big-head, which see, page 759. 

Chest, Dropsy of the Skin of the. This is an 
effusion of fluid underneath the skin of the chest; and 
it is a sequel to various diseases—beginning generally 
to manifest itself only after the animal is reduced to a 
debilitated state. It is most likely to occur in the 
spring and in the fall of the year, at the time of 
changing the coat. 

Symptoms. A swelling appears in the chest and 
somewhat between the fore legs; and its dropsical 
character may be known by its yielding to pressure of 
the fingers with a fluctuating feeling. 

Treattnait. If it is the accompaniment of any 
more general disorder the first thing, of course, is to 
remove that primary disease. Meanwhile if the fluid 
accumulates in any considerable quantity, draw it off 
with the trocar; and if there is not too much soreness, 
subject the part to regular and moderately vigorous 
friction occasionally for some days. Give 

ounce hyposulphite soda, 

I drachm cream tartar, 

I ounce sweet spirits nitre. 

Diuretics are always good in these dropsical com¬ 
plaints. It is important that the bowels be kept reg¬ 
ular, and that good nutritious food, as boiled oats or 
boiled barley, with wheat bran, be given regularly, 
and in sufficient quantity to nourish well. Give 4 
drachms of gentian every other day for a week or two. 

It must be remembered that these medicines are 
to be given only in case there is no treatment in prog¬ 
ress for a more general disorder. 

Chest Founder: see Fohnder (Chest). 


Choking. This very rarely occurs in horses, though 
frequently in cattle. When it occurs in a horse, and 
he be a spirited animal, and the substance be high 
in his gullet, there is little chance of saving his life. 
Choking occurs in two distinct forms. The high 
choke, when the substance is lodged in the throat or 
neck, and the low choke, when the substance is lodged 
in that part of the gullet lying low ^yithin the 
chest. In high choke, the animal may die in a few 
minutes; in low choke, there is not such special need 
of haste. 

Symptoms. There is intense distress; the head is 
raised; there is slavering, violent coughing and con¬ 
tinual efforts to swallow. 

Treatment. Examine carefully the furrow on the 
left side of the neck for the substance. If solid, en¬ 
deavor to press it upwards with the fingers on each 
side. If not, endeavor to extract it by putting a ball¬ 


ing iron into the mouth to hold it open; pull out 
the tongue; pass the hand into the throat and en¬ 
deavor to dislodge it with the finger, the head being 
held out in a straight line with the neck. If, this do 
not succeed, and the obstruction is in the gullet, and 
is clear of the windpipe, procure a probmig, oil it 
thoroughly, cast the horse, put the balling iron in the 
mouth, introduce the probang, and by steady pressure 
for a few seconds at a time, endeavor to move it. If 
it moves, continue the pressure until it is pushed into 
the stomach. 

If the substance is so firmly held that the probang 
will not move it, the mass must be cut down upon 
and taken out. Let an assistant press the off-side of 
the neck to get as much bulge as -possible. Then 
with a bold cut of a sharp knife, cut through skin, 
tissues and gullet, to the mass, with an ample cut, 
and remove; bring the edges of the gullet together, 
stitch them with fine cat-gut or strong silk, and then 
the wound in the skin. The difficulty here may 
cause subsequent stricture of the gullet, which may 
thereafter prevent the animal swallowing solid food. 
In any event only semi-liquid food should be given 
for ten days after choking, or until the animal seems 
well. 

In desperate cases, where there is instant danger of 
death from choking, take a small needle, run through 
the integuments on each side of the wound, and tie 
to a portion of the mane to keep the integuments 
from closing over the orifice. 

The Low Choke. This is where the obstruction is 
low in the gullet, or in the thoracic portion of the 
oesophagus. In this form there is great distress, but 



Fig. 45. — The Low Choke. 

the head is not held so high; saliva runs from the 
mouth, and the discharge is copious from the nose; 
if the animal attempts to drink the water is cast forth 
from the nose; the breathing is laborious, the flanks 
tucked up, the back reached, and the animal shows 
symptoms of great distress. 

Treatment. Give a gill of linseed or lard oil once an 
hour, and between these doses, every hour, the fol¬ 
lowing anti-spasmodic: 

1 ounce tincture lobelia, 

2 ounces sulphuric ether 

2 ounces laudanum, 

% pint water. 

Use the probang carefully after such anti-spas- 














HORSE. 


769 


modic. If the whole of the dose is apparently 
returned, administer chloroform from a sponge, by in¬ 
halation, until entire insensibility is produced. Then 
extend the head, insert the probang, well oiled, and 
use steady but constant pressure, until the substance 
moves. It may take ten to fifteen minutes or more. 
When the substance moves do not use much violent 
pressure, but move it carefully until it enters the 
stomach, care being taken not to force the instrument 
too far, and thus wound that organ, remembering 
always that sudden violence may bring on spasmodic 
action, in which case efforts must cease. Violence 
may also rupture the oesophagus. 

Colds in horses, as in the human family, are usually 
the result of improper care or undue exposure. Tak¬ 
ing a horse from a hot, ill-ventilated stable, and 
allowing him after driving to become cold, is one 
prolific cause of colds. There are so many means of 
causing this disability that it would be impossible to 
enumerate them. If the attack is light, all that will 
be necessary will be to clothe the animal warmly and 
relax the bowels with a warm mash, and give rest for 
a few days. 

Sometimes, however, the attack is prolonged and 

severe. The appetite ceases, 
the coat roughens, parts of 
the body are hot and others 
cold, the membrane of the 
nose at first dry and pale, 
with the facial sinuses clogged, 
at length terminating in a 
discharge more or less great, 
but without improving the 
health of the horse. 

Treatment. Keep the ani¬ 
mal warmly clothed, in ample 
box stall, with plenty of bed¬ 
ding. If the cold does not 
„ , , rr ^give way in a few days after 

the first attacK, and the symp¬ 
toms are as we have indicated, or if the membranes 
of the nose are dry, make a sack of coarse gunny cloth, 
large enough so it may fit the nose properly, but 
enlarging to the bottom and two feet or more long, 
with a slit covered with a flap in the side, half way 
down. Put into the bag half a peck or more of coarse 
pine sawdust or bran, with which half an ounce of 
spirits of turpentine has been thoroughly mixed. Place 
the bag on the nose, as shown in the cut in the 
next column. Fig. 48. 

Turn two gallons hot water into the slit, and every 
twenty minutes repeat, allowing the bag to remain on 
an hour each time; use this six times a day until the 
discharge begins. When water runs freely from the 
nose, three times daily will be enough. Let the food 
be good scalded oats or other like food, with mashes, 
if the bowels are constipated. 

An animal with this kind of a cold should not be 
put to steady work until entirely recovered. The 
result of protracted cold is great weakness, and work 
before recovery often leads to disease of the air pas¬ 



sages and lungs. If there is much fever give the 
following: 

2 drachms spirits ammonia, 

2 drachms ether, 
lo drops tincture aconite. 



Mix and give in a little gruel twice a day. If the 

throat is involved 
poultice it with 
linseed meal, in 
which a little 
mustard has been 
mixed. When 
the symptoms 
give way and im- 

Fig. 47. —Head with Lymphatic Gland of the , t 

Throat Siooiien. provement b e- 

I. The enlarged lymphatic within the jaw. ginS, Or if the 

appetite is not good, prepare the following: 


1 drachm golden seal, 

2 oz. powdered gentian, 

2 oz. carbonate ammonia. 


Form this into a mass with linseed oil and molasses, 
divide into eight parts and give one twice a day. If 
the cold becomes chronic it ends in catarrh. When 
there are catarrhal symptoms. and sore throat, give 
the following: 

I drachm extract belladonna, 

1 drachm Indian hemp, 

2 drachms powdered camphor, 

4 drachms nitre, 

I drachm blood root. 



Mix in water and give as a drench, and give one 
every three or four hours. 

In inveterate or chronic cold 
there is a discharge and 
swelling of the lymphatic 
gland. We give a cut show¬ 
ing the enlargement of the 
lymphatic gland in chronic 
cold. If the appetite keep 
good nothing more need be 
done; but on the contrary, if 
the breathing quicken and the 
appetite be poor, and debility 
be setting in, tonics and stim¬ 
ulants will be necessary. Get 
the following medicine and 
give one powder morning, 
noon and night, mixed with a 
little cold water, and drench — Nose Bagyor Steam- 

the horse with it. Take ing Horse with Coid. 
powdered gentian root, powdered pimenta berries, 
powdered carbonate of ammonia, of each two ounces. 
Mix and divide into twelve powders. When the 
appetite improves give good feed, but not in sufficient 
quantity to bring on indigestion. Give green feed if 
it can be had. 


Colic, Flatulent. This is an accumulation of 
sulphuretted hydrogen or carbonic acid gas in the 
stomach and intestines, caused by the decomposition 
of food. It is a disease of frequent occurrence among 
horses, always sudden in its attack and very dangerous, 
often resulting fatally. Green grass, clover, carrots 
and turnips are said to occasion it, yet it sometimes 









770 


HORSE. 


appears in stables where nothing but corn and hay 
are fed. 

It may be the result of some other disease, or ap¬ 
pear as a consequence of the spasmodic form, or may 


be produced by the same causes as those assigned to i 
the acute form. 

Sympiotns. The expression cf pain is constant but 
not so acute; the pulse is rapid and feeble, with difficult 
breathing; the feet and ears are cold; the abdomen 
is tense and swollen, and it sounds drum-like when 
struck. The animal is weak and sometimes deliri- j 
ous ; the intestines are painful. 

Treatment. Be careful about giving purgatives; 
act by injections of soai>suds and oil of turpentine, 
removing the impacted contents of the rectum with 
the well oiled hand. Give the following injection; 

pint oil of turpentine, i quart of soap-suds. Re¬ 
peat in half an hour if necessary. This operation 
requires not a little skill and courage. Give the pa¬ 
tient a large stall, plenty of bedding and administer 
the following drench; 

1 ounce fluid extract golden seal, 

2 ounces fluid extract Jamaica ginger 

I ounce hyposulphite soda, 

4 ounces of water. 

Dissolve the hyixisulphite of soda in water, then 
add the other ingredients to it. The dose may be 
repeated should it be necessar)^ 

Give easily digested food; avoid large draughts of 
water and over-feeding; give good grooming; blanket 
if necessary and keep the circulation active by hand¬ 
rubbing of the body and limbs. The following is a 
remedy that seldom fails to give relief: Take two or 
three ounces chloroform and the same of sulphuric 
ether. Pour on a six)nge or handkerchief and hold 
to the nose until the patient is etherized. 

This is a disease that, unless relief is speedily afford¬ 
ed, will prove fatal. Should the remedies presented fail 
to give relief an operation must be performed. Where i 


the sound, when tapping the flank with the knuckler, is 
most drum-like, force in a trocar into the distended 
bowels, and hold it there until all the gas has es¬ 
caped. The location may also be indicated by meas¬ 
uring an equal distance from the 
haunch-bone and the short rib, and 
not too high upon the back. Should 
you not have a trocar at hand, 
sharpen a knife and insert it. When 
the trocar or knife is removed put a 
piece of sticking plaster over the 
wound. I have never failed to relieve 
the animal by this operation, except in 
two cases out of a large number treated. 
I have often used my pocket-knife in 
performing the operation. The main 
point to be observed in treating colic 
is to relieve pain. This done for a time 
the animal will doubtless recover. 

Colic, Spasmodic. Colic is of two 
kinds, spasmodic or flatulent, the lat¬ 
ter of which is treated above. Spas¬ 
modic colic is the result of cramps or 
spasmodic contractions, causing severe 
pain, with tendency to inflammation. 
It is known as cramp, fret, gripes, etc. 
It arises from various causes, such as fast driving, 
drinking cold water when heated, change of food, 
washing the belly with cold water, etc. When early 
treated this affection is quite tractable, but should 
wrong treatment be pra.cticed, or the case be neglected, 
the most serious results may be looked for. 

Sytnptoms. All at once the horse that a few 
moments ago was well, apparently, shakes his head, 
leaves his feed, looks around at his flank, mostly at 
his right side, and scrapes the ground with his front 
foot, and strikes his belly with the hind foot, lying 
down and suddenly getting up, rolling, or lying 
stretched out for an instant, then suddenly rising. 
There may be frequent small discharges from the 
bowels and bladder. 



Fig. 50.— The First Stage of Spasmodic Colic. 

Treatment. If the disease be wrongly treated the 
pulse soon becomes wiry, the pain becomes more 
acute, the animal lies down, rolls upon its back, 




















































HORSE. 


771 


partial svveat bedews the body, the legs turn cold and 
the enteritis sets in; at this point the treatment is 
very uncertain. Relieve the pain by means of an 



Fig. 51. —Second Stage of Spasmodic Colic. 

opiate, and cause movement of the bowels. To do 
this, in mild cases, the following will be good in con¬ 
nection with injections of warm water; 

1 ounce tincture lobelia, 
to I ounce laudanum, 

4 to 5 drachms aloes, 

I pint hot water, 

I ounce spirits turpentine. 

Cool as quickly as jxissible and give every two hours. 
If there is abundant formation of gas, give the fol¬ 
lowing promptly; 

I ounce aromatic ammonia, 

I ounce sulphuric ether, 
ounces warm water, 

I ounce hyposulphite soda. 

Mix, and give at once. Another colic drench in 
good repute is the following; 

I ounce tincture assafcetida, 

I ounce sulphuric ether, 

I ounce laudanum, 

I ounce tincture lobelia. 

Put in I Yt, pints of hot water; cool, add the other 



Fig. 52. —Last Stage 0/ Spasmodic Colic. 

ingredients, and give immediately. If relief is not 
obtained, give as second dose, the following; 

I ounce sulphuric ether, 

14 ounce laudanum, 

14 ounce spirits camphor, 

14 ounce essence peppermint, 

14 ounce chloroform. 

Mix in a pint of gruel. 


Contraction of Hoof. See Hoof. 

Corns are simply a congestion of the parts, caused 
by either bruise or pressure of the contracted hoof. 

Causes. In general, the production of corns may 
be laid to the charge of the horse-shoer, and some¬ 
times to the owner allowing the horse to go too long 
before the shoes are removed, or before the foot has 
grown from the shoes. Sometimes there is an inflam¬ 
mation, owing to the formation of matter, which works 
out either at the top of the hoof or at the toe, from 
the formation of a fistula. Then it is Quittor. They 
may be found on either side of the heel, but usually 
on the inner or weaker side. 

Symptoms. There will be flinching when the walls 
of the hoof and sole are seized and strained with the 

pincers (see Fig. 53), thus 
revealing on which side and 
the locality of the corn. 

The toe will be pointed 
when at rest, and with the 
heel slightly raised. In mo¬ 
tion the gait will be short and 
stumbling. If it has pro¬ 
ceeded to suppuration, the 
pain will be so extreme that 
the horse will fear to put the 
foot to the ground. If there 
is a horny tumor forming, 
it may be known upon paring 
the hoof by the appearance of 
a white, spongy, horny forma¬ 
tion, as in sand-crack. 

Treatment. If the corns 
proceed from other diseases, 
causing contraction and other 
disabilities of the hoof, re¬ 
move these causes and the 
corns will disappear. If the 
corns proceed from a simple 
and recent bruise, which is 
generally the case, remove the 
shoe and rasp down the bear- 
Forceps, mg surface of the heels, so 

there may be no pressure; that is, the heels should 
be rasped lower than the other bearing surfaces. 
If there is inflammation, let the hoofs rest in cold 
water, or keep them moist with a wet cloth, and the 
sole with a soft sponge, or the whole hoof may be 
enveloped in a large sponge cut to fit. The animal 
should wear a bar shoe, arranged to avoid pressure on 
the parts affected. When the foot ceases to be ten¬ 
der, keep the hoof and sole smeared with the follow¬ 
ing ointment, to render it soft and promote healthy 
growth; 

I ounce Venice turpentine, 

J4 ounce tallow, 

I ounce oil turpentine, 

4 ounces beeswax. 

Use the horse at light work until fully recovered. 
If the difficulty be found to be a suppurating corn, 
one containing matter, the hoof must be cut down to 
let all the matter escape; cut away all the horn 


















































772 


HORSE. 


that has become separated from the quick, and pare 
away all the horn around the parts to a thin edge. 
Poultice the part with a linseed poultice, renewed 
until there is no longer tenderness, and the surface is 
smooth and healthy. Then put on a bar shoe with a 
leather sole, and fill the space from behind with tar, 
held in place with a stuffing of tow. Give entire 
rest and no pressure on the heel until the sole of the 
foot has grown out naturally. 

If the corn has become a tumor it should be cut 
out, and the same treatment pursued as advised for a 
corn that has formed matter. 

Old corns sometimes result in disorganization of 
the parts, or death of a portion of the heel, disease 
of the bone of the foot, or ulceration of the cartilage. 
For the treatment of this stage, see Quittor. 

Cough is a symptom of a chronic disease of the 
respiratory organs, as tubercles of the lungs, thicken¬ 
ing of the lining membranes of the windpipe, and en¬ 
largements of the 
glands of the neck. 
Cough is an attendant 
upon so many dis¬ 
orders of the air pas¬ 
sages, from the most 
trivial difficulty in 
teething to glanders, 
that it should not 
Fig. Z4.—A Horse Quidding. be overlooked in the 

diagnosis of diseases; and so many diseases leave 
the patient with a chronic cough that its symptomatic 
stages should be carefully observed. 

Coughing tends generally to a thickening of the 
membranes. When the membrane covering the 
larnyx becomes thickened, the cough becomes chronic. 

The chronic cough, resulting from colds, is hard 
and metallic. For this rub the following on the 
throat and around the windpipe once in ten days; 

15 drops Croton oil, 

I ounce glycerine, 

I ounce soap liniment (opodeldoc). 

Give twice a day, for a week, the following; 

40 drops diluted Prussic acid, 

I ounce niter, 

I ounce bicarbonate soda, 

I quart water. 

If this does not give relief, the following, valuable 
for irritable chronic cough, the result of influenza or 
sore throat, may be used: > 

Ys ounce chlorate potash, 

Y drachm tincture belladonna. 

Yi drachm tincture lobelia. 

Give two times a day in water or gruel and note 
results, ceasing after a week or ten days, if no im¬ 
provement ensues. For cough and sore throat, when 
first discovered, take; 

I drachm powdered camphor, 

1 drachm extract of belladonna, 

2 ounces sweet spirits niter. 

Give in a pint of cold gruel three times a day. Tar 
water is well known to be valuable in obstinate colds. 

Cramps. The equine family are very frequently 
attacked with cramp of the muscles of the hind legs. 


and the symptoms which usually accompany it are 
very similar to what is usually present in cases of 
dislocation of the patella—so much so that one is 
often mistaken for the other. The animal thus 
affected has great difficulty in_ lifting the leg off the 
ground, and when he succeeds in this effort the leg is 
thrust backward in a rigid manner, it being out of his 
jx)wer to extend the limb forward. 

Treatment. Clothe the body warmly, find the seat 
of the difficulty by feeling of the parts until the sore 
place is touched. Wash the parts with salt water 
and rub dry. Then apply the following liniment: 

I part sulphuric ether, 

I partsolution of ammonia, 

I part spirits of camphor, 

I part olive oil, 

I part oil cedar. 

Rub it in well, and hold a hot iron or brick to the 
parts to heat it thoroughly. 

Crib Biting. This is not a disease, but a vice—a bad 
habit, which the horse has learned, of sucking wind 
into the stomach by placing his lips against the man¬ 
ger. The habit has been so strong in some horses 
that when they could get no place to press the lips 
against, they have stooped down and placed the lip 
against the arm of their own front leg. 1 his vice is 
sometimes called wind-sucking. 

Causes. Idleness, indigestion, and .learning it 
from other animals in the same stable. 

Prevention. Keep horses in loose boxes, or other 
places where there are no fixtures but the walls; reg¬ 
ular feed and regular work. 

Treatment. Do not let the horse stand in the 
stable twenty hours out of twenty-four. Feed him 
regularly, and work him as regularly. Turn the ani¬ 
mal to pasture, and when he is brought home in the 
fall of the year, have a loose box prepared for him 
without any fixtures, as manger, trough or rack. 
Place his hay upon the floor, and his oats or corn in 
a small trough, and remove it as soon as he is done. 

Curb is a swelling in the middle of and just be¬ 
hind the lowest part of the hock joint. 

Catises. This is another mark with which cruelty 
characterizes the obedience of its subject. The his¬ 
tory of nearly every'- horse in the land is a struggle to 
exist against human endeavors to deprive it of utility. 
Nearly every horse-owner imagines that the animal 
over which he has authority possesses superior powers 
of action and strength, and to gratify his folly, the 
animal is pushed over rough roads at his utmost speed, 
or compelled to show his superiority by dragging 
heavy loads. The creature seems to comprehend and 
derive gratification from obeying the desire of its 
superior, and it complies with his wishes without a 
thought of prudence for its own personal safety. In 
its efforts to propel its body, or perhaps a ponderous 
load along an uneven surface, injury is inflicted upon 
the perforans tendon or its investing sheath, inflam¬ 
mation starts up and curb is the result. 

Symptoms. There is heat, inflammation, tender¬ 
ness, lameness, and a tendency to knuckle forward at 
the fetlock and an enlargement on the back part of 
























































































































































































































































































































































































HORSE. 


775 


the hock joint, usually about six inches below it. 

Treatment. Absolute rest, a high-heel shoe, and 
cold-water bandages, generally, will remove the diffi¬ 
culty if applied in the early stages of the disease. Af¬ 
ter the lameness becomes decided, apply the fol¬ 
lowing ; 2 ounces tincture arnica in i pint of water. 
Apply three times a day. After the disease becomes 
chronic, take red biniodide i part to 8 of lard, rub 
the parts well twice a week, greasing between times 
with hog’s lard. 

Diabetes, or Profuse Staling, called by various 
names, as diuresis, diabetes insipidus, poluria, etc., is 
simply an excessive secretion of urine, causing loss of 
flesh, weakness, and at length terminating in exhaus¬ 
tion and a general breaking down of the system. 

Symptoms. There is excessive thirst, profuse and 
frequent staling of pale-colored urine, thin and with 
little odor, loss of condition and spirits; the appetite 
fails; the skin is hard and dry; the hair harsh; the 
pulse will be weak, whether fast or slow; depraved 
appetite for licking noxious substances. 

Treatment. Change the food at once; well seasoned 
hay and grain, with linseed tea, given freely in the 
drink. The horse must not suffer from thirst, but 
inordinate drinking should not be allowed. The fol¬ 
lowing will be a good formula, to be given three times 
a day in water: 

20 grains iodine 

1 drachm iodide of potassium, 

4 drachms carbonate of soda, 

3 drachms fluid extract witch-hazel. 

Another good formula, to be given once a day, or in 
bad cases twice daily, is the following: 

2 drachms fluid extract witch-hazel, 

30 grains iodine, 

2 drachms sulphate of iron, 
ounce powdered gentian, 

I drachm Collinsonia. 

Give the above as a ball, made with molasses and 
linseed meal. If four or five doses do not show 
decided effect, discontinue. Six or seven days should 
effect a cure. 

Diarrhcea is a condition of frequent watery dis¬ 
charges from the bowels, and may be produced by 
many causes, as irritating and indigestible food, worms, 
severe purgations by medicines, disorders of the liver, 
or constitutional tendency. The owner of the animal 
must find the cause before proceeding intelligently to 
give relief. The most we can do is to give some 
general indications. From whatever cause, however, 
the diarrhoea may arise, treatment that will allay pain 
is demanded. 

Treatment. Sometimes diarrhoea is an effort of 
nature to rid the body of injurious matter. Early in 
the effort give the horse one pint of linseed oil; or if 
an active purge be required, a pint of castor oil. If 
the diarrhoea does not cease, check it with i ounce 
slippery elm bark, glycerine one-half pint, laudanum 

1 ounce. If the difficulty refuse to give way, doses of 

2 scruples of tannin may be given, or, doses of 3 
drachms of catechu every hour until checked. The 
ox requires double the dose. Follow with tonics, say 
4 drachms of gentian daily, or i ounce of Peruvian 


bark, with sound, easily digested food. If caused by 
bad water, throw a handful of charcoal in the water 
before giving it to drink. The following will be found 
beneficial in the several cases mentioned. 

For sour and fetid discharges mix the following 
ingredients in the food twice or thrice daily: 

% ounce gum arabio, 

I ounce powdered chalk, 

I ounce bisulphate of soda. 

For sour discharges with griping, take the following, 
formed into a ball with linseed meal and molasses: 

I drachm powdered opium, 

I drachm powdered chalk, 

20 drops carbolic acid. 

When the result of medical purging, the following: 

1 ounce gum arabic, 

2 ounces laudanum 

2 ounces powdered chalk, 
ounce bayberry bark. 

Mix and give in a quart of thin starch or flour gruel. 

Astringent injections may be given as follows; 

2 ounces laudanum, 

2 drachms acetate of lead, 

I quart starch water. 

Dislocations in the horse are rare, and when they 
occur are difficult to manage, except with the aid of a 
veterinary surgeon. See the article Dislocation. 

Treatment. In any case the first thing to do is to 
put the joint in place—not always an easy matter. 
The means to be employed are so different that it 
would be impossible to state them, only in a general 
way. If inflammation and swelling have set in, it 
must be reduced by cold-water applications or hot 
water fomentations. Then the joint must be brought 
to place by traction and force. When a starch band¬ 
age may be employed, this should always be used to 
hold the parts together. If not, the dislocation must 
be splintered or padded, or both, to keep the parts 
intact and in place. The slings (seeThg. 69.) should 
always be employed to rest the horse when they may 
be had. This, with cooling lotions, rest, proper care 
and feeding, will insure recovery. 

Distemper, or Strangles, an eniptive contagious 
fever, characterized by swelling in and between the 
bones of the lower jaw, terminating in an abscess. It 
is most prevalent among colts, although horses are 
sometimes subject to it. This is supposed to be a 
disease to which all horses are subject once in their 
lives, some distinguished veterinarians claiming that 
few, if any, escape it, should they live to the age of 
ten years. There are, however, in our opinion, many 
horses which escape it. Distemper is undoubtedly 
one of the evils of domestication, and generally re¬ 
sults from poor diet, foul air and bad management. 
Indeed, if it is not actually generated by filth and un¬ 
cleanness in the stables, the disease is certainly 
aggravated by causes producing miasma and bad air 
in the stables. Therefore cleanliness is essential not 
only as a means of preventing disease, but in render¬ 
ing it of a mild type when it breaks out. When it once 
breaks out all the animals in the stable are likely' to 
be infected with it, unless they have already had it. 
Colts and young horses will take it from older ones 
more easily than older ones from the young. 








>76 


HORSE. 


Take a colt from its mother, whose milk contains 
all the elements for sustaining life and developing the 
organization of the young subject, and place it on a 
diet of hay or like unnutritious trash, a whole truss of 
of it would not give one-half the nutriment contained 
in a quart of its mother’s milk. However profitable 
and well adapted hay may be for stock of mature 
growth and powerful digestive organs, it is a sad mis¬ 
take to suppose that will do for the young. 

It has been claimed that distemper is more surely 
communicated at an early than a late stage, and in 
a certain form more readily than in others. Distem¬ 
per will assume the herpetic character, simulate 
farcy and glanders, settle in the mesenteric glands, 
or may follow castration. In regard to contagion may 
be mentioned, as most readily communicable, that 
form of distemper which assumes the character of 
eruptions on the lips, nose and pituitary membrane. 

Horses will contract the disease from others when 
at a distance. It is supposed to be communicated 
both by actual contact and also from germs proceed¬ 
ing from the breath. Hence, when once it breaks 
out, at the first symptoms, isolate the sick animal or 
animals, and fumigate the stable thoroughly and 
daily. 

To do this, fill the stable with tobacco smoke, both 
the stable from whence the sick horses have been 
taken, and the place where they are confined during 
treatment. Let the smoke be so thick as to be quite 
inconvenient. Make all the animals inhale as much 
as possible. Wash every part of the stable, and 
especially the feeding places and hay racks, with a 
strong decoction of tobacco stems, using for the pur¬ 
pose cheap, rank tobacco. Keep powdered tobacco 
leaves in the mafigers of all the horses. This being 
early attended to its spread may be generally 
arrested. 

Symptoms. The disease has three stages. In the 
early stage of the disease there is a dry, hacking 
cough, and there will be noticed a discharge from the 
nose, first of a thin, watery fluid, succeeded by a 
thicker, purulent discharge of a whitish color. 

The next stage of the disase shows itself in a swell¬ 
ing of the throat. The salivary glands, which at first 
were inflamed, are now closed, and pus is being 
formed. At length an abscess is formed. 

The third stage is the suppurative stage, in which 
the abscess breaks; sometimes there are two. From 
this time on, the animal is in a fair way to mend, and 
every means should be taken to promote the dis¬ 
charge. In bad cases the suppuration may continue 
for weeks, and in extreme cases it may continue for 
months. From first to last there is a fever. The 
pulse is quickened and hard. The appetite fails, 
both from fever and inability to swallow. As the 
fever increases the eyes become dull and glassy; the 
hair is dry, will not lie close, looks dead; and the 
animal stands with its head drooped, and the whole 
appearance is stupid. 

T 7 -eat 7 nent. Never bleed in any case, as it is very 
prostrating. The animal must be warmly clothed 


and kept in a thoroughly well ventilated but com¬ 
fortable stable. Let the food be light but nourishing. . 
Mashes made of oat-meal and bran, also boiled oats, 
oat-meal gruel, and hay tea should be given for a 
drink. Give the following three times a day; 

ounce golden seal, 

I drachm copperas, 

1 drachm blood-root, 

4 drachms hyposulphite soda, 

I drachm gentian. 

Let all drink and food have the chill 
taken off before giving it. If there is 
considerable fever and the tongue is 
coated, give a little cream of tartar in 
the drink. If the limbs are cold bandage 
them and hand-rub to promote circula¬ 
tion. Give once a day in the food the 
following; 3 drachms flower of sulphur, 

I ounce resin. If the tumor forms, then 
every means must be employed to cause 
it to suppurate. Poultice the throat with 
warm bran and corn-meal mixed. It 
will be dangerous to scatter it. If the 
bowels are obstructed, remove the con¬ 
tents of the rectum by the following in¬ 
jection : 

4 drachms powdered aloes 

1 drachm common salt, 

2 pints hot water. 

Mix, and inject when blood warm. 
When the tumor has formed pus and is 
nearly ripe, which may be known by a 
soft place where it is working its way to 
the suface, open it with a knife with 
a curved-pointed blade, and if necessary 
increase the opening with a button- 
pointed bistoury, to allow free exit of 
matter. It will give almost immediate relief. 

Dropsy of the Brain: see page 763. 

Dropsy of the Heart, Lungs, Abdomen and 
Legs: see respective subjects in their alphabetical 
order in this article. 

Ear, Diseases of the. Injuries to the ear are gen¬ 
erally the result of brutal treatment. Twitching them, 
nipping and pulling upon them with the blacksmith’s 
pliers, and blows upon the head with cudgels, from 
the use of the whip, the bite of a dog, or from another 
horse biting it, sometimes result in troublesome 
bruises, ulcers and tumors that close the auditory 
passage. 

Deafness may be an organic defect, or it may be 
the effect of some disease which has disordered the 
head, and, by sympathy, the auditory nerve; and the 
sense of hearing is no doubt dulled by old age, even 
when the horse may have been well used and reason¬ 
ably free from disease; but it results in most cases 
from pulling the ears, cutting or clipping either them 
or the surrounding skin to remedy supposed defects, 
and from beating upon the head. 

Sometimes scabby or mangy eruptions make their 
appearance upon the tips of the ears and spread down¬ 
ward, covering them entirely; but this is most proba¬ 
bly the accompaniment of some skin disease. 























HORSE. 


777 


% 


Symptorns. The cuts, breaks in the skin, or sutures, 
that result from pulling, pinching, and twitching are 
readily discernible, as are also the ulcers or suppura¬ 
ting sores in which they sometimes end. When the 
tendons which sustain the ear in its upright position 
are broken, there is no difficulty in perceiving it, as 
the ear drops down and flaps about with the motions 
of the head and neck. 

Treatment. A simple laceration of the skin, and 
even of the cartilage, if small, will require no special 
attention more than to be treated as for a common 
sore by simple ointment and cleanliness. Remove 
foreign substances by the use of the forceps. 

Sometimes tumors of various shapes and sizes are 
seen in the ear of the horse, producing a kind of canker 
in that organ. 

Symptoms : Shaking of the head; will not let much 
familiarity be made with it; running or starting back, 
when the collar or bridle is being taken up over the 
ears. Causes : Irritation and inflammation of the 
skin of the ear, producing small pimples of proud 
flesh. Treatment'. Removal with the knife, scissors, or 
caustic; then apply the simple ointment as for a sim¬ 
ple sore. 

Elbow, Tumor or Capped Elbow. This tumor, 
which is situated at the back point of the elbow some¬ 
times grows to an enormous size, and it is not only 
unsightly but greatly interferes with the action of the 
elbow and its articulation. It is generally caused by 
a bruise inflicted by the calkins of the shoe while the 
horse has slept with his legs doubled up under him. 
Inflammation of the sub-cellular tissue is established, 
and that condition sets in which gives rise to enlarge¬ 
ments by increased deposit near the part. It may be 
produced also by long heels, as well as calkins, by 
striking with the shod hind foot, by a blow, and by 
lying on uneven surfaces. 

Symptoms. A slight swelling of the point of the 
elbow is first perceived, and unless the cause is re¬ 
moved this will gradually develop into a large-sized 
tumor. When of any considerable size, it will contain 
serum, or a watery matter, and has a fluctuating feel¬ 
ing to the fingers. This fluid is contained in tough, 
fibrous walls, and may remain for a long time, or it 
may at last be absorbed, and leave a hard luiror. At 
this stage there will of course be no fluctuation. 

Treatment. If discovered in its early stage, and 
serum is evidently present, let it out by opening the 
sac at the lower edge with a keen knife, or a thumb 
lancet. Press upon it so as thoroughly to remove the 
fluid. Then, with a small rubber syringe, inject a 
mixture of equal parts of pyroligneous acid, linseed 
oil, and spirits of turpentine. Before the horse is 
allowed to lie down again, make a soft pad, covered 
with chamois skin, without a seam on the outer side, 
of such thickness as to keep the shoe from striking the 
elbow when the leg is doubled under him, and tie it 
securely around the pastern. This should be on every 
night; and even after cure is effected it will be nec¬ 
essary for the animal to wear this pad, to prevent 
recurrence of the bruise, or else to have the shoe 


shortened. The pad must be at least two and a half 
inches thick. If it is in its new state, it can be as¬ 
suaged, by using frequently at moderate intervals, 
some cooling lotion. If large, watery, somewhat pen¬ 
dant, and unsightly, have an experienced surgeon 
remove it entirely, and then dress as an ordinary 
wound. 

If after it has been opened, and the fluid pressed 
out, it heals with large substance left behind, rub fre- 
(^uently with acetate of mercury until the natural state 
is restored. 

If there is constipation or feverish tendency in the 
animal, the care of tumors or other local troubles will 
always be more difficult unless this tendency is re¬ 
moved by suitable purgatives and regulated diet. 

Enlargement of the Heart, Hock and Spleen. 
See respective subjects in this article. 

Epilepsy or Fits. Epilepsy consists of a tempo¬ 
rary suspension of consciousness. This disease, if 
properly managed, is not often fatal. It varies in 
duration. Sometimes a horse will suddenly fall, lose 
all sensibility and consciousness, exhibit spasmodic 
contraction of the voluntary muscles, go into convul¬ 
sions, recover, and get up again in the course of ten 
minutes; or he may lie on the ground and have a 
succession of paroxyms, which may last for half an 
hour or more. If protracted beyond an hour or so, 
the patient is veiy apt to die. 

The fit is generally brought on by a derangenient 
in the relation between the arterial and venous circu¬ 
lation within the head and a temporary pressure on 
the brain; in other words, a determination of blood to 
the head. After the horse has fallen, by his struggles 
and herculean efforts to battle with the malady, al¬ 
though unconsciously, he soon breaks out into a pro¬ 
fuse prespiration. This has the effect of relaxing the 
capillaries so that the blood circulates more freely and 
uniformly. An equilibrium of the circulation takes 
place, and this is the end of epilepsy for the time be¬ 
ing. But a horse once having had a fit of this kind 
must be looked upon with suspicion; for he is liable, 
when under excitement from wanton punishment, or 
from exercising great feats of strength in drawing 
heavy loads, to have a re-attack. 

Symptoms. Suppose the horse attached to a vehicle, 
and traveling along at any given pace. He gives a 
sudden, snorting, loud noise, and falls to the ground 
instantly, as if felled by some unknown power. Here 
he lies, to all appearance, totally unconscious, vio¬ 
lently convulsed in every limb, his eyes staring as 
though they would burst out of their sockets; the 
mouth foams with saliva, and violent convulsions will 
sometimes affect the whole frame. Such are the prin¬ 
cipal sym.ptoms attending this formidable malady. 

Treatinent. So soon as the horse falls, some hay or 
straw should be placed under his head and around 
him. Bathe the region of the cranium with cold water, 
and carefully wash the foam from his mouth, taking 
care not to let any water, hay, or dirt enter the nos¬ 
trils. Never raise the horse on his legs. Let him rest 
quietly until consciousness returns ; then, should he 











778 


HORSE. 


attempt to get up, help him. When on his legs, deal 
gently with him. Let the external surface of the body 
be rubbed until the skin is dry; then administer two 
ounces of fluid extract of valerian, and let the patient 
be provided with comfortable quarters. For a few 
days he should be excused from work, and be fed 
lightly. The only way to prevent a re-attack is to 
keep him at light work, and^ treat him in the most 
gentle manner, both in the stable and out of it. 

Eye, Diseases of the. The construction of the 
the eye, its general appearance, etc., is fully described 
in the article on the Eye. It is of paramount import¬ 
ance that the eye of the horse should be clear, sound 
and strong; and though a most delicate organ it does 
not receive the care from the master of the horse 
that it should. The consequence of this is many dis¬ 
eases of the eye and frequent blindness among 
horses. 

Inflammation of the Haw. Hooks is the name by 
which this disease is frequently known. It consists 
of inflammation of the membrana nictitans, situated 
in the corner of the eye, and whose function it is to 
clean the eye of dirt and dust. The horse cannot 
use anyartifical means of cleansing foreign substances 
from the eye. Therefore nature has provided him 
with the haw. When inflammation exists, the mem¬ 
brane swells, and protrudes from the corner of the 
eye. Quackery frequently sanctions the e.xcision of 
this important structure, thereby leaving the eye in an 
impaired condition ever after. This method is most 
barbarous, and would certainly not be adopted by a 
person with the slightest knowledge of the injury 
that the operation inflicts upon the animal. Treat¬ 
ment: Take 

I ounce tincture of opium, 
lo drops tincture of aconite, 

I pint soft water; mix. 

Bathe the eye three or four times each day. The 
bowels should be relaxed with one-half pint dose of 
raw linseed oil. The food should consist of bran 
mashes. 

Simple Ophthalmia. This is caused by injuries from 
some foreign body getting into the eye. A practice 
commonly indulged in by teamsters, that of slashing 
the whip around the animal’s head, is frequently the 
cause of the disease; in short, anything which injures 
the eye and causes inflammation of its membranous 
investment is termed simple ophthalmia. The eye 
suddenly closes, the lid swells, the membrane cover¬ 
ing the eye is of a whitish color and is very sensitive. 
Treatmcfit: Bleed from the vein under the eye and 
apply the following wash : 

6 drachms tincture of opium, 

2 drachms tincture of aconite, 

I pint rain-water; 

or, 

1 ounce “belladonna, 

I pint rain-water. 

Use either of these washes three or four times 
each day. A good plan is to saturate a flat piece of 
sponge in either of the above lotions and bind it ujx)!! 


the eye. Care, however, should be taken that the 
sponge does not become dry, as the heat of the sjxjnge 
may cause more inflammation. 

Specific Ophthalmia. This is a constitutional disease 
affecting the eyes. Its origin has been traced to a 
variety of causes, and various erroneous opinions 
have been formed concerning it. Some attribute it 
to the change of the moon, others to wolf-teeth, 
sometimes called blend-teeth. Those opinions, how¬ 
ever, to the educated mind prove to be nothing more 
than the superstition of ancient farrier}". The most 
frequent causes to which science has traced the afflic¬ 
tion are : filthy stables, unhealthy food, impure air, 
etc. UjX)n seeing somg of the small, filthy prisons in 
which animals are confined, we cannot wonder that 
so sensitive an organ as the eye would be affected. 
Often the hovels in which horses are compelled to 
live have low ceilings, close walls, and the putrefying 
excrement is allowed to remain in the interior until 
some convenient time for its removal arrives. Prob¬ 
ably half a dozen huge pair of lungs inhale the stinted 
quantity of air inclosed within those walls. The at¬ 
mosphere becomes hot, the fermenting manure sends 
forth its ammoniacal odor, which, upon entering the 
stable, often causes the human eyes to water. Is It, 
then, any wonder if the horse’s eye, being constantly 
exposed to this contaminated atmosphere, should be¬ 
come diseased t 'Phe symptoms are well marked, the 
eye is tightly closed, copious tears flow from the in¬ 
flamed organ, the color of the eye is changed to a 
whitish hue, the pupilary opening is firmly closed, 
and the animal strongly resents the admission of light 
upon the eye. Specific ophthalmia comes on period¬ 
ically, and generally terminates in blindness of one 
or both eyes. Treatment: Open the bowels with the 
following ball: 

1 ounce aloes, 

2 drachms ginger, 

Honey and molasses sufficient to form ball. 

Remove the animal to a dark place. Bleed from 
vein running under the eye, place a cloth over 
the eyes saturated with cold water. Bathe the eyes 
with the following lotion: Tincture of opium, i 
ounce; rain-water, i pint; mix and apply four or five 
times each day. Should the pulse be much increased 
give upon the tongue every two hours eight or ten 
drops of tincture of aconite root. 

Cataract. Of this there are four kinds. The cap¬ 
sular cataract is indicated by a white sixit upon the 
capsule surrounding the lens. The turbid appear- 
arice of the fluid in which the lens floats indicates 
milky cataract. A speck on the lens is termed a len¬ 
ticular cataract, and a glistening appearance behind 
the capsule is termed a spurious cataract. Cataract 
generally follows specific ophthalmia, and little good 
can be accomplished by way of treatment. 

Giitta Serena. This is known as amaurosis or 
paralysis of the optic nerve or of its expansion in the 
retina. Nothing can be noticed ujx>n the eye to 
cause suspicion, yet the animal is partially or totally 
blind, and will run against a buildingor anyotherob- 
ject which may come in its way and display the 














HORSE. 


779 


actions of a blind horse. The best way of detecting 
the disease is by exposing the eye to different shades 
of light. When diseased, the pupil remains un¬ 
changed, while the sound eye, on exposure to strong 
light, contracts, and upon removing into a more 
shady place it expands. 

Gutta serena is sometimes called glass eye, incor¬ 
rectly, however, as the term is understood in the 
West and South. In glass eye, as understood there, 
the pupil is sound and perfect, the iris distinct and 
natural, but has a white ring around the cornea. It 
may injure the sale of a horse, but simply from 
the singular expression it gives the eye of the animal. 

True gutta serena, or paralysis of the optic nerve,is 
due to functional andorganic disease of the optic nerve. 
In the early stages of the disease, it may sometimes 
be relieved, but is likely to occur again. In the latter 
stages it is incurable. Causes: Congestion, tumors, 
dropsy or other diseases of the brain. Also by injury 
to the nerve of sight, by pressure or other cause, from 
inflammation, excess of light, and may be symptom¬ 
atic, from indigestion or during gestation. Treatment: 
Give the following: Powdered aloes, i ounces; ginger 

ounce; molasses or honey, sufficient to form a ball. 
Apply a blister behind the eye. The food should 
consist of bran mashes. No corn should be given. 

Impediment in the Lachrymal Gland. The lachry¬ 
mal ducts of the eyes are small canals leading from 
the eyes into the nose. When it is closed by inflam¬ 
mation or other temix)rary cause, the water of the eyes 
flow over the face as shown in Fig. 58, Occasionally, 

however, the duct becomes 
permanently closed. The 
usual remedy is toswab'the 
nostrils where the duct en¬ 
ters with tobacco water and 
afterwards with clean wa¬ 
ter. If this does not effect 
a cure after two or three 
trials, the duct must be 
opened with a probe. 

The duct commences by 
mai Gland. iiiinute Openings near the 

terminations of the upper and lower lids at the inner 
corner of the eye. It comes out upon the .dark skin 
which lines the commencement of the nostrils, lying 
on the inner membrane. A delicately thin elastic 
probe must be used, and about 12 inches long, the 
horse being cast and securely fastened. It may be 
necessary to introduce the probe both from the cor¬ 
ner of the eye and from the nostrils. Next charge a 
fine-iX)inted syringe with tepid water and placing the 
point into the nasal termination of the duct, force the 
water through. The operation should only be per¬ 
formed by a surgeon. 

Fungoid Tumors in the Substance of the Eye. This 
is a rare affection, and fortunately so. The causes 
which produce it are obscure, but probably the same 
as in any other cancerous affection. The end will 
probably be death, for the taint of the cancerous affec¬ 
tion is probably in the system. Upon close examina¬ 



Fig. 58 .—Obitruction of Lachry- 


tion, the eye ball may be clear, but a brilliant yellow 
substance may be seen at the base of the interior. 

If it be not deemed best to destroy the animal, the 
eye must be extirpated. Two knives are rec^uired, of 
a peculiar shape, one of small size and slightly bent 
to one side; the other larger and curved to one side 
until it nearly reaches the shape of a semi-circle. A 
sharp scalpel (the knife ordinarily used in surgical 
operations) will also be required. Two straight, tri¬ 
angular pointed needles threaded with strong waxed 
twine, a curved needle, similarly threaded, water, a 
sponge, lint, injecting tube and bellows. Cast the 
horse and fasten him so that he cannot move. Pierce 
each eyelid with one of the straight needles and tie 
secure for raising and holding the lids as shown in 
the cut. 

Let an assistant 
then hold the lids 
wide open. The 
surgeon with the 
straight knife 
quickly discribes a 
circle around the 
globe of the eye, 
severingcomplete- 
ly the conjunctive 
mucous m e m - 
brane of the eye. 
He then takes a 
small curved blade 
and passing i t 
through the d i - 
vided comjunctiva 

[Fig. 59. —Extirpation of the Eye, it IS Carried aiOUlld 

the eyeball close to the bone, severing the levator and 
depressor muscles. The cornea is then pierced with 
the curved needle, in and out, the thread drawn and 
a loop fixed. Then the eye being drawn out as far as 
possible the curved knife is passed around the rear 
of the eye with a sawing motion, the integuments are 
severed, and the eye is drawn forth. 

It is quickly done when all things are ready, but 
should not be attempted except by a competent sur¬ 
geon. Some bleeding will follow. Inject cold water: 
if this does not check the hemorrhage, force cold air 
into the cavity with the bellows. 
If this does not avail, plug the 
cavity softly with lint, bandage 
the wound to secure the dressing, 
and leave the result to the natural 
process of healing. If the animal 
loses his eye and is a valuable 
animal, and the farmer desires to 
Fig. 6 o.-Artifciat Eye. preserve his appearance, he can 
purchase an artificial eye. Fig. 60 which greatly 
adds to the animal’s appearance, and is in common 
use among horsemen. 

Worms in the Eye. These sometimes, but rarely ap¬ 
pear and may be extracted by a skillful puncture. It 
should be undertaken only by a competent veterinary 














HORSE. 


780 


or other surgeon, the horse first being securely ham¬ 
pered so he cannot struggle. Insert a seton three 
inches under the eye with needle. 

Sore Eyes. In the beginning of more serious dis¬ 
eases, soreness of the lids of the eyes is common. It 
is also produced by irritation of various kinds. In 
inflammation of the eyes, soreness of the lids is always 


Fig. 61. —Seton Needle. 

present. If from other disease, it is sympathetic, and 
will pass away with the disease itself. There is one 
form, however, that is characterized by a redness, 
swelling and itching, the edges becoming raw and 
exuding matter. This must have specific treatment. 
Treatment: The horse should have a laxative dose, 
if the bowels are not in a natural state. The follow¬ 
ing will be indicated; 

1 drachm flowers of sulphur, 

2 drachms powdered mandrake, 

3 drachms powdered aloes, 

I drachm cream tartar. 

Form this into a ball with honey and give as a dose. 

In aggravated cases that will not yield to treatment,^ 
and that remain raw and exude matter, the edges 
should be carefully touched with mercurial ointment, 
the utmost care being taken that it does not come in 
contact with the eye. 

During the whole treatment the horse must be tied 
up by two lines to the rear post of the stall, so he can¬ 
not rub the eyes, and must be fed from a nose bag. 
Wash them with 3 grains sulphate zinc to i ounce 
water. 

Weak Eyes. Very many persons, otherwise well 
informed, when from any cause the eyes of horses be¬ 
come weak, inflamed, watery, or drop tears, suppose 
the cause to be from the natural weakness of the 
sight. So “ blind teeth ” are supposed to cause serious 
trouble, and even blindness in horses. Nothing could 
be further from the truth. It is exceedingly rare that 
horses have naturally weak eyes; it can almost always 
be traced to some local cause. Thus, watering of the 
eyes is caused by a stoppage of the lachrymal ducts 
leading from the eyes into the nostrils, the natural 
channels for carrying off the superabundant moisture 
of the eye. Inflammation of the eyes is not uncom¬ 
mon from a turning in of the eye-lashes. The remedy 
is to snip them off with the scissors. 

“Blind teeth,” or “wolf teeth,” as the immature 
supernumerary tushes are called, do no injury what¬ 
ever. If it is feared they may, it is easy to take them 
out with a pair of forceps, or to knock them out with 
a punch and hammer. 

Occasionally a supernumerary tooth is found grow¬ 
ing in the upper jaw, between the first and second 
teeth, and lapping over both of thern. This is con¬ 
sidered by many persons as producing inflammation 


of the eyes. It is true that if pain results, the eyes 
may be affected by sympathy. This tooth should 
always be removed, and may be done with a strong 
pair of forceps. It may cause distress from pain in 
the jaw; nothing more. They occasionally press 
upon the nerve of the eye, producing inflammation. 

Colts are often subject to inflammation of the eyes 
i n a slight degree during 
teething. Examine the teeth, 
lance the gums and the eyes 
will recover. It is a case of 
c ^ sympathy. 

Eoreign Bodies within the 
Eyelids. When foreign bodies, 
such as small particles of hay or 
dirt, get within the eyelids, they create great pain, and 
if allowed to remain there produce a very grave form 
of disease, often ending in disorganization and total 
blindness. Should anything of the kind be discovered 
it may be removed by raising the upper or depressing 
the lower lids; then introduce and explore the eye¬ 
ball by means of a camel’s-hair pencil, to which the 
foreign body will usually adhere, when it is easily 
brought away. The parts should then be sponged 
with lukewarm water. After the lapse of a few hours, 
should the membranes of the eye and lids appear 
much reddened, use the following: Rose water, 4 
ounces; fluid extract of gelseminum, 2 drachms. Put 
the patient on a diet of sloppy bran mash, and place 
him where the rays of sunlight shall not affect the eye. 

Farcy: see Glanders in this article. 

Fever, or General Inflammation. When from 
any cause injury is done to any part of the frame, or 
inflammatory action is set up either in the tissues, 
membranes, or any of the organs of the body, heat is 
produced, and this is fever. This often becomes gen¬ 
eral from sympathy, thus in a measure relieving the 
pressure on the more closely affected parts. Fever 
is not the disease itself, but the result of disorganiza¬ 
tion; a symptom of disease or internal disorder; in 
fact, an abnormal symptom arising from sympathy of 
the system with disease in the animal economy. Re¬ 
move the cause and the fever will cease. We may 
do something to alleviate it in connection with the 
treatment of the disease itself, but we must not lose 
sight of the latter. 

In intermittent fevers there is a cold stage, a hot 
stage and a sweating stage. These may vary in suc¬ 
cession and degree, but the real difficulty is in a mor¬ 
bid state of the viscera, but particularly of the liver 
and organs employed in the formation of bile, and of 
the mesentery. In fevers the tongue is coated. But 
no quack is so ignorant as to suppose the fever can 
be cured by scraping the tongue, and yet this is fully 
as sensible as to suppose fever to be the disease itself, 
when it is an effect of disease. A rational system of 
veterinary medicine contemplates, in the treatment of 
febrile symptoms, nothing more than a kind of expect¬ 
ancy. 

If the patient be in the cold stage, administer 
warm diffusible stimulants and diaphoretics, aided by 









































































































































































































HORSE. 


783 


warmth and moisture externally; friction on the ex¬ 
tremities, and if necessary, stimulating applications to 
the chests and the extremities. In the hot stage, and 
when the superficial heat of the body is great, cooling 
drinks are indicated; water acidulated with cream of 
tartar makes a good febrifuge. 

The patient may be occasionally sponged with 
weak saleratus water. The alkali has a beneficial ef¬ 
fect on the cutaneous vessels, while the water lessens 
the temperature of the body. No treatment, however, 
can be of any rational use unless it contemplates a 
restoration of the healthy equilibrium of the whole sys¬ 
tem. Let the doctor treat the disease and a good 
attentive groom can manage the fever. 

Firing. This subject is very fully treated on page 
453 - 

Fistula OF THE Foot is treated under the head 
of Quittor on page 820. 

Fistulous Withers is similar to poll-evil, the lo¬ 
cation only changing; is caused in like manner by 
bruises. In the case of fistula, these bruises may 
be caused by a bad fitting collar; by a lady’s saddle, 
particularly if awkwardly ridden; by the pressing for¬ 
ward of a man’s saddle, especially in case of high 
withers; by striking the withers against the top of a 
low door-way; by rolling and striking the withers 
against some hard substance; by the biting of another 
horse and by a blow of a blacksmith’s hammer. 

Symptoms. The first indication will be a swelling 
on one or both sidfes of the withers, generally rather 
broad and flat. Upon examination with the fingers 
this will be found hot, tender and apparently deep- 
seated. If observed when first formed, it will be of 
uniform hardness throughout; if unattended to while 
in this state the tumor soon becomes an abscess; and 
owing to the difficulty in the way of the matter’s es¬ 
caping (its natural outlet being at the top of the 
shoulder), the pus sinks downward and the abscess 
sometimes becomes enormous before there is any 
well defined head, and before there is any opening. 
When it breaks, or is opened, a large quantity of ex¬ 
tremely offensive matter flows out. When the dis¬ 
charge has begun the tumor does not begin to grow 
healthy and heal, but the walls of the opening thicken 
and continue to discharge matter, which becomes 
more and more offensive. The matter burrows be¬ 
tween the shoulder blades and spinal points and ev¬ 
erything around seems to be rotting away; and it is 
both difficult and dangerous to trace the opening. 
In process of time several holes will appear along the 
course of the muscles in contact with original abscess, 
and from each issues a foul discharge, till the ulcerat¬ 
ing process seems to extend itself to nearly all the 
muscles of the shoulder. 

The health of the animal may at first be excellent, 
and there may be no lameness; but as the inflamma¬ 
tion extends, there is lameness of the shoulder and 
he suffers generally often greater. He is averse to 
motion and will suffer for food and drink rather than 
undergo the pain of trying to reach and partake of it. 

50 


In its worst stages the bones extending into the 
sinuses decay. 

Treatment. Be careful to ascertain, in the first 
place, whether the tumor has newly risen. The matter 
may form in one, even while it is quite small; and it 
is imix)rtant to know when the knife may be used to 
advantage. 

If matter has already formed, it can be detected 
by the somewhat soft and fluctuating feeling of the 
abscess. 



Fig. 63 .—Slight Enlargement which may end in Fistulous Withers. 

If discovered while a new formation, take the 
horse from work, if possible; if not, take especial 
pains to protect the injured pointer points from press¬ 
ure. A bruise at that ix)intof the withers where the 
collar rests will not unfit a horse for the saddle unless 
considerable inflammation and extending soreness 
have already set in; nor will a saddle bruise farther 
back on the withers necessarily unfit him for harness. 

A recent swelling should be immediately treated 
with limiment recommended for poll-evil; this will 
scatter the worst of cases if used in time. 

When the tumor begins to soften and shows signs 
of heading, have a suitable, fine-pointed, sharp 
knife. (See Abscess Lancet, Fig. 56.) Ascer¬ 
tain the lowest point of the abscess. Then stand 

close to his side, 
near the middle, to 
avoid both hind and 
fore fe'et in case 
of kicking or strik¬ 
ing, with the back 
of the knife to the 
shoulder; point up¬ 
ward and outward, 
stick at the lower 
edge, and cut open 
with a free incision. 
Next, syringe the 
abscess till it is as 

Fig. 64.—Fistulous Withers—Worst Stage, thoroughly cleaUSed 

as possible with a solution of carbolic acid and water, 
one part acid to two of water. After two or three 
days, the wound should be thoroughly cleansed by 
syringing with warm soap-suds; then use the carbolic 
acid water and salve dressing; and so on till a cure 
is effected.. 

The patient should in every case be turned out 
to grass, as lowering the head causes the matter to 






784 


HORSE. 


flow freely and the exercise taken,—all has a tend¬ 
ency to facilitate a cure. 

When the case has become chronic, and holes in 
considerable number have appeared, make a cut so as 
to reach the bones, and to include in its course as 
many holes as practical. If there are other openings 
(particularly below) cut from them into the main 
incision. Have an assistant to press back the sides 
of the greater opening till the matter is cleared out; 
and if the spinous process or points are found to be 
carious or rotten, nip off with a pair of bone forceps 
till the healthy bone is left; the wound will inev¬ 
itably matter and break through again, though it may 
for a tiine appear to have healed. After thus clean¬ 
ing out the bulk of the matter and picking out the 
bone, use the syringe and warm soap-suds still further 
to clean the parts; then inject the carbolic solution as 
previously directed. But instead of coal oil, use this 
ointment once a day; 

ounce litharge, , 

% ounce copperas, 

I ounce turpentine, 

1 drachm carbolic acid. 

Mix with pint hog’s lard. 

The copperas must be finely ]X)wdered ; then mix 
thoroughly. When a kind of thick, w'hitish discharge 
is observed to have set in, discontinue the ointment; 
but still wash or syringe thoroughly at intervals, with 
warm soap-suds. To keep away flies cover the wound 
after each dressing with a large cloth saturated with 
oil or tar, and arnica, equal parts. 

Should the horse grow feverish from the effects of 
blood-poisoning, which takes place in a greater or 
less degree in this chronic stage, by reason of absorp¬ 
tion, give an alterative or tonic comixised of 

ounce sulphur, 

2 drachms bloodroot. 

X ounce golden seal, 

ounce hyposulphite soda, 

three times a day in bran or cut feed. 

In very desperate cases it is sometimes best, or 
indeed almost indispensable, to use the rowel. 

The pipes (or sinuses, as they are sometimes called), 
the openings whence the matter exudes, take a dan¬ 
gerous direction, and tend from the withers to the 



chest. Use an elastic probe to ascertain* the direc¬ 
tion and the depth, and if it is found that cutting 


will not answer, use the guarded seton or rowel 
needle. 

Insert it as far as it will go, and then give it a firm 
rap on the handle, so as to force out the cutting 
edge and drive the point through the flesh. Knot 
one end of a long, slender tape, place the other 
through the opening near the point of the needle and 
draw it through, d hen tie a knot at the other end, and 
leave it. In this way the sinus will have an opening 
below, and the tape will act as a drain, while tending 
also by friction to remove the hard-lining of the pipe. 
As soon as a healthy-looking matter is seen to be 
issuing from the lower orifice, remove the seton, but 
cleanse occasionally with warm soap and water. 
Anoint the tape daily with 

2 ounces verdigris, 

1 dr.ichm red precipitate 
I drachm arsenic, 

1 drachm alum, 

I drachm corrosive sublimate, 
yi pint of hog's lard ; mix. 

When the party has neither the ability nor boldness 
to either cut or rowel for either poll evil or fistula, or 
where the sinuses or tubes run deep, so that it is both 
dangerous and difficult to search for them, a very 
effectual remedy is to take 

1 pint of strong vinegar, 

Yi ounce of litharge, _ 

2 ounces muriatic acid, 

Y ounce corrosive sublimate. 

Finely pulverize and mix. 

Take a metallic syringe with a long pipe, inject a 
small portion of this mixture to the bottom of the tubes, 
twice a week, until well. Do not let the animal get 
wet while using this mixture. 

Fistula of the P.\rotid Duct. The parotid 
duct, which is formed by a union of the smaller ducts 
of the parotid gland, enters the mouth after it leaves 
the gland, in front of tlie large masseter muscle of the 
cheeks—having passed for some distance upon the 
inner side of the jaw, and then turned under the 
lower border of the bone. The saliva secreted by 
the parotid gland, which lies at the spot where the 
neck joins the jaw, is poured into the mouth by the 
parotid duct, to be mingled with the food during 
the process of mastication. If the mouth of this little 
tube is closed in any way, so as to prevent the free 
egress of the saliva, distension of the duct takes 
place, and the confined secretion causes suffering, 
inflammation and finally rupture. This stoppage is 
sometimes caused by hay-seeds or other particles of 
food that enter the mouth of the channel while 
the animal is feeding. The presence of food in the 
mouth and the motion of the jaw stimulate the action 
of the gland, and since the saliva thus secreted can¬ 
not escape by its natural opening, there is constantly 
more and more pressure until some outlet is found. 
This, as we have said, may be by bursting, or it may 
be by external accident. A wound inflicted on the 
jaw by any \x)inted instrument, as a hay-fork, has 
been known to penetrate the channel. The saliva 
thereupon pours through the opening, and by its 
constant flow it prevents the healing of the wound. 


1 














HORSE. 


785; 


so that its edges speedily become hard and without 
that liveliness essential to the closing of punctured 
or gashed flesh. 

Symptoms. The digestion becomes deranged when 
the process of mastication is carried on for any con¬ 
siderable length of time without the foods being moist¬ 
ened by that secretion which the parotid duct in a 
healthy condition furnishes; but the orifice in the 
skin, under the jaw, or on the cheek at the large mus¬ 
cle, discharging a liquid somewhat resembling the 
white of an egg, is the unmistakable indication of the 
disorder under consideration. During the act of 
feeding, this fluid is freely discharged, even some¬ 
times squirting from the wound, and especially so if 
the food is dry and hard to chew. It will be noticed 
that in chewing the horse uses the opposite side of 
the mouth from that on which the opening occurs, 
and that the process is slow and difficult. The edges 
of the wound soon become callous, the running of 
the stream down the cheek destroys the hair, and the 
whole part has a filthy and fistulous appearance. 

Treatment. In the first place, especial care must 
be taken to keep the animal during the period required 
for effecting a cure, upon food that requires no 
chewing. 

It should be sufficiently plentiful and nutritious to 
prevent the uneasiness of hunger. Soft mashes and 
gruels alone should constitute the diet. All the treat¬ 
ment necessary is an injection of i drachm carbolic 
acid with i pint water. Put a seton through the duct. 

Fl. 4 tulent Colic. See page 769. 

Foot, Inflammation and Ulceration of the. 
It is thought that a rheumatic constitution pre'dis- 
ix)ses an animal to this disease. Certain it is, that 
highly organized and weak-limbed animals most 
usually suffer from it, probably from the fact that they 
are not able to withstand an injury that a stronger- 
limbed animal would do, especially when carrying a 
bad-fitting shoe, or subject to violent exertion or over¬ 
strain of any kind. Another very common cause is 
grain founder. The most common cause is over¬ 
heating the animal and allowing him to cool off too 
suddenly, causing what is generally called founder, 
but in fact is inflammation of the laminae of the foot. 
Heat is always present in the inflammatory stage. 

Symptoms. The foot will feel hot, the toe will be 
pointed, in the stable, eight or ten inches before the 
other, and with the heel slightly raised. The animal 
will be observed to step short, and on the toe, with 
liability to stumble when first taken out of the stable. 
This will disappear as the animal gets warm, but re¬ 
turn as soon as he is cool. By bending the foot back 
and pressing with the thumb in the hollow of the heel 
on either side of the flexor tendon with considerable 
force, it will cause intense pain. These are all char¬ 
acteristic tests. 

Treatment. If the injury is new, the first thing to 
be done is to reduce the inflammation. Do this with 
cold-water applications or any of the remedies advised 
for ring-bone, spavin, or other inflammation. Give in 
laxative doses, 4 drachms of aloes; have the shoes 


taken off and let the horse stand during the day-time- 
in pure, wet clay up to the top of the hoof, and at 
night poultice the foot. If there is much inflam¬ 
mation, bleed the arteries above the coronet. Keep 
the horse perfectly quiet, and if he has a fast pulse 
give an ounce of saltpeter in the drinking water night 
and morning. At the end of two weeks, or sooner if 
the inflammation is gone, blister the coronet all 
around. Or, use the following: 

I ounce camphor gum, 

I ounce corrosive sublimate, 

I pint oil turpentine. 

Grind the sublimate thoroughly in a mortar, and put 
into a strong bottle; pour on the turpentine and shake 
occasionally. It should be fit for use in from 20 to 30 
hours. This is to be applied every other day to the 
heel and bottom of the foot, first paring away all scaly, 
ragged parts with instruments in cut shown by Fig. 66. 



Fig. 66 .—Drawing Knives. 


Anoint the external walls of the hoof with equal 
parts of coal oil and honey, or fish oil. Heat it in 
with a hot iron. 

Foot. The following small items on different dis¬ 
eases and accidents of the foot, not treated elsewhere, 
we insert here; 

APil in the Foot. Pull out the nail and enlarge 
the opening to allow escape of matter, but do not 
make the opening larger than the head of a nail. 
Then poultice the foot during a day or two with equal 
parts of flaxseed meal and bran, after which tack on 
a light shoe with a couple of nails loosely. Apply once 
or twice daily in the wound a portion of tincture of 
iron, and cover the hoof with a light bandage to pre¬ 
vent dirt from clogging up the wound. The horse 
should be kept in a shaded, cool place on earth floor, 
and be fed on loosening mashes and tut grass instead 
of hay. Give him water at least twice daily from a 
bucket. 

Dry Rot. Keep the animal on a clean floor, and 
occasionally remove all decayed horn without injuring 
the vital parts. This, together with frequent applica¬ 
tions of tar, will be all that is needed. 

Cracked Heels. Apply a poultice made of linseed 
meal i pint; bran, 3 pints; sugar of lead, 2 drachms; 
hot water, a sufficient quantity to each of the affected 
parts, and continue this treatment for four days, 
changing the poultice once every 12 hours. After the 
pcAilticing has been got through with, the following 
lotion may be applied to the parts every night and 



























786 


HORSE. 


morning: Sulphate zinc, i ounce; glycerine, 4 ounces; 
water, 12 ounces f mix. The horse should have free¬ 
dom from work until the wounds in the heels are 
thoroughly healed. 

Brittle Hoofs. Equal parts of pine tar and fish oil 
make an excellent application for brittle hoofs. It 
may be applied with a brush once or twice a day. 

Split Hoof. Put in wood screws and join the parts 
or walls of the hoofs together so they will not work or 
move (open and shut) as the horse travels, and then, 
as new hoof forms above, it will remain whole, and 
when it grows off—which will be in about one year 
—he will have a smooth, sound hoof. 

Foul Sheath. A horse with a foul sheath is a 
misfortune to his master, unless the difficulty occurred 
before purchase. 

Treatment. Clean the sheath of all foul matter 
with warm soap-suds, removing all lumps. To wash 
the sheath, take hold of the yard when protruded, and 
without undue violence hold it with gentle pulling 
until there be no resistance, when it may be pulled 
out its entire length. When washed, oil thoroughly 
with lard. Every other day or every three days wash 
again. 



Fig. bj.—Position Assumed by Horse SufferingfromGrain Founder. 

Founder, Chest, or Water Founder. Nine times 
out of ten, in this case, the trouble will be found in the 
feet. When it is not soreness of the muscles from 
hard work, it is rheumatism in its acute form. It may 
be brought on by suddenly allowing the horse to be¬ 
come chilled after heating, giving large drafts of cold 
water when warm, or driving him into cold water up 
to his belly when heated. 

Symptoms. The horse is dull; his coat may be 
staring ; he is stiff and moves unwillingly. Sometimes 
the soreness extends to the limbs; there is fever in 
the parts affected, also sometimes profuse sweating 
and heaving at the flanks but the legs will remain 
warm. 

Treatment. Clothe the horse warmly, and put him 
where he may be kept so. If the animal is fat, and 
full of blood, if there is evident determination of 
blood, give 20 drops of aconite, in a little water, three 
times a day. 

Founder, Grain, or Gorged Stomach. Gorged 


stomach is usually the result of overfeeding, by which 
means the stomach becomes overtaxed in its function, 
or overburdened in its capacity. When engorgement 
of the stomach occurs, and is associated with flatu¬ 
lency, the sufferings are doubly severe, because then 
the intestines are also the seat of distension, and the 
pain from that alone is sometimes terrific. 

Treatment. The bowels should be immediately re¬ 
lieved by removing the contents with repeated injec¬ 
tions of warm water. Let the animal be gently walked 
about, and warmly clothed in cold weather. If discov¬ 
ered early, or before colic sets in, give the following to 
evacuate the bowels after having relieved them by in¬ 
jections : 

6 drachms golden seal ; 

6 drachms powdered aloes ; 

I ounce syrup of buckthorn ; 

I ounce tincture of ginger ; 

I ounce tincture capsicum ; 

I ounce common salt; 

yii ounce hyposulphite soda. 

Give in a pint of warm water, and repeat every half 
hour. 

Or administer the following drench; 

1 ounce extract of ginger, 

2 ounces fluid extract of golden seal 

2 drachms hyposulphite of soda, 

4 ounces water. 

The dangers to be apprehended in cases of this 
character are either rupture of the intestines or dia¬ 
phragm. In either case, death is sure and certain. 
Sometimes, however, neither of these ruptures occurs; 
then the distended intestines exert such pressure on 
the diaphragm and organs of respiration that the ani¬ 
mal dies of suffocation and loss of pulse. ^V hen, 
therefore, it becomes impossible for the patient to 
swallow medicine, in a case of this character, recourse 
must be had to the trocar and canula, in view of lib¬ 
erating the imprisoned gas. The lack of a little 
knowledge on this subject has been the cause of the 
loss of very many valuable horses. 

Founder, Foot; Laminitis. This is an inflam¬ 
mation of the sensitive laminae or inner portion of the 
foot. It is one of the most painful maladies to which 
this noble animal is subject. The cartilaginous por¬ 
tion of the foot being enclosed in a horny and inelastic 
case, becomes greatly inflamed. Thus the secreting 
portion, which is highly vascular when inflamed, and 
swollen and compressed within the horny wall, is ren¬ 
dered acutely painful. Horses with hard, brittle hoofs 
are most liable to this disease. Man enslaves the 
mute creature with a selfish view of bettering his own 
condition, yet as long as the cpiadruped moves 
soundly, no thought is taken for the prevention of the 
diseases to which he is liable. Animals are allowed to 
stand upon dry floors, and worked upon dry roads, 
without any consideration being made for the moisture 
which the hoof requires to keep it in a healthy condi¬ 
tion. The causes of laminitis are: Driving far and fast 
upon hard roads, watering while sweating, and stand 
ing in a draught of air while warm. So it may be brought 
about by other diseases, as inflammation of the lungs, 
especially when the feet are prepared for its recep¬ 
tion, by allowing them to become dry for want of the 































HORSE. 


787 




necessary moisture. Heavy fast horses are especially 
predisposed to founder, and so are those with small 
and deformed or large, flat feet. 

Symptoms. There will be general fever and stiff¬ 
ness and soreness; there may or may not be shiver¬ 


Fig. 6 S.—A Foundered or Dead Lame Horse. 

ing. Soon extreme tenderness of the feet follows, 
generally most severe, in the forward part, but soon in 
the heel; the pulse is strong, full and rapid; the 
breathing quickened with dilated nostrils; the intens¬ 
ity of the pain will often cause the animal to groan 
and to break out into a sweat. If pushed backward 
the horse will elevate the toes and throw his weight 
on the heels by a peculiar motion. The hoof and 
frog will be hot and very sensitive to pressure, and 
the arteries of the pasterns will beat with violence. 

When the inflammation is in the hind feet, which 
is very seldom, the fore feet are carried as far under 
the body as possible to support the weight, while the 
hind feet are thrown forward to bring the weight upon 
the heels. In either case, the animal will often he 
stretched out for hours to relieve the intense pain of 
the feet. 

Founder has sometimes been mistaken for a disease 
called myositis, an inflammation of the muscles of the 
limbs, especially of the hind quarters and loins. They 
should never be so mistaken, as an observation of the 
several symptoms will show. In founder, fiist one 
foot and then the other is lifted from the ground.^ 
Lying down lessens the pain and the feverof the feet, 
and the difficulty usually occurs in the fore feet. In 
myositis, both feet are kept on the ground with refusal 
to move either. The animal will not he down, and if 
thrown down the pain is increased and the disease is 
generally in the hind quarters. 

In many cases the symptoms are not so aggravated 
as we have shown, but the symptoms, whether one or 
more of the feet are affected, are the same, and often, 
especially when repeated attacks have been suffered, 
leave the animal with seedy toe, pumiced feet, corru¬ 


gated and otherwise distorted hoofs, and always more 
or less liable to recurrence of stiff spells during life. 

Treatment. In light cases, when discovered early, 
clothe the animal warmly, give twenty drops tincture 
of aconite every two hours preceded by a gentle lax¬ 
ative, say: 

2 drachms cream tartar , 

2 to 3 drachms powdered aloes ; 

I ounce bicarbonate of soda ; 

I quart linseed oil. 

Mix in a pint of water and give as a 
drench. If there is severe pain give ounce 
doses of laudanum every hour until an effect 
is produced. 

As an application to the feet keep them 
in large warm poultices of linseed meal and 
water, or let the feet be placed in water kept 
as hot as the animal can bear. Put him in 
slings by all means, if they can be procured. 
Have the shoes carefully taken off as soon as 
the sedatives given will allow him to bear the 
pain. As early as possible the animal should 
be bled in the veins above the coronet of the 
affected feet. The bleeding will be assisted 
by the feet being placed in hot water, and 
for this reason, if for no other, the slings 
should be used as quickly as possible. 

If at the end of two days the fever and tenderness 
does not get better pare down the soles and open 
them at the toe to let out any watery matter that may 
exist, for fear the horn may separate from the quick, 
keeping on the poultices afterwards as before. When 
the inflammation subsides blister the pasterns and 
apply corrosive liniment to the soles of the feet, and 
keep the horse standing on soft clay, or if in summer 
time turn him into a moist, soft pasture. 


Fig. 69.— Slings. 

Frog, Injuries of the. The frog of the horse’s 
foot is especially liable to injury from being bruised 
on projecting stones or pierced by nails and splinters. 
It is also liable to inflammation of the secreting mem¬ 
brane, resulting in the formation of matter, and to 
canker. 

Treatment. In all bruises with soreness pare away 










































788 


HORSE. 


the frog carefully until the difficulty is found. If 
bruised, treat it by using the liniment recommended 
for navicular diseases. If pierced with some sharp 
substance, extract it and inject tincture of aloes and 
myrrh. If the difficulty be thrush, caused by expo¬ 
sure to wet and filth, bruise of the frog, hard substances 
lodged in the cleft, or other cause, there will be sore¬ 
ness of the skin behind the cleft of the frog, and bad¬ 
smelling discharges from the cleft, with more or less 
lameness. Wash the affected parts thoroughly; cut 
away all ragged surfaces and press into the cleft of 
the wound Venice turpentine. 

Frost Bite. The results of frost bites may appro¬ 
priately be termed chilblains, which again gives rise to 
extreme swellings of the heels and back parts of the 
hind legs, until finally the skin gives way, terminating 
in sores and ulcers that may at once be taken for 
scratches. Injury from the effects of frost is more 
common in the North and West than is generally 
supposed, and in many cases rheumatism, founder, 
and other stiff complaints, may be attributed to this 
as the predisposing cause. 

The causes of frost bites are long exposure to cold, 
cither standing in the open air or confined in cold 
stables; standing in half-melted snow and slush; 
keeping young animals in exposed yards, where they 
cannot take sufficient exercise and without sufficient 
food. . 

Symptoms. The skin of the injured parts, in light 
cases, turns purple, cracks and exudes a bloody 
serum; or if severe, the skin and tissues beneath lose 
color and become dead and eventually shrivel. The 
skin, especially of the heel, will crack, often from one 
side to the other, refusing to heal. 

Treatment. If the limbs are simply chilled, friction 
will be all that will be necessary. If actually frozen 
the animal should be warmly clothed and the frozen 
parts rubbed with snow until circulation is partly 
restored. Then put the parts in cold water and con¬ 
tinue rubbing until warmth and circulation are entirely 
restored. Then dry thoroughly with cloths and hard 
rubbing. If the frosting has been neglected and raw 
sores make their appearance, prepare the following; 
Equal parts of lime, water and linseed oil; rub the 
whole thoroughly together and apply twice a day to 
the raw or ulcerated places. 

G.4STRITIS, OR Inflammation of the Stomach. 
Acute inflammation of the stomach very seldom, and 
we might very safely say never, occurs among horses 
as a spontaneous affection. Any thing which impairs 
the digestive functions may produce this disease. It 
is usually occasioned by irritating medicines or poisons. 

Symptoms. There is a dry cough; the membrane 
of the mouth and nostrils are dry and pale ; the 
breath is tainted; the evacuations smell badly; the 
eyes are sunk, the coat dry and ragged; the horse 
loses condition and becomes pot-bellied; the anus is 
lax and prominent. The ordinary food will be refused 
and the animal will persist in eating foreign substances 
—old lime mortar, the wood-work of the stable, earth, 
litter and bedding. 


Treatinent. To cure will take time. Prevent the 
animal from indulging its unnatural appetite. The 
following will be indicated: 

ounce sulphur, 
drachm bloodroot, 

I drachm gentian, 

4 drachms poplar bark, 

I drachm cream tartar. 

Give three times a day in food. 

If the animal has simply chronic indigestion—that 
is, if the disease does not show in the severe form we 
have depicted, to improve the general health the fol¬ 
lowing will be indicated; 

I ounce powdered assafoetida, 

1 ounce powdered golden seal, 

2 ounces powdered ginger, 

2 ounces powdered poplar bark, 

5 drachms powdered sulphate of iron, 

I drachm powdered red pepper, 

I pound of oatmeal. 

Mix, divide into sixteen messes, and give one every 
night in the food. By the time the mixture is used 
the general health of the animal will be improved. 

Glanders and Farcy. We here treat glanders 
and farcy both under one head, as they always should 
be. They are one and the same disease in different 
stages—or differently located, and manifested by 
somewhat different symptoms. For the benefit of a 
few “quacks” who are a disgrace to the veterinary 
profession, and who will, in the face of all the facts to 
the contrar}’, maintain that farcy is a separate disease 
from glanders, and basing their reasons entirely on 
what they choose to call “ farcy buds,” we will say: 
Those lumps are nothing more than ulcerated lym¬ 
phatic glands, caused by the virus in the system ; and 
while it is a fact well known to the true veterinarian 
that those buds or lumps are not always present in 
glanders, they are never found except where glanders 
is present. Where they are found they require no 
special treatment, as they are the effect, and not, as 
ignorantly supposed, the cause. 

There can be no better evidence put forward to 
prove our former statement correct, as regards the 
identity of these two diseases, than the following 
well established fact, which has been demonstrated 
time and again beyond all doubt. If you take some 
of the virus from the ulcer of a farcy horse and 
inoculate a sound one, the subject thus inoculated 
will, in a few days, become thoroughly glandered; and, 
vice versa, if you take the matter of a horse afflicted 
with the glanders and inoculate a sound horse with 
the virus, the victim will in due time have what is 
termed farcy, in its most malignant form. With such 
facts before us, and, at the same time, with a full 
understanding of the highly contagious and infectious 
nature of this loathsome and incurable disease, we 
have no hesitation in condemning all animals found 
afflicted either with glanders or farcy; they should be 
destroyed forthwith. 

Glanders seems to be primarily a disease of the 
lymphatic and nasal glands, and confined to them 
in the early stages; but the more advanced stage is 
an inflammation and ulceration of the absorbent ves¬ 
sels of the entire system, and this stage is usually 
termed by veterinarians farcy. The disease is contagious 













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HORSE. 


791 


only by inoculation and not inhalation, but it is doubt¬ 
less due far more frequently to predisposing causes 
than to contagion. It is found as a prevalent disease 
where neglect, filth, and foul atmosphere exist; and 
we may reasonably conclude that poisonous inhala¬ 
tions, acting iqx)n the delicate and easily irritated 
membrane of the nose, produce that incipient ulcer¬ 
ation from which the subsequent general poisoning 
proceeds. In close stalls, the carbonic acid given off 
from the lungs (which gas is of a deadly poisonous 
character), passes again and again into the lungs, 
mixed with other impurities of the stall itself; this act¬ 
ing perhaps more readily upon the nasal membrane 
than upon the other linings of the air passages, pro¬ 
duces inflammation. This inflammation may long 
exist, and unsuspected by the ordinary observer, till 
some intense action is set up, when ulceration takes 
place. Or it may be produced by anything that 
injures and weakens the vital energy of the membrane, 
as violent catarrh, accompanied by long continued 
discharge from the nostrils, a fracture of the bone of 
the nose, and the too frequent injections of stimulat¬ 
ing and acid substances up the nostrils. EverjUhing 
that weakens the constitution, may, under peculiar 
circumstances, produce glanders. 

It must be observed that its infectious nature is not 
general, but particular, depending upon inoculation 
with the matter exuded.from glanderous ulcers, or-at 
least from poison received in some way from the glan- 
dered animal and communicated directly to a wound 
or to some delicate membrane of another horse, an 
ass, or a human being. In the first stage the dis¬ 
charge so much resembles that which attends some 
other nasal affection as sometimes to pass unnoticed ; 
but examination will disclose a curious fact which has 
not been accounted for; It will be confined to one 
nostril, and that, in the vast majority of cases, the left. 
Occasionally it is the right, verj'- seldom both. This, 
however, must not be regarded as a peculiarity of the 
first only, as it is common to every stage of the disease. 
The second stage is characterized by an increased 
flow, and it also becomes more mucous and sticky, 
while its color changes from an almost transparent 
clearness to an opaque whitish or yellowish tinge. 

It often begins now to drip from the nose in stringy 
clots. Some of the matter in this stage, now more 
actively ^xiisonous, being taken up by absorbents, af¬ 
fects the neighboring glands. If both nostrils are 
discharging, the glands within the under jaw will be 
enlarged on both sides; if from one nostril, only the 
gland on that side. As other diseases will produce 
these swelled glands, as catarrh, for instance, it be¬ 
comes necessary to look for some peculiarity in order 
to determine certainly as to the existence of glanders. 

At first the enlargement may be spread over so 
much surface as not to make any distinctly marked 
lumps; but this season changes, and one or two small 
swellings remain, and these are not in the center of 
the channel, but adhere close to the jaw on the af¬ 
fected side. 

The absorbents become more and more involved; 


it seems now that general ulceration has set in, and 
the additional symptoms are henceforth those of farcy. 

To prevent its being mistaken in its earlier stages 
for strangles, or distemper, which is sometimes done, 
the following directions will suffice: The first jxis- 
itive indication of glanders, is ulceration of the mem¬ 
brane lining the nostrils. Unless this is present, there 
need be no fears ; but if this is present, accompanied 
with discharge and matter streaked with blood and 
smells bad, the worst may be expected. Strangles is 
peculiar to young horses, and at the outset resembles 
cold with some fever and sore throat, accompanied 
generally by distressing cough and some wheezing. 
The enlargement which sometimes appears beneath 
the jaw in strangles is not a single small gland, but a 
swelling of the whole substance between the jaws, 
growing harder toward the center, and at length, if the 
disease runs on, breaking. In strangles the mem¬ 
branes of the nose will be very red, and the discharge 
from the nostrils profuse and mattery almost from the 
first. When the tumor has burst, the fever will abate 
and the horse will speedily get well. 

To distinguish it from catarrh or cold, for which 
also it is sometimes mistaken, observe that fever, loss 
of appetite, coughing, and sore throat all accompany 
catarrh, whereas these symptoms are rarely if ever 
found together in glanders. In catarrh, the horse 
quids his food (drops it from his mouth partially 
chewed), and gulps his water. The discharge from 
the nose is profuse and sometimes mattery; the 
glands under the jaw, if swollen, are movable, while 
there is a thickening around them, and they are hot 
and tender. 

Treahnent. The contagious character of glanders 
renders it dangerous, as has been said, not only to all 
of the horse kind, but to man. Therefore, on its dis¬ 
covery, no time should be lost in removing the affected 
animal from the possibility of communicating the dis¬ 
order to another. If stabled, there should be no con¬ 
nection whatever between his stall and those of other 
animals, as the discharge from the nostril (in which 
lies the danger) may be communicated through any 
opening sufficient to allow any horses to bite or nibble 
at each other. If placed to pasture, it should be 
, known that no other horse is at all likely either to be 
turned in with him or to approach the inclosure. 
Remember that a glandered condition may long exist, 
and minute ulcers, in the hidden recesses of the nose, 
discharge a limpid or clear fluid, without any of the 
active and violent symptoms being manifest; but that 
all this time the horse may be able to communicate 
the disease toothers; and that these may die of it 
while he is yet in reasonably fair condition. 

Meanwhile, swab out the nose every day with a 
solution of pyroligneous acid, using warm water, as 
warm as the horse can well bear, and putting in suffi¬ 
cient of the acid at first to make the solution of medium 
strength. It should be increased a little from day 
to day; but care must be taken not to make it too 
strong, as violent acid injections or swabbing solutions 
are calculated to do harm rather than good. A good 







HORSE . 


792 


mop for this purjxjse may be made by attaching soft 
rags (old cotton cloth is best) to a light stick, two feet 
in^length, so arranging the cloth as to have it project 
beyond the end of the stick to be inserted, to prevent 
any roughness that might abrade or scratch the mem¬ 
brane, and fastening very securely to prevent its 
slipping off. 

If this instrument is fo.und not to be efficacious, or 
if the disease has already developed into the second 
stage, the discharge more mucous, sticky and string)^ 
with glands swollen and the membrane of the nose 
of a dark purple or leaden color, adoj^t the following 
treatment and carry it out energetically and persist¬ 
ently. Make a gallon of very strong decoction or tea 
of tobacco leaves, which keep ready for use. Put 
enough of this into warm water, as warm as the horse 
can well bear, and swab out his nostrils with it, as 
high up as possible, using the mop as just directed. 
Then put a gill of this same strong tobacco tea into 
a pint of warm water, and drench him with the solu¬ 
tion. There must be no uneasiness on account of 
^ the dreadful sickness which this will produce. The 
tobacco is necessary thoroughly to relax the system 
and overcome fixed or chronic tendencies, and to 
counteract the influence of the glanderous poison. 
Swab out the nose every day for eight or ten days, 
and drench every third day for from two to four 
weeks, or until the discharge has ceased and the 
ulcers are perceptibly healing. Some veterinarians 
recommend bleeding in this case, but nothing could 
be more ignorant when the vital energies are already 
depressed. So for the two first stages. If all these 
directions, those as to food and care as well as for the 
administering of medicines are faithfully carried out, 
they will cure the majority of cases in the early or 
middle stages of the disease. 

If disease has passed into the third stage, however, 
no treatment can confidently be recommended. So 
doubtful is it as to whether any remedial agencies 
will avail, that most veterinarians in the United 
States confidently declare that the best thing to do is 
to kill the sufferer in the quickest and most humane 
way, and bury him deep in the ground beyond the 
IX)ssibility of his contaminating the atmosphere with 
his decaying and poisonous carcass. A horse affected 
with this disease in any stage is dangerous to the man 
who handles him, but he is doubly so, perhaps, when 
he has become a loathsome object in limbs and'body 
as well as in head; and under ordinary circumstances 
it is doubtless best to destroy him as quickly as pos¬ 
sible. In case treatment is determined upon, nothing 
better than that prescribed for the second stage can 
be recommended. It remains now but to suggest 
some precautionary measures to prevent contagion 
in addition to those which have already been given. 
If a stable is known to have been used by a glandered 
horse, no other animal should be allowed to occupy 
it until the trough, the rack and the walls have been 
thoroughly scraped and scoured with strong soap and 
warm water. Then take i pint of chloride of lime 
and dissolve it in two gallons of water, with which 


thoroughly saturate every part that the horse s nose 
may have touched. Next, whitewash the walls inside. 
Then burn bridles, halters, buckets out of which he 
has drunk, whatever may have been about his head; 
and if any blanketing has been used have it carefully 
washed, or burn it up. 

Gleet, Nasal. This term is used to denote a 
thin transparent discharge from the nose. It some¬ 
times follows distemper, or strangles, and is one of 
the attendants on glanders, sometimes running into it, 
but is generally the result of neglected catarrh. It is 
in one of its forms a suppuration of the mucous mem¬ 
brane lining in the facial sinuses, producing distortion 
and a terribly offensive discharge, which may have 
been i)roduced by a blow on the face. 

Symptoms. Discharge is not always present, neither 
is it uniform. Sometimes during fair weather it will 
be almost discontinued. The discharge is a thick, 
yellow mucus tinged with green, if the food be grass, 
or with the color of the food. If it becomes puru¬ 
lent (from pus, matter) and tinged with blood, it 
may end with ulceration of the cartilages of the nose, 
and in glanders. If the discharge is confined to the 
left nostril, is tenacious, elastic, accumulates around 
the edges of the nose, if there is enlargement of the 
lymphatic submaxillary gland, under and on the side 
of the jaw, it is cheaper to kill the horse, or else call 
in a surgeon, since for the proper treatment of the 
disease the trephine should be used, by which a cir¬ 
cular piece of the bone may be taken out to facilitate 
treatment. 

Treatjimit. In mild cases look for decayed molar 
(grinding) teeth; if found, remove them. Look for 
swelling of the frontal bone, produced by bruises. 
Put the horse where he may be comfortable; let his 
diet be light, but soft; fresh grass in summer, with 
good food. Inject the nasal passages thoroughly 
with the following: i drachm blue vitriol i pint 
water. 

Prepare the following: 

1 fluid drachm carbolic acid, 

I pint water, 

1 drachm copperas, 

2 drachms gentian, 
ounce poplar bark, 

3 drachms hyposulphite soda. 

Give three times a day in bran or feed. 

Goitre, Enlarged CtLands. There are various 
glands in the throat that are subject to enlargement 
from disease, and which remain permanent after the 
disease is passed. This is generally more unsightly 
as a blemish than as a real disability. In some por¬ 
tions of the East it is quite prevalent. For all 
enlargements of glands, tincture of iodine and 
iodide of potassium, added to eight parts of hog lard, 
will disperse the swelling if it may be possible. 

_ In bronchocele, or goitre, rain-water only should be 
given to the patient to drink; iodine in doses of 10 
grains daily may be given on an empty stomach, and 
the swelling may be painted with the tincture. This 
is to be persisted in for months. 

Grease, or Cracked Heel, consists in a morbid 









HORSE. 


793 


condition of the sebaceous glands of the horse’s heels 
and fetlocks. It occurs in various degrees of intens¬ 
ity ; sometimes as a mere scurfy itchiness of the skin 
about the fetlocks, more commonly of the hind ex¬ 
tremities ; sometimes attended with much inflamma¬ 
tion, causing great heat, pain and sw^elling, and an 
ichorous, fetid discharge; sometimes causing falling 


Fig. 71. —First Stage 0/Con- Pig. 72. —Second Stage 0/ Con¬ 
firmed Grease Cracks, firmed Grease Cracks. 

off of the hair about the heels, and the formation of 
deep cracks and fissures, and sometimes becoming 
so violent and inveterate as to cause eversion to the 
sebaceous glands, formation of granulations and secre¬ 
tion of pus, constituting the loathsome complaint 
termed the grease. 

Cause. Grease is generally the result of filth. 
Horses are worked all day in muddy weather, and at 
night turned into a filthy stable. The animal’s food 
may be attended to, but he is forced to lie upon a 
filthy bed and breathe the contaminated air of the 
stable. The legs covered with mud become cold 
from evaporation. The subcutaneous glands are in¬ 
flamed and grease is established. To save trouble in 
grooming, lazy people often clip off the hair with 
which nature has so beautifully adorned the horse’s 
heels, thereby exposing the tender parts to the action 
of cold and wet. These parts being the farthest from 
the center of circulation, where the blood vessels 
have to form several angles to reach them, it is evi¬ 
dent that the blood flows most tardily. Then is it 
any wonder that sudden exposure would engender 
disease ? 

Frequently, however, it may be regarded as most 
probably a secondary disease, originating in some 
other, which has resulted from carelessness or inhu¬ 
man treatment, or from constitutional weakness. 

It is contagious, but filth and want of attention 
will produce it in nearly all horses similarly subjected 
to their influences. 

Symptoms. It manifests nearly the very same 
symptoms as thrush, as given on a subsequent page; 
but there is one striking peculiarity which distin¬ 
guishes it from thrush, foot-evil and other disorders 
of the kind: the heel cracks open. In a healthy 
state the heel of the horse is moistened, and so kept 
from becoming dry and hard, by constant secretion 
and discharge of an oily fluid from the cellular tissues 


under the skin. When this is obstructed, the skin 
becomes dry and feverish, and looks scurfy and hot. 
It soon after cracks, and the pent-up oily secretion, 
now turned to a foul, yellowish water, flows out. As 
the flow of water increases, it becomes more and 
more thick, and sticky, and stinking; and if not 
attended to the heel and sides of the foot become an 
ulcerated mass. 

It sometimes manifests itself by oozing out a thin 
matter through the pores of the skin from some deep- 
seated disease of either the coffin-bone or the navic¬ 
ular joint—most frequently the latter. The more 
effective treatment in this case would of course be 
that directed to the healing of the primary disorder. 

Treatment. The treatment necessary is similar to 
that for scratches. In the first place, see to it that 
the causes w'hich have induced it shall no longer 
operate. If the disease is secondarj^, it must be some¬ 
what difficult to manage; and the animal should be 
allowed to rest, taking only such exercise as nature 
prompts, in an open pasture, except in bad weather. 
When it is necessary to confine him give him a good 
stable, dr)' litter and pure air. Remember that rest 
is one of the first conditions of success, while constant 
driving or any other labor will most probably defeat 
the ends of the physician. 

If the disease is not discovered in its early stage, 
and the general health of the animal has not suffered, 
cleanse the parts well with tepid water and castile 
soap, and make occasional applications of the treat¬ 
ment recommended for scratches. A few applica¬ 
tions will generally be found sufficient. Sprinkle the 
parts well after application with pulverized charcoal. 

If the horse is thin in flesh and in a low state of 
health from the effects of this disease, mix sulphur 
and rosin, in the proportion of two parts of the former 
to one of the latter, and give him a quarter of a pound 
of this every third day until he has taken three or 
four doses. Meanwhile, thoroughly apply to the parts 
the treatment for scratches, till the disease is 
thoroughly conquered. If the liniment forms a scab 
upon the heel, so hard and dry that the remedial 
effects seem to cease, omit the liniment for several 
days and keep the heel well greased. The scab will 
come off, and then the application of the liniment may 
be resumed. This course must be persevered in till 
a cure is effected. 

The liniment should be applied at night, and the 
horse should not be turned into pasture when the 
grass is wet with dew or rain,—at any rate not till six 
hours after the application has been made. 

In summer, pasture will in general afford sufficient 
food; but in winter it should be more nourishing, yet 
green and succulent as far as possible. Roots and 
good bran mashes ought to be given in reasonable 
quantity. ’ Grain, as a regular diet in this case, is 
objectionable, on account of its tendency to produce 
inflammation. 

After three doses of the sulphur and rosin have 
been given, as directed, the following mixture, given 
every night until all traces of the active disease have 









794 


HORSE. 


disappeared, will be found an excellent tonic or 
strengthening medicine, and having the effect, too, of 
giving healthy tone to the skin; 

ounce liquor arsenicalis, 

I ounce of muriate of iron, 

X pint of water. 

This constitutes a dose; mix and give as a drench. 

The following may be used for the feet: 

8 ounces tar, 

I ounce beeswax, 

I ounce rosin, 

I ounce alum, 

I ounce tallow, 
t ounce sulphate of iron, 

I drachm carbolic acid. 

Mix and boil over a slow fire, stirring as long as 
dirty scum appears, and then add two ounces of 
scrapings of sweet elder. 

Hair, Falling Off of the. For that unwhole¬ 
some state of the skin and hair glands known by the 
learned terms of humid exanthema and dry exanthema, 
that causes the falling off of the hair, the following is 
an excellent local remedy when the animal is not 
under general treatment for some disease primary to 
the state now under consideration: 

. I ounce pulverized charcoal, 

I pint olive oil. 

5 ounces pyroligneous acid, 

I ounce common salt. 

Mix, and rub upon the parts daily with a sponge or 
a soft rag. 

Head, Big: see page 759. 

Heart, Dropsy of the. The pericardium or 
membranous covering of the heart is subject to 
inflammation; by this inflammation and consequent 
obstructed circulation in the minute vessels that supply 
it, an effusion takes place and either thickens the 
walls of the pericardium itself, and thus contracts or 
compresses the heart, or it is deposited in the cavity 
of the pericardium in quantities varying from a pint 
to a gallon. This diseased condition is generally 
found in connection with dropsy of the chest or abdo¬ 
men. 

Symptoms. In the early stages of the disease there 
is a quickened and irregular respiration, with a bound¬ 
ing action of the heart. As the fluid increases the 
action of this organ becomes feeble and fluttering. 
There is a peculiar expression of anxiety and alarm on 
the countenance of the animal. If he does not die of 
the disease before the pericardium is filled, violent 
palpitations and throbbings characterize the advanced 
stage. The breathing becomes difficult, and when 
the head is raised there is a tendency to faint. 

Treatmejit. If it is observed while there is yet a 
painful state of the pericardium by reason of inflam¬ 
mation, profuse effusion not having taken place, the 
first thing is to reduce the inflammation and allay the 
pain, and thus forestall the further accumulation of 
the fluid. For this purjxjse relieve constipation, which 
is usually found as an accompaniment, by moderate 
doses of salts or of oil. Then give the following 
draught three times a day: 

20 grains iodide potassium, 

I ounce nitrate potash, 

15 drops tincture aconite, 

I pint water. 


The animal must be kept comfortable, according to 
the season, and have a plentiful supply of fresh air 
and cold water. If there are no indications of relief 
within two days, give the following draught: 

20 grains iodide potassium, 

4 ounces solution acetate ammonia, 

10 drops tincture of aconite, 

12 ounces water, 

I drachm cream tartar. 

Repeat this after eight hours and then leave off 
the aconite, but continue to give, at intervals, the 
acetate of ammonia and water. If the disease has 
reached an advanced stage and the cavity of the peri¬ 
cardium is largely filled with water, it is scarcely to be 
hoped that the animal may be saved; but even in 
that case the course here prescribed should be adopted, 
unless there is some more general disorder under 
such treatment as will render it unnecessary or 
objectionable. 

Heart, Enlargement of the, is an increase of its 
muscular substance and may be confined to one side 
or one ventricle. Sometimes disease of the valves 
leads to enlargement much beyond its usual size. It 
also accompanies broken wind and other impediments 
to the free action of the lungs and breathing tubes. 

Causes. Long continued hard work; chronic in¬ 
digestion, or some obstruction to the circulation. 

Treatment. Keep the animal quiet, and at only 
slow, moderate labor; never overload or put him to 
speed. Let the diet be of easily digested food; never 
allow the stomach to become overloaded. Give twice 
a day from 20 to 30 drops tincture aconite root, as the 
case may need. If there is broken wind or other seri¬ 
ous impediment to breathing, 3 to 4 grains of arsenic 
in the food has been found useful. If the case, how¬ 
ever, be of long standing or due to permanent obstruc¬ 
tion, treatment must be simply alleviation. The case 
will end in death. 

Heart, Fatty Degeneration of the, is occa¬ 
sioned by a change of the muscular substance of the 
heart to a fatty state, by which the organ is weakened, 
at length leading to the rupture of its tissues. It is 
not uncommon in high-bred stock, including cattle 
and swine. 

High feeding, inactivity, want of exercise and 
the result of such diseases as purpura, scarlet fever 
and diseases which are the result of profound alteration 
of blood, are the causes of this disease. 

Syf/iptoms. Debility in the circulation, irregularity 
and weakness in the pulse, lessening of the heart 
sounds, swelling of the legs and sometimes a general 
dropsical condition, dilatation, a want of correspond¬ 
ence between the heart beats and the stroke of the 
pulse, appetite irregular and capricious, and the mem¬ 
branes of the mouth and nose a rusty red color. 

Treatment. Humor the appetite with sound, easily 
digestible food. There is no remedy. Attention to 
the general health, and an ounce of chlorate of potash 
twice a day in the food may mitigate symptoms when 
more violent than usual. In all heart or arterial dis¬ 
eases give rest, and in fattening stock, do so as 
quickly as possible. 








HORSE. 


795 


Heaves or Broken Wind. This sad affliction is 
often brought about by the ill usage which man im¬ 
poses upon the most obedient of servants. The ani¬ 
mal is often compelled to eat food containing so little 
nutriment that the stomach has to be crammed to its 
greatest capacity in order to sustain life. The dis¬ 
tended stomach presses upon the diaphragm; by this 
the expanding capacity of the lungs is lessened and 
disease is provoked. Again musty hay and oats are 
fed, tlie animal is imprisoned within walls that pre¬ 
vent him from breathing the pure atmosphere. The 
dust from the unhealthy provender is inhaled into the 
bronchial tubes, the tissues of the lungs become de¬ 
ranged and broken wind is the consequence. Other 
causes, however, aggravate the disease, such as vio¬ 
lent exercise, while the animal’s stomach is distended 
with food or water, etc. The affected animal heaves 
at the flanks, or, rather, performs what is known as 
abdominal respiration. 

To detect heaves when they are covered, the reader 
should make himself acquainted with the natural 
sound of the lungs when in health. On applying the 
ear to the front of the chest of a broken-winded horse 

(see Fig. 73) an irregular 
crepitating sound can be 
heard, which may easily be 
distinguished from the gen¬ 
tle murmur of the healthy 
lung. Catch hold of the 
halter on the left side with 
the left hand, and pull the 
head a little around toward 
that side, then with a stick 
about two feet in length 
c- u . u .L c: j make a sudden movement, 

Fig. 73. — Ho%v to Hear the Sound . , •» i • 

Made in the Horse'^s Windpipe, aS if gOlHg tO Strike the ani- 

mal under the belly. This will elicit a painful groan, 
which proves that the wind is affected. 

Treatmcnf. There is no permanent cure for this 
disability. Food of the most nutritious quality should 
be given, such as corn, oats, beans, etc. The quan¬ 
tity of hay should be lessened, about six pounds per 
day being sufficient, and it should always be wet; and 
if sprinkled with a little resin and blood-root it would 
be better. Water should be given in small quantities, 
from four to six times each 
day. With each drink 
mingle ^ a drachm of sul¬ 
phuric acid. The oats and 
hay should be well sifted 
and damped. A lump of 
rock-salt should be jilaced 
in the manger. The ani¬ 
mal should be allowed to 
hold his head in the easi¬ 
est possible position, and 

not as we often see, as in¬ 
dicated by Fig. 74. Bearing: upon theja^v. 

this usage and moderate work, a broken-winded horse 

can be made serviceable for a long time. 




Hemorrhage, Internal. Internal bleeding or 
hemorrhage is rare unless made by puncture of some 
of the deep-seated blood-vessels. 'I'he orifice leading 
to the surface being obscure and high, will of course 
occasion internal bleeding. When they can be got 
at the remedy is of course tying. Punctured wounds 
do not bleed much, the clot usually closing the orifice, 
assisted by the contraction of the vessel. In trans¬ 
verse or oblique clean cuts of an animal, causing 
wounds to the important arteries, death must follow 
unless they can be cut down upon and tied. 

Rupture of the blood vessels of the lungs sometimes 
occurs from over-exertion, and is also common from 
the nose. Or hemorrhage of the lungs may arise from 
any pulmonary complaint involving the blood vessels. 
In this case it must be determined. If the blood 
comes from both nostrils and is frothy, it is from the 
lungs. If the horse has no specific disease of the 
lungs, and is in full flesh, bleeding from the neck 
vein, a full stream, may check the hemorrhage. Dig¬ 
italis in 15-grain doses may be given. It may give 
present relief; but probably there is no permanent cure. 

If the bleeding is from 
the blood vessels of the 
nose, a strong solution of 
alum may be syringed up 
the nostrils. If this fails 
pour pint of boiling \va- 
ter on a drachm of matico 
leaves, and when cool 
strain and inject it up the 
nostril. 

Chronic hepatitis (conges- 

Fn.. Ti-—Internal Hemorrhage, inflammation of 

the liver) often results in hemorrhage internally. The 
symptoms confirming this state of things are, the 
mouth cold, nasal membranes pallid, the eye ghastly. 
The horse will look for the seat of pain in the right 
side, and usually lies on the left side when down. The 
head is depressed. As the disease progresses there is 
increased weakness with staggering. The pupils of 
the eyes are dilated; the sight is bad, and if the head is 
attempted to be raised high the animal instantly shows 
signs of failing. 

Treatment. Put the animal in a roomy stall, or 
loose box. Keep the bowels regulated by grass and 
bran mashes, only with nutritious food and as much 
gentle exercise as the animal can take. Prepare the 
following: 

I ounce tincture muriate of iron, 
s ounce iodide of potassium, 

I quart liquor potassae. 

Mix, and give two tablespoonsfuls twice a day in i 
pint of water. 

Hernia. This is a name given to .rupture, which 
see in this article. 

Hide-bound. This is a common term among 
farmers and horsemen, though, strictly speaking, it is 
not a disease, but the result of a diseased condition 
of the general system or of derangement of some spe¬ 
cific vital function. Anything that will debilitate the 














796 


HORSE. 


system will cause it. Poverty and cruel usage—the 
food being deficient in quantity or quality, and the 
labor onerous—bring onimpaired digestion ; the blood 
becomes thick, dajk, and feverish, because the secre¬ 
tive processes are sluggishly performed; the skin 
sympathizes with these internal disorders, and the 
lubricating fluid through the pores is suspended; and 
then, instead of remaining soft and pliant, it becomes 
dry and adheres to the body. A disordered state of 
the stomach, bowels, and urinary and respiratory or¬ 
gans may be considered as having produced it when 
no specific form of disease can be discovered as ex¬ 
isting; but it is an almost invariable accompaniment, 
in a greater or less degree of intensity, of big head, 
glanders, consumption, and chronic dysentery. The 
fever in these dries up the watery secretions and 
shrinks the hide. 

Formerly it was supposed to be caused by worms in 
the stomach and alimentary canal; but this is erro¬ 


neous. Worms may of course exist while the horse is 
in this state, but they are rather a consequence than 
a cause—the result of imperfect digestion and excre¬ 
tion. The skin, as has been elsewhere stated, sym¬ 
pathizes readily with the vital internal organs, and in 
all obscure cases hide-bound should be considered a 
symptom of disorder in these, and treated accord- 
ingly. 

Symptoms. The skin is dry and hard, and the hair 
is rough and rusty. Adhering almost immovably to 
the ribs, legs, neck—almost every part of the body— 
the skin cannot be caught up in folds with the hand. 
At times it appears scurfy, and theexhalants (having 
the quality of giving out or evaporating) pour forth 
unusual quantities of matter, the more solid portions 
of which form scales and give the horse a filthy ap¬ 
pearance. The excrement or dung is hard and black. 

Treatment. Especial pains must be taken to dis¬ 
cover, if possible, what specific disease has given rise 
t(; this state of the skin. If the cause is obscure, direct 


the treatment to restoring a healthy condition of the 
digestive organs. Begin by bettering his treatment 
in every way. Instead of allowing the skin to grow 
clogged, torpid, and dead for want of cleanliness and 
friction, he should have regular daily curr\’ing and 
brisk rubbing with a good brush or coarse cloth, which 
will materially aid in restoring healthy action of the 
skin. If it is pasture season, give him a run at good 
grass during the day, but stable at night in a clean 
stable, furnished with dry litter, and give him a gen¬ 
erous feed of bran and oats or moistened bran and 
chopped hay. Mix with the food the following alter¬ 
ative : 

3 ounces golden seal ; 

3 ounces poplar bark ; 

3 ounces powdered sassafras bark ; 

3 ounces sulphur ; 

3 ounces salt; 

2 ounces blood-root; 

I ounce balmony ; 

I pound oatmeal. 

Mix and divide into twelve doses; give one three 
tiines a day. A good and sufficient tonic 
may be furnished, of which the horse may 
be allowed to partake as much as the 
system requires, by placing a poplar iX)le 
in the stable, upon which he can con¬ 
veniently gnaw. Should it be during 
the winter, it will generally be found 
necessary to begin the course of treat¬ 
ment by giving a purgative, say two 
ounces of Epsom salts, w'hich may be 
repeated within seven hours if it fails to 
produce the desired action; and to feed 
him on laxative food until constipation 
is overcome and a healthful action of 
the bowels restored. 

Remember that one of the very first 
objects is to establish regular action of 
the bowels; and then generous diet (let 
it be green and succulent if possible, 
but at any rate nutritious without being 
inflammatoiy), wuthcleanliness and daily, 
regular friction of the hide wall do more than medicine. 
Do not expect to effect a speedy cure ; in any event, 
the very existence of hide-bound indicates chronic 
disorder, and all chronic diseases require time. 

If it is known to be the result of a well-defined dis¬ 
ease, as big-head, glanders, etc., the treatment must 
of course be directed to the removal of that, according 
to directions elsewhere given in this work; and the 
hide-bound wnll disappear as its immediate cause is 
removed. 

Hock, Brqken. The hock is an important joint or 
part of the horse, and is the seat of many diseases, 
causing lameness. In most cases of lameness of the 
hind leg, the hock is the true situation of the trouble. 
Broken hock is a term applied to breaking the cap 
of the hock. The only treatment is absolute rest, the 
application of sedative lotions, as laudanum, equal 
parts, with water, to remove pain, and astringents, as 
white-oak bark. It is sometimes necessary to blister 
near the part to get up counter-irritation, or put in a. 



Fig. 76. —One 0/the Causes q/' Hide-boutui in the Horse. 


























































































































































































































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HORSE. 


799 


seton below the hurt. The mode of using a fixed 
seton needle, to bring a wound together, in sewing, 
where a proper crooked, flat needle is not at hand, is 



Fig. 78. —Manner of Using a Seton Needle. 

here shown. It will also serve to show the manner of 
using a needle for a seton, to be threaded with white 
tape. 

Hock, Capped. This is an enlargement at the 
ix)int of the hock, caused by blows or injuries to the 
part. It sometimes assumes large proportions, and 
is at first hot and tender. The common practice is 
to blister or to insert a seton. This, however, is 
wrong. To blister or seton an already inflamed part 
is still aggravating the injury. Cooling embrocations 
should at first be applied until the heat and pain be 
removed. For this use the following : 

I ounce sal ammoniac, 

I ounce nitrate of potash, 

I pint of water. - 

Should the enlargement become hard, the best way 
is to dissect the callus out carefully. Dress the 
wound with a solution of chloride of zinc, i grain to 
an ounce of soft water. 

Hock, Enlargement of the. Inflammation may 
ensue from various bruises or strains. Rest and 
fomentations will generally set this right if taken 
early. Sometimes, however, the enlargement will 
continue to grow in spite of all efforts to the contrary, 
and until the joint is involved. 

Symptoms. There are two forms of this disease. 
In one, the tendons and cartilages only are affected. 
This will generally yield to fomentations and a few 
applications of oleate of mercury. If not, blister. 
Another form is more serious. From a severe blow 
or other cause there is a bruise of the bone, by which 
the investing membrane, called the periosteum, is 
either severely strained or torn loose, giving rise to in¬ 
flammation and formation and deposit of bony matter 
on the surface of the bone, sometimes to such a de¬ 
gree that the parts are of excessive size and the legs 
so lame that it is only with great difficulty the animal 
can walk. The animal may, indeed, as in cases of 
bog spavin, be capable of doing farm work, but is un¬ 
fit for driving on the road. 

Treatment. Precisely the same treatment must be 
pursued as in cases of bone spavin. 

Hoof, Contraction of the, or Narrow Heel. 
In a healthy condition the hoof of a horse should be 
nearly round. Whatever shape the hoof may assume 


it is not a disease in itself, but the result of disease or 
of some disability. It is generally the result of fever 
in the feet from injury to bones, ligaments or frog, or 
the effects of founder, etc. Contraction of the hoof 
exists in nearly all diseases of the feet, and may occur 
from standing idle in the stable. So it may result 
from undue paring of the heels, the bars on the frog, 
or from a shoe remaining on so long that the foot is 
prevented from taking its natural giowth. 

Treatment. The only thing is to remove the shoes 
and round the edges of the hoofs to prevent their 
being broken or split. Anoint the external wall of the 
hoof daily with equal parts of coal oil and honey or 
fish oil. In shoeing, let the shoe be without bevel 
on its upper side, and let the bearing be equal on all 
parts of the wall of the hoof. Fill the bottom of the 
foot every night with moist clay or white lead. 

Hoof, Cracked. This is not a rare ailment of 
horses. It generally arises from weak and brittle hoofs, 

produced by a dry state of 
the hoof, whatever may be 
the cause, whether fever or 
other causes of degeneration. 
The prolific causes are drying 
of the wall of the hoof, un¬ 
even bearing of the shoe, 
calking, or other wounds or 
injuries of the coronet. This 
crack may be extended down 
from the coronet according to 
the time it may be allowed to 
run. 

Treatment. If taken early, 
a bar shoe having an even 
Tig. 7g.—Closing CracA. bearing all around will gen¬ 
erally relieve the difficulty. In connection with this, 
apply a plaster of pitch over the injury. 

If the crack becomes determined, as in the cut 
given, it must be kept closed together by clinching a 
thin nail with the instrument shown by Fig. 80, on 
each side of the gap near the bottom and top, or else 
with thin wire as shown in Fig. 79. Also burn a 



Fig. 80. —Instrument for Closing Cracks in Hoofs. 

groove just below the crack about an inch long nearly 
down to the quick. It is also well to slightly blister 
the coronet at the top of the crack. Apply to the 
parts Venice turpentine. 

Hoof Rot. This difficulty, sometimes called ten¬ 
der feet, arises from diseases of various kinds, spavin, 
ring bone, chronic founder, navicular disease. There 
is a dry, feverish state of all the parts, and the hoof, 
and especially the sole, becomes decayed and some¬ 
times perishes entirely. 










8oo 


HORSE. 


Sytnptoms. The bottom of the hoof is dry and 
chalk-like, so that it may easily be dug away with the 
point of a knife, or even easily scraped away. The 
frog of the foot diminishes in size, and the ankle- 
joints are apt to swell. The horse steps short and 
goes lame, if in one foot, or if in both, cripples in his 
gait. The affected foot will be jx^inted forward to en¬ 
able the animal to rest on the sound foot. 

Treat 7 }ient. Remove the shoe, pare away all the 
unsound portions of the hoof until all the pumiced 
parts are got rid of; also the frog and the sides of the 
hoof. Stimulate the bottom of the hoof by washing it 
with corrosive liniment, used in navicular diseases, 
once a day for three days, heating it in with a hot 
iron. Then omit for two or three days, and commence 
again. During the treatment the animal must be kept 
in the stable, and the feet should be kept dry. AVhen 
hoof rot is due to other diseases, as ulceration of the 
navicular joints, it will do no good to follow the rule 
laid down until the cause of the difficulty is removed. 

Hydrophobia, or Rabies. There can be but one 
reason for describing this disease, which is en¬ 
tirely beyond the reach of help, and that is, that the 
horse attacked with it be destroyed immediately on 
its discovery. 

It generally arises from the bite of a dog, though 
wolves, foxes and cats are subject to it by spontaneous 
generation, and this bite is as fatal to another 
animal and to man as that of the dog. The horse 
need not be absolutely bitten. The licking of his 
bridle-bit sores at the corner of his mouth by a mad 
dog is sufficient to introduce the poison by absorp¬ 
tion; and if the horse by any means chances to 
take into his mouth and stomach, with his food, the 
saliva or spittle of a mad animal, he will very prob¬ 
ably be attacked, and especially if the animal so 
dropping the spittle is suffering with the disease in its 
violent stage. The poison is known to reside in both 
the spittle and the blood of its victim. When once 
the virus has been generated in or communicated to 
any animal, hot weather, abuse, want of water, want 
of food, will produce that feverish state which is so 
favorable to its development, and the greater or less 
time in which it manifests itself, decidedly in horses, 
after inoculation, is probably due to the then condi¬ 
tions or the absence of such. The poison remains in 
the system without producing the positive symptoms, 
from three to eight weeks. 

Since several of the most formidable diseases have 
recently been traced by the microscope to the pres¬ 
ence of peculiar organisms, it is reasonable to presume 
that rabies also is either due to the presence of 
microscopic organisms or actually consists of them. 

Symptoms. Blood on the lips or elsewhere, with 
marks of violence, are of course to be regarded as 
symptoms of dog bite, if any known occasion for such 
a thing has existed ; and for a few days these will be 
the only indications. If the horse is high fed and full 
of blood, and the weather is hot, the poison may be¬ 
gin to produce outward effects in from five to ten days 


by a swelling of the bitten parts, and by a difficulty 

manifested in swal¬ 
lowing. In from 
twelve to fifteen 
days there is per¬ 
ceptibly increased 
pulsation,inflamed 
throat, with thick¬ 
ening of the mem¬ 
brane which lines 
it; from the fif¬ 
teenth to the 
twentieth day the 
stomach inflames 

Fig. 8i. —Countenanceof Horse with ^nd perhaps re¬ 

jects food ; but nothing certainly can be stated as to 
this point, since here the symptoms vary greatly with 
different animals; in some cases the appetite is vora¬ 
cious, and so morbid that the sufferer will devour his 
own excrement and urine. Sometimes he will exhibit 
burning thirst and drink freely, while again water will 
cause spasmodic movements and be avoided with 
horror. But in general the appetite is destroyed, and 
that dread of water which characterizes the disease in 
man is pres'ent in the horse. 

In a very short time the indications increase, and 
usually (as we have said, with full-blooded, feverishly 
disposed horses, at a time of high temperature) before 
the twentieth day, absolute madness sets in. He now 



Fig. 82. —Destructive Impulse oy Hydrophobia. 

rubs the bitten parts against anything convenient with 
increased violence; sometimes, instead of rubbing, 
he will bite and tear the wound; the eye assumes a 
wilder and more unnatural appearance; some patients 
neigh speakingly, shove out the tongue or gnash the 
teeth. The progress of the disease is now very rapid; 
generally there is profuse sweating, suppression of the 
urine, and inflammation of the parts of generation. 
His countenance changes from a look of anxiety to 
one of cunning and a sort of grinning ferocity, 
and there is an irrepressible desire to bite man or ani¬ 
mal—whatever living thing may be had within reach. 
He gazes sometimes at an imaginary object and springs 











HORSE. 


8or 


and snaps madly at vacancy; his propensity to de¬ 
stroy grows with his pain, and at last he wreaks his fury 
uix>n inanimate objects; the manger or trough, the 
rack, whatever is seizable in his stall is torn to pieces 
with his teeth or smashed with his feet. If not con¬ 
fined he darts ferociously at whatever object of attack 
may present itself; has a peculiar dread of water; 
plunges about like a demon of destruction, snorts,* 
foams, sometimes uttering a kind of crying neigh, and 
perhaps beats himself to death before the last and 
comparatively helpless stage comes on. 

If not destroyed before the disease has run its 
course, paralysis, usually confined to the loins and 
the hinder extremities, sets in, and involves with it all 
those organs which depend for their nervous influence 
upon the posterior portion of the spinal cord. Unable 
to stand upon the hind legs, the animal will sit upon 
his haunches, and strike and paw with his fore feet. 
The suffering is sometimes rendered more terrible by 
tenesmus or inaction of the bowels, which seem dread¬ 
fully oppressed but have lost the power to act, while 
the kidneys are fevered and torpid, and the urine 
cannot be voided. 

It sometimes happens that the disease is developed 
by exertion and heat, when no previous indications 
have been manifest, and shows itself in a peculiar 
manner. The horse stops all at once in his work, 
heaves, paws nervously, trembles, staggers and falls. 
In a moment he will be up, and may, if put to it, pro¬ 
ceed a few moments, when he will stop, stare about 
and lie down again. This stage is sometimes mis¬ 
taken for blind staggers, but it may be distinguished 
by observing that in blind staggers the horse loses 
his senses, while in hydrophobia he is always conscious, 
often actually intelligent and observing. 

Treatment. This is a disorder of so dreadful and 
dangerous a character that some of the ablest veter¬ 
inarians do not hesitate to advise the instant killing 
of the sufferer; and they refuse to give any directions 
for attempting a cure. When the furious stage has 
come on there seems to be a sort of demoniac mali¬ 
ciousness and treachery, with a watchful cunning, that 
makes it hazardous for friend or stranger to trust 
himself anywhere within reach. It is extremely 
doubtful, too, whether recovery ever takes place after 
the madness is developed. When the animal is bitten, 
cauterize the part bitten with caustic or a red-hot 
iron. Then if the animal shows unmistakable signs 
of rabies the safest and best plan is to destroy him. 

Inflammation of the Absorbents. Inflam- 
Ination of the absorbents {Lymphangitis) has a variety 
of names, among which are “weed,” and “shot of 
grease,” and may be a constitutional case or a mere 
local affection. In its constitutional form it is found 
in ffieavy, lymphatic, fleshy-legged horses that, hard- 
worked on heavy feed, are left in the stable for days 
together. 

In its local form it is the result of wounds, bruises, 
injuries of various kinds, putrefying matter in and 
around the stable. It may occur from the specific 
poison of glanders, etc., and in the constitutional form 


may go on to abscess, sloughing and unhealthy sores,, 
and death; or the horse may be left with the limb 
permanently thickened. In the local form there may 
be abscess, diffuse suppuration, induration of the 
glands, and even the vessels and surrounding parts. 

Symptoms. There will be more or less shivering; 
in bad cases, severe, quickened breathing; rapid, hard 
pulse; a general feverish state, and fever in one or 
both hind limbs. Enlargements may be detected 
high up in the groin, by the side of the sheath in the 
horse or udder in the mare, and great tenderness of the 
inguinal glands. The shivering fits will be succeeded 
by fever, with burning sweats, swelled limbs, exuda¬ 
tion and filling, sometimes to the body. 

Treatment. In mild cases give moderate and daily 
exercise, pay attention to diet, ventilation, and clean¬ 
liness. If the case is more severe, give from 4 to 6 
drachms of aloes, apply warm fomentations continu¬ 
ally to the limb, with walking exercise. The bowels 
having been thoroughly moved, give diuretics, an 
ounce of saltpeter in a gallon of water two or three 
times daily; or 10 grains of iodine. For “thick leg,” 
a chronic thickening of the limb, bandage from the 
foot up when the animal is in the stable, and apply 
tincture of iodine for four days, giving daily exercise; 
or rub the limb with iodine ointment and give the 
following once a day: 

ounce powdered resin, 

’/i ounce nitre, 

10 drops oil of juniper, 

I drachm cream tartar. 

Mix into a ball with liquorice powder and molasses. 

If abscesses form, open them with a sharp knife 
and dress with the following; i ounce carbolic acid, 

I pint distilled water. In the local form there will be 
slight swelling of the cords and redness in white skins. 
The lymphatic glands will be enlarged along their 
course, and become nodular or knotty. There will be 
pasty swellings of the parts and even erysipelas. 

Treatment. Give rest and a purge of aloes, as 
recommended for the chronic stage. ^Vash the dis¬ 
eased limb with the following: 

drachm opium, 

I drachm acetate lead, 

I drachm carbolic acid, 

I quart rain-water. 

In case of excessive inflammation ixiultice with 
flax-seed or bread and milk; open the suppurating 
parts to let out the matter and dress with carbolic 
solution, as in the other form of the disease. 

Inflammation of Parotid Gland, Peritoneum, 
Knee-joint, BLEEorNO of Rectum, Stomach and 
Tongue. See the respective subjects in this article. 

Influenza, Pink-eye, Epizootic, Contagious 
Catarrhal Fever, etc. This disease, which is 
known by the several names above given, is consti¬ 
tutional, and is characterized by great muscular de¬ 
bility, loss of appetite, heavy throbbing or beating of 
the pulse at the region of the heart: easily worried; in 
the last stage the hind legs swell, the skin cracks, and 
water runs out, etc. It is sometimes so mild as to 
require very little treatment beyond ordinary good 
nursing, freedom from work, comfort, cleanliness, 









8o2 


HORSE. 


plenty of ventilation, and a laxative, nutritious diet. 
The cause of the disease is supposed to be due to a 
poison—an atmospheric germ, the true nature of which 
is as yet but little known. It is an infectious disease, 
and is regarded by some as being contagious; but in¬ 
vestigations have not yet proven its communicability. 
The disease is one which attacks all solipeds, and the 
degree of its intensity is greater in the ass than in the 
horse or mule. 

The peculiar characteristic of “ pink eye ” is that of 
great emaciation, in some cases the animals being re¬ 
duced to mere skeletons ; and in these cases, of course, 
convalescence is retarded, and the appetite is slow in 
returning. “ Pink eye,” as a rule, is not very fatal, 
but as it is a disease which is liable to attack any of 
the tissues of the body, it may in some outbreaks 
prove very disastrous. 

A frequent sequel to “ pink eye ” is one commonly 
called dropsy. Most of the cases prove fatal. Owing 
to the debilitated condition of the heart’s action, there 
may be amemia of the brain, which is also very fatal. 

Symptoms. The period of incubation of influenza, 
as it is generally called, varies from a few hours to a 
few days, and in the majority of cases there are no 
premonitory symptoms shown. Probably the first 
symptom shown is a staggering gait, and in some cases 
the debility is so great that after an animal has fallen 
down assistance is necessary to get the animal on its 
feet again. One of the first symptoms also is sneezing, 
and in some cases there is an inflammation of the sub- 



Fig. 83 .—A Case cy Injluenza. 

maxillary lymphatic glands. After the first symptoms, 
or in common with them, there is an inflamed condi¬ 
tion of the conjunctival mucous membrane lining the 
eyelids, and tears are observed coursing down the 
sides of the face. Owing to the inflamed condition 
of the conjunctiva it takes an unusually red or pink 
color, and hence the name of “pink eye.” Shortly 
after these symptoms a nasal dischaige is seen, which 
at first is thin and watery, but as the disease pro¬ 
gresses it assumes a viscid, thick and yellowish char¬ 
acter. As a rule, there is a short, frequent, feeble and 
painful cough, due to the inflamed condition of the 
respiratory mucous membrane, especially that of the 
throat. On pressure over the region of the larynx the 


animal will evince pain, and a severe spell of cough¬ 
ing ensues. The head is carried low, and in some 
instances there are indications of severe headache and 
more or less stupor, and in some cases there are man¬ 
ifestations of frenzy. The throat may be so severely 
inflamed that fluids given the animal will return 
through the nostrils, and solid food is taken with great 
difficulty. There are febrile symptoms, as elevation of 
temperature and increased number of respirations and 
pulsations per minute. The crisis is reached at from 
four to six days, and the termination in from two to 
three w^eeks or more. As a rule, how'ever, convales¬ 
cence is tedious, and the animal may continue -with a 
cough, and be “ off his feed ” for months. In common 
with the symptoms already described, there may be 
lung trouble, colic, and in fact, inflammation of any 
internal organ. 

Treat 7 )icnt. There are no preventive methods of 
treatment known. As the disease is a depletive, Ave 
should not resort to any exhausting remedies, such as 
bleeding, purgatives, etc. The disease is a limited 
one, and we should endeavor to keep up the strength 
of the animal by diffusible stimulants, and afterwards 
tonics. For a good tonic and stimulant give the fol¬ 
lowing : 

2 ounces golden seal; 

1 ounce gentian ; 

2 ounces carbonate ammonia • 

1 ounce blood-root. 

Form in eight doses and give one night and morning. 

Place the animal in a well littered stall, free from 
drafts of air. Do not depend upon strong jffiysic. 
The cure must be effected by watching the symptoms 
and combating them. If there is costiveness keep the 
bowels open by injections, of two wine glasses full of 
linseed oil. Good nursing must be constant, with 
clothing enough to keep the animal warm. If the 
cough is distressing prepare the following; 

Yt, ounce extract belladonna ; 

2 drachms powdered opium ; 

3 drachms camphor ; 

2 ounces liquorice ; 

Yi pint molasses. 

Mix thoroughly and spread a tablespoonful on the tongue twice a day. 

Sometimes recovery is complicated by various dis¬ 
abilities. If there is dropsy or swelling of the legs or 
sheath, prepare the following: 

I ounce iodide of potassium 

I ounce carbonate ammonia ; 

I Ounce powdered gentian ; 

Form into eight balls, and give one morning and evening. 

As recovery ensues, the food should be nourishing 
and easily digested. The animal should be induced 
to take food during the disease, especially in the forffi 
of nourishing gruel. When the pulse changes, and 
especially when it loses its wiry character; when the 
discharge from the nose becomes steady and copious, 
golden seal and capsicum in equal parts should be 
given, in two-drachm doses, three times a day. Steam¬ 
ing with hot water and vinegar is very good, and also 
the application of some counter-irritant around the 
throat. The animal should have constantly before 
him a bucketful of warm gruel, in which a couple of 
tablespoonfuls of nitre have been placed. He 
















HORSE. 


803 


should also be warmly sheltered and clothed, and no 
work whatever imposed upon him. 

Intestines, Parasites which Infest the. The 
general symptoms for intestinal worms, in large quan¬ 
tity, are general ill health. The animal will lose con¬ 
dition ; the skin will be scurfy, dry and often itching; 



Fig. 84. —Colt Picking Hair from its Legs, Giving Proof 0/ JVorms^ 

the animal will become hide-bound and pot-bellied; 
the appetite will be irregular but voracious; there 
will be fetid breath, diarrhoea, passing of mucus with 
the dung, colicky pains, swelling, itching and puffy 
anus, and especially the passage of the worms 5 r 
their eggs will be certain proof. The horse will raise 
the upper lip and rub it against anything near. Colts 
will pick and bite the hair from their body and limbs. 

The above cut will give a good general idea of an 
animal suffering from worms. 

Besides the bot, already treated of, which inhabits 
the stomach, there are those of the intestines proper. 
These are the tape-worm, round-headed and flat¬ 
headed, and five species of round worms. 

Treatment. Vermifuges are without number, some 
general in their nature and others specific for particu¬ 
lar classes. When worms are suspected, and the 
owner or the animal is not sure of the reality, it is 
safe to give a purge and watch the droppings. The 
following is a good vermifuge drench: 

I drachm copperas, 

I ounce oil turpentine, 

4 drachms aloes, 

I ounce powdered male fern, 

20 drops oil of wormseed. 

Give this in a pint of linseed oil an hour before 
feeding in the morning. 

■ For worms lodging in the gut near the rectum, give 
an injection of a strong decoction^ of wormwood _ or 
tansy. The prevention of worms is to pay attention 
to the water the animal drinks, and to give sound 
grain and hay as food, since liberal feeding and good 
general care will often extirpate the parasites. 

For other vermifuges, see article on Worms. 

Irritation or Hardening of the Skin : see Skin. 

Itch. See Mange. 

Jaundice, or Yellows, a functional derangement 
of the liver. In almost all cases of liver disease the 


visible mucous membranes, the skin, the urine and 
the tissues are stained yellow by the re-absorption of 
bile already secreted. 

Causes. Indigestion, obstruction of the bile duct 
from any cause, obstruction of the bowels hindering 
the proper discharge of the bile, and undue secretion 
of the bile in cases of congestion of the liver. In 
solid-hoofed animals the blood is easily dissolved. 

Symptoms. There will be a general discoloration of 
the tissues. The mucous membrane will be yellow ; 
the urine high-colored. In obstruction of the bile 
duct the dung will be fetid, and of a clay color, 
from being devoid of bile. 

Treatment. No general rule can be laid down. 
^The following is a good remedy for torpidity of the 
liver, when there is general dullness and bilious¬ 
ness • 

2 ounces mandrake, 

I pound Glauber salts, 

I pound common salt, 

I ounce essence of ginger, 

I gallon warm water. 

Mix and give a pint from one to three times a day 
until a gentle but full purgation is produced. Follow 
this up with daily doses of one scruple of podo- 
phyllin. 

Jaw, Bony Tumor of the Lower. That unnat¬ 
ural enlargement or bony excrescence of the lower 
jaw, known by the above name, is generally caused 
by a tight curb-chain used with a curb-bit of such 
leverage as to enable the rider to inflict injury by vio¬ 
lent jerking. The jaw-bone is bruised and soon 
enlarges. The injured portion must exfoliate or scale, 
and the presence of the unnatural substance under 
the flesh and tendons give rise to a foul ulcer unless 
steps are taken to give relief while the hurt is com¬ 
paratively recent. 

Nature makes a constant effort to heal, however, 
and unless the tumor is irritated by passing particles 

of bone, it partially 
heals, so that an ob¬ 
stacle is interposed 
from time to time to 
the escape of the 
scales, and in this way 
an unnatural bony 
structure is formed and 
matured before the 
bony tumor is entirely 
healed. To prevent 
this, open with a knife 
as soon as the bone is 
found to be injured, and keep the wound open by 
using the elastic syringe and warm water until the 
discharge has assumed an offensive odor; then syr¬ 
inge into it several times daily the following; 

I scruple chloride zinc, 

4 drachms essence of anise seed, 

I pint water. 

Remove with a sharp knife all fungous flesh and 
cauterize with nitrate silver. 

When once the bony excrescence has established 



FiG.85.-7’«?«<7r Caused by Curb-Chain. 














HORSE. 


804 


itself no one but a skillful 'veterinarian should be in¬ 
trusted with its removal. 

Kidneys, Inflammation of the. Nephritis, or in¬ 
flammation of the kidneys, is produced by a variety of 
causes, as blows on or sprains in the region of the loin, 
calculi, the excessive use of diuretics to which some 
stable-men are prone, musty fodder, or that which con¬ 
tains irritant plants. 

Symptoms. There will be more or less fever, some¬ 
times a high fever; colicky pains; looking at the 
abdomen, the horse will lie down with extreme pution; 
frequent passages of urine in small quantities, but 
very high-colored, sometimes containing blood and 
even pus; the legs swell uniformly from the hoofs up; 
the pulse is rapid, the bowels costive and the_ breath- , 
ing excited; the horse straddles in his gait; this,, 
however, is a general characteristic of all diseases of 
the urinary organs, but in severe inflammation it 
amounts almost to helplessness. 

There is, however,one test that is constant; there 
is extreme tenderness of the bony process about six 
inches from the spine in the loins ; pressure over the 
kidneys will show the terrible pain from the crouch¬ 
ing attitude the horse assumes. 



Fig. 86 . —Tesifor Inflammation oy the Kidneys. 

If the urine is examined under a microscope, the 
fibrinous casts of the kidney tubes w'ill be found. In 
chronic cases, stocking of the legs, casts in the urine, 
more or less tenderness upon pressure of the loins, 
and general ill health, may be all that will be 
observed. 

Treatment. In acute cases, if there is a strong 
pulse and the animal is full of blood, for a day give 
25 drops aconite ever}- 2 hours. Give an active ca¬ 
thartic, as follows : 

2 drachms manarake, 

4 drachms powdered aloes, 

I ounce gum arable. 

Make into a ball with linseed meal and molasses. 
Wrap the loins in woolen blankets and foment 
thoroughly with an infusion of a handful of digitalis 
leaves in a pail of boiling water, putting it on as warm 


as the hand will bear it; or wring a sheep-skin out of 
hot water and apply the flesh side, changing as often 
as may be necessary. Give i drachm cream tartar in 
a little water 3 times a day. After the disease be¬ 
comes chronic, blister over the kidneys. To assist the 
evacuation and ease the pain, give injections of lin¬ 
seed tea, I quart, to which i ounce of laudanum is 
added. Get up a good sweat if possible. This will 
relieve ihe kidneys. Keep the bowels gently open 
with laxatives and relieve the pains with anodynes, 
and as the animal improves, give bitter tonics, 3 
drachms golden seal daily in 3 doses; or an ounce of 
gentian in 2-drachm doses three times a day. 

Knees, Broken. This is a common disability of 
stumbling horses, and of saddle horses kept for riding, 
leaping or hunting. A horse with the scars of broken 
knees, should never be used as a saddle horse, unless 
it can be clearly shown the hurt was done accidentally 
in leaping upon a foul landing place. 

Symptoms. The first thing to do is to find the ex¬ 
tent of the injuiyL It may be that it is only a slight 
bruise with or without abrasion of the skin. In this 
case, using the tincture of arnica two or three times a 
day, and a cold-water bandage if there is heat, should 
insure recovery. Sometimes, however, there is an 
ugly lacerated wound filled with dirt and gravel. 

In this case the parts must be well washed by 
repeatedly filling a large sixmge with clean, w-arm wa¬ 
ter and squeezing it dry against the limb above the 
hurt. Never under any circumstances put it against 
the hurt. If there is a sac below the cut, containing 
dirt, it must be carefully probed and opened from the 
bottom with a keen, sharp-pointed knife. The object 
is that no grit may remain in the wound to prevent its 
healing. A stone should be tied so the sac may be 
emptied of its contents in the process of suppuration. 
In three days after the establishment of suppuration 
the seton may be withdrawn. The wounded parts 
must be kept w-et with cold arnica water, the proper 
proportions being i ounce tincture of arnica to each 
pint of water used. Copious suppuration having 
been fairly established, discontinue the use of arnica, 
and use instead, a solution made by equal parts of oil 
of tar and tincture of arnica. Use no bandages. 
Cleanliness of the parts is necessar}-. These means 
should carry the knee to a favorable issue. Sometimes, 
however, the injury is so severe that the ligaments 
and even the joints are injured. It then becomes a 
most serious case. In this event the animal must be put 
into the slings, the joint brought together, after being 
thoroughly cleansed as before stated, the parts must be 
bandaged and astringent washes used to promote the 
uniting of the parts, while the same general treatment 
is pursued with the laceration as advised before. In 
case the injury be so severe as to involve the joint, if 
a veterinai-}' surgeon cannot be had, the horse had 
better be killed. 

Knee-joint, Inflammation of the. Inflammation 
of the knee or other joints may occur in all stages, 
from the most simple form to those most violent, with 
ulceration and the formation of destructive abscesses. 
































































































































































































































































HORSE. 


Jarringon hard roads, various injuries, such as bruises, 
strains, etc., may cause this ailment. 

Symptoms. In light cases the horse in starting 
forward will do so from the knee and with pain. I'here 
will be excessive flinching if the knee is extended by 
force. The animal stands square on his feet, and 
without inclination to raise the heel. In walking he 
takes a fair step, but carries the knee-joint as much 
without bending as possible, and in putting down his 
foot exerts the greatest pressure on the heel. 

Treatment. I'ake off the shoes. Treat the inflam¬ 
mation as directed in other cases; first by hot-water 
embrocations perseveringly applied, using laudanum 
as directed, if necessary to relieve pain. There must 
be perfect rest, and if the animal will use the limb 
put him in slings and apply splints and bandages to 
the knee. The inflammation having been cured, 
blister the parts to procure absorption of the fluids; 
when the animal is better let him have the run of a 
quiet pasture until entirely sound, or keep him in the 
stable with gentle walking exercise every day. 

Lampas. This is a name given to a slight enlarge¬ 
ment, swelling or fullness of the bars of the mouth of 
young horses, caused from the changes of teething. 


and in old horses the cause may be indigestion, etc. 

Colts from one to five years old are the general 
subjects of the affection, and to its charge is laid a 
good deal, which, if properly looked into, would be 
found to spring from other entirely different causes. 
The colt is taken in from grass, and instead of the 
juicy food which he was accustomed to he is com¬ 
pelled to eat dry and musty provender, and breathe 
the contaminated air of the stable. Should we 
wonder if such a change would derange the digestion 
before the system becomes adapted to its new situa¬ 
tion t Is it to be wondered at if, during the period of 
dentition, the gums should swell or the appetite 
become impaired under such a change ? 

Treatment. If in young horses the means advised 
in dentition, with slight cutting (scarifying) of the roof 
of the mouth with a sharp knife or lancet, will suffice. 
In old horses scarification, with a general attention to 


807 


the health of the animal, will be indicated. In scari¬ 
fying, cut only about an inch back of the teeth, and 
never deep. Just behind the third bar an artery lies 
near the surface, difficult to manage if cut through. 
Should, by accident, the artery be severed, put a 
strong cord around the upper front teeth close to the 
gums, and strain it as tightly as possible. This will 
generally close the orifice and stop the bleeding. As 
a wash for the gums, the following will be good: i 
ounce chlorate of potash, 2 ounces soft water. 

It is a sad fact that many who handle and treat 
this noble animal resort to the barbarous practice of 
burning the bars of the mouth for lampas. Never, 
under any circumstances, burn the mouth. The 
animal never recovers from the effects, nor does he 
ever forget or forgive the inhuman act, as is evinced 
afterwards by any attempt to do anything about his 
head. A change to more cooling or solid food, and 
pure air in the stable, together with moderate exercise, 
will often effect a cure. 

Legs, Swelled. This is a dropsical affection of 
the limbs. It may be the result of an undue deposit 
of serum or watery particles of blood, or of inflamma¬ 
tion of the cellular tissue lying between the skin and 
bones in those parts of the legs most destitute 
of muscles. 

A poor condition of the blood, or feebleness 
from great loss of it, may cause the legs to swell, 
since the fluids conveyed to the extremities by the 
capillaries accumulate there, because, in the 
absence of muscular activity, the veins have no 
power to return them. Diseased kidneys have a 
tendency to produce this disorder of the legs. 

The inflammatory type may result from blows 
ujx)!! the lower leg; from concussion, or, in gen¬ 
eral, from anything that may arrest the action of 
the cellular tissue referred to, causing it to be¬ 
come dry and at length actually inflamed. It 
may also arise from the shifting of inflammation 
from other parts, as from the lungs, kidneys, etc. 

Horses of coarse fiber and full habit, accus¬ 
tomed to exercise, if allowed to stand idle several 
days, will have swelled legs from the accumu¬ 
lation of watery fluid; and, if unattended to, the parts 
may soon be attacked by inflammation, when the tis¬ 
sues become involved and the disease assumes its 
more serious type. 

Symptoms. The leg becomes greatly swollen and 
looks as though it was stretched to its utmost tension. 
Occasionally the swelling appears almost suddenly, 
and then as suddenly subsides, in which case the 
cause may be considered as having but just begun to 
operate, and if then treated it is easily managed. 
Again, it is sometimes sudden-in its attack, and vio¬ 
lent; the skin is hot, dry, and extremely tender, 
the pulse is quick and hard, while a peculiar lameness 
speedily sets in. In the more advanced stage of the 
disease small cracks appear in the skin, and from 
these exudes a watery matter of whitish-yellow color, 
similar to that which is seen in cracked heels. In 
this case it must be taken for granted that no treat- 



IG. 88. —Burning a Morse's Mouth /or Lampas. 
A cruel and unnecessary operation. 










8 o8 


HORSE. 


ment, however skillful, can speedily remove it; that 
the improvement must be slow, and consequently 
much time required. 

Treatment. If the disease seems to be merely 
undue de^x^sit of serum, owing to confinement, noth¬ 
ing more may be necessary than to give the animal a 
dose or two of niter, daily, to act upon the kidneys, 
and to exercise him regularly to induce absorption. 

When there is a tendency to swelled legs, which 
manifests itself in the morning, but disappears during 
the exercise of the day, an excellent preventive is to 
stand the horse in cold water to his knees half an 
hour just before night, or use the apparatus illustrated 
by Fig. 89, which produces numerous and constant 
streams or jets of cold water (or hot 
for fomentation) supplyingitself upon 
the syphon principle from a pail in the 
manger. It is fastened to the limb 
by means of a strap and buckle. 
Care must be taken to dry the legs 
thoroughly, or the plan is plainly 
objectionable. If it should be found 
not to yield to this, administer the 
niter in moderation, as previously 
directed, and exercise the horse 
regularly, causing him to sweat, both 
of which have a tendency to diminish 
the accumulated fluid and to assist 
the veins and absorbents in their 
functions. 

In case the horse is in a debilitated 
condition, and the swelling is mani- 
Fig. 89.— owing to the sluggishness of 

^stveiiedLegt the circulation, he should be well 
fed on nutritious diet, and the leg or legs should be 
firmly, but not tightly, bandaged. Then prepare the 
following—a tonic and somewhat stimulating medicine: 

8 drachms pulverized assafoetida, 

1 ounce cream tartar, 

2 ounces powdered gentian, 

2 ounces African ginger, 

4 ounces finely pulverized poplar bark. 

Rub these ingredients together in a mortar until 
thoroughly mixed. Divide this into six doses and 
give one in the food every night till exhausted. The 
bandage should be removed from time to time and 
the limb subjected to a brisk hand-rubbing, or rubbing 
with medium coarse cloth. 

If the disease has become chronic and the animal 
is much debilitated, the following more stimulating 
medicine should be used: 

I ounce powdered golden seal, 

I ounce gentian, 

I ounce balmony, or snakehead, 

8 ounces flax-seed. 

Mix well and divide into six doses, of which give 
one night and morning in the food. Bandage and 
rub alternately, as previously directed. If the disease 
does not speedily show signs of yielding to this treat¬ 
ment, apply every night, omitting the bandage, the 
following liniment: 

2 punces essence of cedar, 

I ounce tincture of capsicum, 

I pint new rum. 



When eruption of the skin has taken place, so that 
matter exudes, and there is much fever, the following 
course has been found eminently successful and 
and must be at once adopted: Mix finely pulverized 
sulphur and rosin, in the proportion of two of the 
former to one of the latter, and give daily for three or 
four days six ounces of this mixture. It should be 
put into meal or bran, and the horse should be allowed 
no other food until he readily takes this. Bathe the 
parts with the following, rubbing well three times a 
day: 

1 pint alcohol, 

2 ounces capsicum, 

2 ounces spirits camphor, 

2 ounces spirits turpentine. 


In these chronic cases it is best not to feed on very 
nutritious, or at least stimulating, food, unless the 
horse is in low general condition. Ordinarily pastur¬ 
ing will be best, when the season admits-of it. 

Liver, Functional Diseases of the. The liver 
is the largest secreting gland of the body, though not 
subject to many diseases. Without it digestion and ani¬ 
mal heat cannot be maintained, and the waste or 
effete matter cannot be removed from the blood. So, 
therefore, when the liver is disturbed there can be no 
health in the rest of the system. This disease may 
be known by the yellow hue of the whites of the eyes. 

Symptoms. In active congestions of the liver, 
which is the disease most usually prevalent, and this 
principally in the South, there may be sluggishness, 
irregular bowels, abundant liquid discharges of deep 

yellow o r o r- 
an g e - colored 
dung. There 
will be extreme 
and painful 
prostration, the 
eyes will be 
sunken, the 
pulse excited, 
and the limbs 
will tremble. 
There may be 
colicky pains. 
If the last ribs 
are struck with 

Fig. 90. — Test 0/ Hevtorrhage from the Liver. somC force, ex¬ 
treme pain will be shown. If the horse faints and 
there is a pallid mucous membrane, with quick and 
weak pulse, it may be conjectured that rupture of the 
liver has taken place. In this case, the end is death. 
The illustration we give will show the test, alike for 
ruptured liver and spleen. 

Inflammation of the liver is rare (see Jaundice). 
If congestion has proceeded to inflammation, the re¬ 
gion of the last rib will be veiy' tender. There will 
be quickening of the pulse; the mouth will be hot 
and clammy, the bowels may be at first loose, yellow 
and bilious, but soon become costive. The heat of 
the body is raised, patches may appear on the mu¬ 
cous membranes, and the limbs, especially the hind 
ones, will swell. 

















HORSE. 


809 


Treatment. In this case all bleeding should be 
avoided. Give as a purge a pound of sulphate of 
soda, aided by injections of warm water. After the 
bowels are opened, keep them so with small doses of 
Glauber salts, 6 ounces, or cream of tartar, 4 ounces, 
daily. If the horse eat anything it must be very 
light mashes or fresh grass. As the horse improves, 
give twice a day 2 ounces Peruvian bark, or 2 
drachms twice a day of gentian. Apply mustard 
ix)ultices to the limbs. Give i ix)und of sulphate 
of soda dissolved in a quart of water, to deplete the 
jxjrtal system and liver. Apply a blister over the 
region of the liver. Continue the sulphate of soda 
in doses of i to 4 ounces daily. Give three times 
daily: 

2 drachms pulverized mandrake, 

1 drachm blood-root, 

10 grains leptandrin, 

2 drachms golden seal, 

I drachm cream tartar. 

Lock-jaw, or Tetanus. This terrible and pain¬ 
ful affliction may be defined as a spasmodic contrac¬ 
tion of the muscles of the body, often confined to one 
set of muscles alone. It is so called because the 
first symptoms of the violent spasmodic affection are 
detected in the jaw. 

The case is generally caused by wounds or other 
injuries. Often a wound in the leg or foot, seemingly 
of the most trivial character, as the prick of a nail, 
will cause it. It is also produced by castration ; nick¬ 
ing and docking; by hard riding or driving, and leav¬ 
ing the animal shivering in the night air. When it 
proceeds from a wound, it is called traumatic; when 
from no apparent cause, it is called idiopathic. It 
rarely occurs from wounds until they are well ad¬ 
vanced toward being healed, though it may display 
its symptoms immediately upon or a month after the 
hurt, but generally from the sixth to the fourteenth 
day. 

Symptoms. When brought on by a wound, as it gen¬ 
erally is, the animal shows symptoms of nerv¬ 
ousness. It fidgets in the stall, it does not rest, 
it becomes excited ujx»n the approach of any per¬ 
son. Then the legs become stiffened and the ani¬ 
mal can scarcely be made to move, the nose is 
extended forward, the tail is erect and quivering, the 
ears are jxjinted forward, the body feels hard, the 
membrana nictitans is stretched across the eye, 
the food is not eaten, the jaws are tightly shut. Any 
noise or bustle, or any attempt to operate upon or 
administer medicine to the animal, aggravates the 
case. Quietude is worth more than medicine. The 
torture is rendered worse by being compelled to move; 
every pain is felt. The frame is pressed together by 
the contracted muscles as if in a vise. Hunger pre¬ 
vails, but the jaws are tightly locked, and the animal 
cannot eat. In the earliest stages there will be 
stiffness and rigidity of the muscles near the injury, 
and the limb will be moved with difficulty. There 
will be excitement, the ears will be ix)inted forward, 
the head elevated, the legs stiff and stretched out 
the horse will seem excited and yet obstinate to move ; 


the tail will quiver and the skin and flesh will feel 
hard like a board. The lower jaw being taken in the 
hand and the head raised, if the haw projects over 
the eye, you have a case of lock-jaw. 

Treatment. Give the animal a loose or box stall, 
and in the most quiet place possible, and where it will 
see no one except the attendant. Place slings be¬ 
neath him so he can stand clear of them or rest in 
them at will. Remove all straw, litter or other sources 
of excitement, and avoid all noise or unusual move¬ 
ment. Keep the stable darkened and without other 
animals present. If the disease is produced by a 
wound examine it, and if contracted or containing pus 
(matter) widen it, and cover with a bread-and-milk 
poultice containing laudanum and belladonna, and 
give the following, which may be claimed as almost a 
specific for this often fatal disease: 

I drachm pulverized assafoetida, 

I drachm Indian hemp, 

I drachm opium, 

I drachm powdered capsicum, 

I drachmpodophyllin. 

Put all into a large tablespoon, take the tongue in 
the left hand and draw it well out, run the spoon well 
back over the root of the tongue, turn it over, let go 
the tongue and draw out the spoon. Repeat this 
dose every four hours for two days, then three times a 
day. If the animal can bear it, a thorough sweat 
with a blanket wrung out of hot water and covered 
.with other blankets will do good. Feed with nour¬ 
ishing gruels if the animal can swallow; if not, give 
nourishments as shown in the engraving. Blister the 
spine early in the disease, and bathe the jaws well with 
equal parts spirits of turpentine, beef s gall, laudanum, 
oil of cedar, tincture of lobelia and sulphuric ether. 

Attach a horse catheter to a stomach pump, pass 
the end carefully up the nostril and into the gullet as 
shown. If coughing is produced, withdraw the 
catheter and commence anew. If two feet are in¬ 
serted without alarming symptoms, pump in only a 
quart of linseed oil. If the horse has fasted for some 



Fig. gi.—Moiie of Feeding Horse Having Chronic Tetanus. 

time, and as the stomach can bear it, give more. This, 
however, must not be attempted while the disease 
is in its acute form, but after the disease has assumed 
a chronic form, it may be resorted to by a veterinary 
surgeon. Feed a gruel of boiled oats, corn meal and 
wheat bran. 








8io 


HORSE 


Lungs, Dropsy of the, results from valvular and 
other diseases of the heart. When the ear is placed 
to the chest, and the horse struck on the other side with 
the open palm, the sound is nearly the same as that 
heard in pneumonia; but it may be distinguished 
from pneumonia by the entire absence of fever, which 
characterizes this. It is usually beyond medical reach. 

Mad Staggers : see Staggers, in this article. 

Mallenders. This is a term used by many 
“ horse doctors,” and contained in the old books to 
designate a scaly condition of the skin back of the 
leg and opposite to the knee. It. has a vague, uncer¬ 
tain meaning, and therefore should never be used to 
designate a certain disease. Another term equally in¬ 
definite is sallenders. This means the scurvy patches 
which appear in front of the hock. Though not seri¬ 
ous, these are unsightly, and may result in scratches. 

Symptoms. They first begin as a moist tetter, apt 
to escape observation until they appear in a rough¬ 
ened state of hair about the parts mentioned, under 
which the skin is scurfy, feverish and somewhat ten¬ 
der. Itching of much severity often attends them. 

Treatment. Attend to the cleanliness of the horse, 
give moderate exercise, and twice daily, 

ounce hyposulphite of soda 
I drachm cream tartar 
bucket water. 

Rub the parts affected two or three times a day with 
the following ointment: 


4 ounces glycerine, 

1 fluid drachm carbolic acid, 

2 ounces olive oil. 

If the scurfy places have developed into suppura¬ 
ting sores, use, instead of the ointment, the following 
lotion, saturating them well twice a day: 

Vt pint animal glycerine, 
ounce chloride of zinc, 

6 quarts water. 

Mange and Itch. Itch, mange, and scabies are 
essentially local affections of the skin, occasioned by 
a small mite, or parasite, called “ Sarcoptes equi,” of 

which we present by Fig. 92, 
a largely magnified view of 
one. These breed and bur¬ 
row in the skin. These para¬ 
sites may appear in horses 
subjected to dirt and filth, 
and debilitated by hard liv¬ 
ing and ill usage, or by total 
neglect and lack of food. The 
acarus produces mange in 
the horse in the same man¬ 
ner as the human parasite 
produces itch in man; but 
it is of a'different species 
and frequently so large as to 
be visible to the naked eye. 
The eruptions ensuing on the skin of the horse, when 
subject to this affection, are also similar to that of 
man, and probably just as annoying. There are 
many instances where the itch from the horse has 
been transmitted to man, and when thus taken, it is 
quite impossible to distinguish it from the human itch. 



I'lO. 92 .—Itch Parasite. (Sar¬ 
coptes, or Acarus Equi.) 


The disease may be communicated to even sound 
animals, in good condition; in fact, the great majority 
of cases are thus contracted, as comparatively few 
animals are so utterly neglected or exjxfsed to filthy 
influence as to become in themselves the generators 
of these mange-breeding insects. Yet, “it is well 
known,” says Prof. Dadd, “ that a healthy and clean 
horse may stand for weeks near a mangy one without 
taking the disease, showing very conclusively that the 
best preventive measures are those which promote 
health and cleanliness.” 

This is regarded as one of the most contagious dis¬ 
eases to which the horse is subject, and may be im¬ 
parted not only to the horse, but to cattle, hogs and 
dogs, though it is asserted by good authority that 
none of these can in turn communicate it to the 
horse. The curr}-comb, brush, collar or blanket 
which has been used on the mangy horse will produce 
infection in another; and to lie in the same stall or 
to rub where a mangy horse has rubbed himself, is 
almost certain to communicate it unless the animal 
exix)sed is exceedingly healthy and in active con¬ 
dition of body. 

Symptotns. A horse affected with this disease in 
either of its forms will attract the attention of his at¬ 
tendants by rubbing himself whenever an opjx)rtunity 
is afforded.. The hair comes off, and the outer skin 
becomes broken into little scale-like pieces. These 
fall off or are rubbed off, and leave the parts raw and 
sore. The general appearance of the skin where the 
raw spots are not too numerous, is a dirty brown, and 
it is loose, flabby and puckered. 

Usually, where the disease is engendered in the 
animal itself, it appears first in the neck, just at the 
edge of the mane, and on the inside of the quarter 
near the root of the tail. From these parts the erup¬ 
tion extends along the back and down the side, sel¬ 
dom invc)lving the extremities, except in the very 
worst cases. Sometimes, though rarely, the ears and 
eyebrows are attacked and left bare. When it is the 
result of contagion, the horse may at first be in health; 
but the constant irritation makes him feverish, the 
hair falls off as in the first case described, leaving the 
skin in those places almost bare; and little red pim¬ 
ples appear here and there. Each of these contains 
a parasite, and the pimples are connected by furrows 
along which the parasites have worked their way. In 
time they increase in number and size,andfrom them 
exudes a matter which hardens into a scab. Under 
these scabs the parasites may be found, upon remov¬ 
ing them and carefully examining in the sunlight. In 
the early stage of the disease, where it may be sus¬ 
pected, but is not yet fully manifest, it maybe detected 
by placing the fingers among the roots of the mane 
and tickling the skin with the nails. The horse is so 
sensitive to titillation when in this condition that he 
will thereupon stretch out his neck and evince the 
most unmistakable pleasure as long as the tickling 
continues. 

Treatment. The most effectual preventive, it will 
be readily inferred from the preceding statement of 








8ii 


HORSE. 


causes, is cleanliness. In no case should a healthy 
animal be allowed to occupy a stable where a mangy 
one has been kept until it has previously been 
washed with water strongly impregnated with sulphur 
and chloride of lime—say half a pound of powdered sul¬ 
phur and one pint of chloride of lime to each gallon of 
water. If the stable is thoroughly cleansed of loose 
litter and dirt, and all parts that may have been rub¬ 
bed against by a mangy horse perfectly saturated with 
this solution two or three times, on as many consecu¬ 
tive days, there cai^ be no danger in using it. Cloth¬ 
ing, curry-comb, brush, etc., that may have come in 
contact with such animal, should be burned up. 

If starvation, weakness, and general ill condition 
have caused the mange, a patent means for its re¬ 
moval will be found in giving him clean quarters and 
good nourishing food, which, however, should not be 
at first of a heating nature. Generous pasturage, un¬ 
less the weather is damp, will be sufficient; other- 
wi.se, a full supply of oats and chop food should be 
given. It canot be too much insisted upon that es¬ 
pecially while treating a horse .for disease his stable 
should be dry, well ventilated and properly supplied 
with litter. 

In cases of full habit of body, where the disease is 
the result of contact, and the presence of high fever 
is noted, do not bleed at all, but give him 20 drops 
tincture aconite in a little water, three times a day. 
The best medicine is that which most quickly destroys 
the life of the itch parasite. 

Have the horse as thoroughly cleansed of scab and 
dirt as jx^ssible, with a wisp of hay, and by softly and 
lightly using a curry-comb. Then prepare a liniment 
of the following ingredients and in the proportion here 
given for greater or less quantities; 

2 ounces of pyroligneous acid 

I quart animal glycerine ; 

% pound of sulphur ; 

I ounce creosote ; 

I pint turpentine ; 

I ounce oil of j uniper ; 

I pint linseed oil. • 

■ Mix all together and shake well; and with this sat¬ 
urate the whole skin, as nearly as possible, rubbing in 
well with a soft cloth. Care must be taken to rub it 
in thoroughly. A little well rubbed in is better than 
much merely smeared on. 

Leave him in this condition two days; then wash 
him well with warm water and soft soap; stand^ him 
in the sunshine if the weather admits, and rub with a 
wisp of hay or with suitable cloths until he is dry; 
after which, anoint him pretty well all over with the 
mixture described, and rub it in. This course should 
be pursued until a cure is effected. Two to four ap¬ 
plications will generally be found sufficient, even in 
obstinate cases, if care is taken as to food and drink. 
The alterative will be found beneficial. Give three 
times a day, 

I ounce sulphur, 
ounce gentian, 
ounce blood-root, 
ounce niter. 

Care must be taken that the patient be not exposed 


to rain or heavy dews while under this course of treat¬ 
ment. 

Megrims, a disease of the brain, occurring period" 
ically, especially in hot weather, on exposure to the 
sun’s rays. Megrims differs from epilepsy only in the 
absence of spasm; so for symptoms and treatment see 
that disease, page 777. 

Mouth, Inflammation in and Around the. Irri¬ 
tation from wounds, bruises, poisonous or acrid plants, 
savage bites, injuries from the bit, twitch or rope 
around the under jaw and tongue, the use of calomel 
and other drugs, specific fevers, etc., may cause in¬ 
flammation in the mouth or around it. 

SymptojHS. Difficulty in feeding and drinking, 
swelling and rigidity of the lips, blisters or sores in 
the mouth, swelling of the glands, etc. 

Treatment. First find the cause whether from me¬ 
chanical injury, irritating food or irritant drugs. If 
injured by alkalies, wash with vinegar and water, equal 
parts; if by acids, use lime water, or a weak solution 
of bicarbonate of soda; if from venomous bites, apply 
ammonia and give one-half ounce of liquid ammonia 
internally to the horse. For bite of venomous snakes, 
tarantula, etc., cauterize the wound, and in addition 
give whisky in full doses with a strong decoction of 
plantain. If there is simple inflammation, open the 
bowels with a gentle laxative, two ounce doses of 
magnesia, and wash with vinegar and honey. Give 
plenty of water and soft food. If there are ulcers, 
touch them with a feather dipped in one drachm car¬ 
bolic acid mixed with one pint of water. 

If there is much swelling keep the head tied up. If 
tumors resolving into matter (pus) appear, open with 
a lancet or knife. If there is sloughing of the parts 
(separation of dead flesh) wash with the following; 
one drachm permanganate of potassa; one pint of 
water. 

Mouth, Scald. This is a simple affection char¬ 
acterized by the horse slobbering or frothing at the 
mouth, as if salivated. Ignorant use of acid drenches 
or corrosive drugs by careless or ignorant persons, is 
the most common cause of this ailment. 

Symptoms. Mouth red, often raw, lips in constant 
motion, moving up and down; saliva flows continually, 
showing the pain the animal endures. 

Treatment. Give well-made gruel, either of corn or 
oat meal, and soft food if the horse can take it. Boiled 
carrots are excellent, if the animal will eat them. 
Prepare the following lotion ; 

3 ounces glycerine, 

5 ounces powdered borax 
2 pounds of honey, 

I gallon of boiling water. 

Mix, let it become cold; hold up the horse’s head 
moderately and pour half a pint into the mouth. At 
the expiration of half a minute allow the head to grad¬ 
ually drop so the fluid may flow over the inflamed 
surfaces. This should be repeated several times a 
day. Allow the horse to have a bucket of cold water 
suspended or placed before him, to cool his mouth in. 
Beyond this nothing can be done except to attend to 








8i2 


HORSE. 


the general health of the animal, which should do no 
work until entirely recovered. 

Nail Pricking. The prick of a nail in shoeing, 
or from having a nail enter the foot in traveling, often 
leads to the most serious consequences if allowed to 
proceed, such as ulceration, ending in quittor and 
other disabilities. An animal being lame without 
swelling, inflammation or other indication of strain or 
bruise, the feet should be carefully examined, and the 
nail or other substance cut out, at whatever pains it 
may take. Then drop in the orifice muriatic acid, and 


Fig. 93. —A Good Subject for Bronchitis or Founder, 

fill up with Venice turpentine, cover with tow and 
give the animal rest for a few days. 

Nasal Gleet. See page 792. 

Nas.4L Polypus. See Polypus in this article. 

Navicular Joint Lameness. This is commonly 
known as coffin-joint lameness and is of frequent oc¬ 
currence. It is confined to the inferior surface of the 
navicular bone, over which the perforans tendon runs. 
The seat of the disease is confined to a small place, 
but by the frequency of the parts being brought into 
action, it causes great inconvenience to the animal. 
The navicular (boat-shaped) bone is at the navicular 
joint, which is below the fetlock and in the foot. 
Sometimes this bone becomes diseased, ulcerates and 
finally becomes fractured; at other times it becomes 
the seat of incrustations, or roughing, and thus irritates 
the flexor tendon. These affections always cause 
pain and lameness. 

Navicularthritis is simple inflammation of this joint, 
resembling laminitis, and is very painful. 

Symptoms. The horse thus affected will some¬ 
times show lameness at the beginning of a journey. 
Sometimes for several miles the animal is lame, and 
sometimes the lameness is always present. A horse 
may show symptoms of navicular disease and recover 
from the first attack, but it soon returns and the ani¬ 
mal is lame for life. In the early stages of the disease 
4 no heat or swelling can be discovered. Pressure be¬ 


ing made upon the heel, the foot is quickly raised 
from the ground but gently put down, the toe always 
touching first. The shoe is always worn away at the 
toe and very little worn at the heels. The horse 
affected with navicular disease always stands upon 
the unaffected foot, in order to take the weight of the 
diseased member. Ultimately the sound foot becomes 
impaired and the disease is presented in both feet. 
In this case the action of the horse becomes changed. 
He steps short, scarcely bending the knees, and the 
heels scarcely touch the ground. 

Treatment. The treatment of this dis¬ 
order is seldom attended with success. 
In the early stages a blister applied to 
the posterior portion of the foot is some¬ 
times of benefit: 

2 drachms powdered cantharides, 

34 ounce oil of turpentine, 

1 drachm powdered euphorbium, 

34 ounce oil of origanum, 

2 ounces of lard ; mix. 

Two days after the application of this 
blister, the parts should be greased with 
hog’s lard-or olive oil. Setons put through 
the frog is often of service. Neurotomy, or 
division of the nerve which conveys sensa¬ 
tion to the foot, when adopted in time, 
is often followed with good results,—in 
fact, it is the only means of relief which 
can be relied iqxm. This operation, how¬ 
ever, should be entrusted only to the skill 
of a practical veterinarian. 

Nose, Sore. The nose sometimes be¬ 
comes sore from long-continued purulent 
discharges from any irritating substance introduced; 
but generally from grazing near some irritating weed 
or vine. Jamestown weed will often poison the noses 
of horses, yet the leaves, buds and pods are eaten 
with impunity. So-called “ sneeze-weed ” will also 
irritate the nose and cause it to become sore. As a 
rule, rubbing the nose with mercurial ointment, in 
which equal parts of sulphur and lard have been inti¬ 
mately mixed, or a weak solution of acetate of lead, 
will effect a cure. Apply with a mop. 

Ossified Cartilages, or False Ring-bone, is a 
disease to which many horses are sometimes subject, 
and often exists in connection with ring-bone and 
side-bones. The chief causes are jarring, by hard 
driving over rough roads, or pounding on hard pave¬ 
ments, or any of the causes producing ring-bone or 
inflammation of the parts. 

Symptoms. When the difficulty is new, there may 
be fever in the parts. Later there will be more or less 
enlargement of the back of the coronet and the heel, 
the parts feeling hard, irregular or lumpy. The horse 
is not always lame, but if driven over hard roads, the 
horse will show soreness and travel short after cool¬ 
ing off. 

Treatment. In old standing cases but little can be 
done; rubbing the parts with oleate of mercury will 
reduce so much as is not already bony substance. In 
more recent cases, if there is heat, bleeding from the 















































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HORSE. 


815 


foot will give relief. Then apply cloths dipped in 
cold water, to every quart of which has been added a 
half-pint of tincture of arnica. The inflammation 
being reduced, apply repeated dressings of biniodide 
of mercury. This will promote absorption, but a com¬ 
plete cure may not be expected. 

Over-reach. This is the result of driving faster 
than the horse should go. Sometimes the horse fails 
to lift the fore feet quick enough, and the consequence 
is the inner ix)rtion of the hind-foot strikes the outer 
side of the coronet of the fore-foot, or higher, often 
producing a severely lacerated or contused wound. 

Treatment. The only remedy is to clip the torn 
portions away and keep the parts washed with chlo¬ 
ride of zinc, first cleansing the parts with water. 
Treads from calking maybe treated by applying 
oil of tar and arnica. 

Parotid Gland, Inflammation of the. The 
parotid gland, which lies in the hollow that ex¬ 
tends from the root of the ear to the angle of the 
lower jaw, sympathizes with inflammation of the 
upper part of the throat, and becomes hot, tender 
and swollen in almost every case of cold. It is 
liable to inflammation also from mechanical in¬ 
jury, and from obstruction of its duct. In bad 
cases of strangles or distemper, it will sometimes 
swell to great size and will break, a fistulous 
sore being the termination. 

Symptoms. When the gland has become swollen 
it is easily discernible by sight or feeling. There 
is a hard and painful lump beneath the ear, with 
a softer feeling about its edges. The horse carries 
his head stiffly, chews slowly and with difficulty, 
and has some general fever. 

Treatmeyit. Place the animal in comfortable 
surroundings, attend to the state of his bowels, 
giving 3 ounces Glauber’s or Epsom salts, in case 
of constipation, and a few warm mashes. Mean¬ 
while, cover the affected gland with good poultice 
until the inflammation is subdued. If it results from 
mechanical obstruction, that obstruction must be re¬ 
moved before any permanent relief can be obtained; 
and this may require the removal of a calculus or 
stone from the parotid duct, which can be safely done 
only by an experienced surgeon. 

If attention is not directed to the swelling until 
matter is forming, allow it to approach the surface 
and come to a head before attempting to open, to 
avoid cutting any of the ducts, which might result in 
a fistula. If the tumor becomes hard use iodine, 
almost to the extent of blistering. 

Any wound inflicted mechanically, as a cut into 
the gland, or a prick with a stable-fork, must be 
treated externally according to its nature—the main 
point being to close it so effectually that the salivary 
fluid, which it is the office of this gland to secrete, 
cannot escape through the wound. 

Paralysis. Loss of power of moving in some 
parts of the body. Paralysis may be confined to one 
or two legs. In such case it is called partial paraly¬ 
se 


sis. When the horse has lost the power of standing, 
and the four legs are affected, then it is complete. 
Pfsually, however, it is confined to the hind parts, the 
haunches and legs, although it is sometimes present in 
both limbs of one side. The disease creeps on insidi¬ 
ously. Something wrong is at first noticed in the horse’s 
manner of progressing; but with the hope that the evil 
will remedy itself, the proprietor waits until the disease 
is thoroughly established. The power to move with 
speed is entirely lost; the animal moves with a roll¬ 
ing or unsteady walk; sometimes one foot gets in the 
way of the other and threatens to throw the animal 
down. The horse which has paralysis is really an ob¬ 
ject of pity,—more so, when we know that its exer¬ 
tions in trying to please its master has brought upon 



Fig. 9$. —Horse Suffering/roni Partial Paralysis 0/the Hind Leg-. 

it an injury which is likely to remain with it through 
life. How sad it is to contemplate the horse once 
powerful and proud, possessed of fleetness that 
would outstrip the birds in their flight, reduced to a 
pace which the tortoise could leave behind! Surely 
such an obedient and affectionate creature is worthy 
of better usage than that which destroys its fu¬ 
ture happiness and deprives it of the power to serve 
its superior. 

Palsy is principally confined to fast horses, or those 
used to extreme exertion. It is also occasioned by 
ergot in the hay or grain, and is then known as ergot¬ 
ism. An injury to the brain may cause paralysis of 
the opposite side of the body; and paralysis of the face, 
body or limbs may arise from pressure on the brain. 
Paralysis of one side of the body may result from dis¬ 
ordered brain or spinal cord; and paralysis of the 
face, ear, eyelid, lip, tongue, larynx and tail may arise 
from local causes,—a current of cold air continually 
striking a part, bad-fitting bridles, collars or other 
parts of the harness. 













8 i6 


HORSE. 


Paralysis of the hind limbs may result from injury 
to the loin or back, from indigestion, from tumors, 
parasites, inflammation or softening of the spinal 
cord, from eating freshly ripened seeds of some of the 
grasses, as Lolium or darnel, flax, rye grass, peren¬ 
nial rye grass. 

Treatment. The treatment of paralysis is not gen¬ 
erally attended with satisfactory results, rest, good 
grooming and nourishing food being the best mode of 
treatment. 

If the paralysis proceeds from an incurable dis¬ 
ease it is to be treated by cold-water shocks and sub¬ 
sequent friction by rubbing. Among the best means 
is a current of electricity daily. 

The folllowing ball has resulted in relieving the 
difficulty when it was partial paralysis of the hind¬ 
legs; 

ounce poplar bark, 
grain strychnine, 
grain iodine, 

I drachm golden seal. 

Work this up into a ball with powdered quassia and 
molasses, and give daily, gradually increasing the 
strychnine according to its effects, so that at the end 
of three weeks one grain will be given daily, and, if 
good effects are produced, a grain and a half may be 
given daily at the end of five or six weeks. 

In the giving of nerve stimulants, as strychnine, 
when increasing the doses gradually, if twitching or 
slight cramps of the muscles are observed, cease giv¬ 
ing for a few days, and then begin again with the 
smallest dose. 

Where paralysis is confined to the hind extremities 
quite a number of cases have been cured by the fol¬ 
lowing treatment; Take 

3 grains pulverized nux vomica, 
ounce poplar bark, 
y drachm gentian, 

X drachm golden seal, 

I drachm blood-root. 

Give three times a day in bran or cut feed. Blis¬ 
ter the spine well, keep the bowels loose and feed 
good, nutritious food. 

Peritoneum, Inflammation of the. This is 
characterized by great pain, and is the result of acci¬ 
dents and injuries, and at times surgical operations. 

Symptoms. There may be colic, or steady pain. 
This will be acute when the affected parts are pressed. 
There may be chill and fever and loss of appetite. 
The pulse will be rapid and hard, and the breath quick 
and catching, but when effusion takes place the 
breathing will be deep and easier; the pulse will 
soften, the belly will be pendent, and there will be 
fluctuations when handled, from the water contained. 

Treatment. In the early stages give full doses of 
laudanum; 40 drops fluid extract gelsemium every 
two hours, as may be needed to allay pain, and keep 
the liowels active. Apply mustard poultices to the ab¬ 
domen. Frequent injections of thoroughly cooked 
gruel may be thrown into the rectum, but until the 
worst symptoms are passed the animal should take no 
food except gruel into the stomach. 


In case absorption of the effusion of water in the 
cavity does not take place, which may be known by 
regular and ample staling, give 6 drachms nitrate 
potassa, daily, until the kidneys act. If tonics seem 
to be demanded, give daily doses of -drachm oxide 
of iron, and 2-drachm doses twice a day of Indian 
hemp. 

Pleurisy. This is among the most painful diseases 
the horse is subject to. It is inflammation of the 
fine, glistening membrane covering the lungs and lin¬ 
ing the chest. The pleura becomes swollen and 
rough, inflammation stops the secretion that during 
health smoothed and lubricated the surface of the 
membrane, and at every inhalation and exhalation 
those rough substancs are grated upon each other. 
The disease develops itself quickly; the violence of 
the attack is sometimes so severe as to be mistaken 
for spasmodic colic. This error, if made, will prob¬ 
ably prove fatal to the affected animal. A little care, 
however, will guard against such an error. In colic 
the pulse is natural or nearly so, the legs and ears of 
a natural temperature, and the fits are of short dura¬ 
tion. In pleurisy the pulse is full and strong, the 
agony never remits, the pain is continuous, the feet 
are icy cold, the body is hot, the muscles corrugate 
frequently and partial sweat breaks forth upon the 
body. A dry cough is often, but not invariably, pres¬ 
ent. By placing the ear against the side a grating 
sound is heard, which may easily be detected from the 
natural murmur of the lungs. Pressure made on the 
interspaces between the ribs produces the most ag¬ 
onizing pain. The animal paws with the front foot, 
expressive of acute pain, the breathing is short and 
imperfect. 

Treatinent. The same general care as in bron¬ 
chitis and inflammation of the lungs is to be observed. 
If there is a chill, wrap the horse completely in 
blankets wrung out of hot water, and cover with dry 
ones. When removed, do so a little at a time, rub¬ 
bing dry, and re-clothe warmly. If taken in its early 
stage, give ounce laudanum, Yi linseed oil. 
This will often prove effective. If the symptoms in¬ 
crease, apply a strong mustard plaster to the chest. 
The bowels should be kept moderately open. The 
following will be found excellent in place of the last 
named remedy, if there is weakness and a rapid pulse, 
70 to 80, and scanty urine : ^ ounce tincture chlo¬ 

ride iron ; ^ pail water. Give as a drink twice a day. 
The effusion of water not yielding, the chest may be 
tapped with a trocar. Divide the skin with a lancet, 
between the eighth and ninth rib and near the lower 
end. Be careful the air does not enter. Draw off 
only a part of the water if it produces a shock. In 
this, one should have the advice of a veterinarian. Re¬ 
peat in 24 to 48 hours. The animal should be kept 
up with sulphate of iron, 2 drachms, twice a day, in 
water, with stimulants and easily digestible and nu¬ 
tritious food. It is absolutely necessary, after effu¬ 
sion of water has taken place, that the urine should be 
passed freely to assist absorption. To this end the 










HORSE. 


817 


following vety valuable diuretic may be indicated: 

I drachm iodide potassium ; 

I drachm carbonate ammonia ; 

J^ounce powdered gentian. 

Give twice a day as a drench in a quart of water, 
or as a ball mixed with linseed meal and molasses. 

Do not be persuaded to give any active purgative, 
as it would be ix)ison during pleurisy. A yellow dis¬ 
charge from the nostril, occasionally streaked with 
blood, an imploring and anxious cast of countenance, 
seeming to appeal to human sympathy, is seen, the 
breathing is quickened, the pulse grows fast and fee¬ 
ble, with a leaden color of the nasal membrane. All 
indicate approaching death. Pleurisy, however, ter¬ 
minates in hydrothorax or dropsy of the chest. The 
causes of pleurisy are over-exertion, colds aggravated 
by change of temperature, external injuries, broken 
ribs, etc. 

Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. 
This painful malady is brought on by crowding, a bad 
system of ventilation, and sudden changes from heat 
to cold. The horse, being driven far and fast, is left 
standing facing a cold wind, or perhaps in a pelting 
rain storm. The disease is ushered in by a shivering 
fit; scarcely any pulse is felt at the jaw, but as the 
disease develops itself the pulse is fast and thready, 
the mouth hot, the legs and ears deadly cold, the head 
hangs under the manger, and on applying the ear to 
the side a sound is heard similar to that made by a 
bellows, and the horse is made with difficulty to move. 
It may follow acute congestion of the lungs, this being 
really its first stage, though often not noticed by the 
ordinary observer as sucli. But congestion may occur 
in its sudden and fatal form from overtaxing a fat 
horse, or one otherwise out of condition. Suppose 
from hard driving or hard riding he hangs heavily on 
the bit; droops and staggers; if not pulled up he may 
fall; or getting to the stable he stands with dilated 



Fig. 96. — Congestion. 

nostrils, extended head, quick, convulsive or labored 
breathing, eyes staring and blood-shot, his^ nasal 
membrane deep-red or blue, and pulse rapid and 
weak. 

If such be the case there is no time to lose. Give 
20 drops aconite every four hours in a little water; 
remove everything from the animal that may impede 


breathing, and allow him plenty of fresh air. Give 
an active stimulant, the easiest to be had,—whisky, 
four or five ounces, or a tumblerful in a half pint of 
water. Give, also, warm-water injections to relieve 
the bowels, and also active hand-rubbing of the legs, 
to promote circulation to the surface, while the body 
is enveloped in blankets wrung out of hot water and 
covered with dry ones. If the patient does not soon 
recover under this treatment, the case will be one of 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms. If the disease does not succeed to the 
symptoms we have just described, those of acute con- 



Fig. 07 - —The Position Assumed by the Horse During 
an Attack o/Pneumonia. 

gestion, there will be a chill with shivering, and 
generally a dry cough, but deep, as though from the 
chest. There will be a hot skin, indicating fever; a 
full but oppressed pulse. The membranes of the 
eyes, nose and mouth will be red, and as the disease 
advances a yellowish or whitish matter will come from 
the nostrils. The horse will always stand with the 
legs wide apart. By striking the affected parts there 
will be flinching and even groaning, but, except at 
the seat of the disease, the chest wil^retain its healthy 
sound, while the diseased parts will sound dull and 
solid. 

Treattnent. Never bleed in this case. Bandage 
the limbs to keep them warm and give the body such 
clothing as the necessities of the case seem to require. 
Let the food be simple, laxative and cooling,—bran 
mashes, boiled carrots, linseed meal and soft, sweet 
hay. Do not check diarrhoea or profuse staling; it 
is an effort of nature to relieve the system. If there 
is fever, give plenty of water; if there is swift pulse 
and oppression of the lungs, give 20 to 30 drops tinc¬ 
ture of aconite in half a pint of water, or i to 2 drachms 
of tincture of veratrum, in water, every two hours. 
If the pulse falls—if there is trembling sweats and a 
peculiar anxious expression in the eyes, discontinue. 
If there is great exhaustion, give moderate doses of 

I (iMchm golden seal, 

20 grains carbonate ammonia, 

10 grains capsicum; 

but discontinue it unless good effects are seen. If 
there is much weakness, give 2 drachms each of 
camphor and carbonate ammonia, made into a ball 
with molasses and linseed meal, twice a day. In the 






















8i8 


HORSE. 


-case of considerable congestion, strong mustard 
jx)ultices will be indicated to be applied to the chest, 
or, in extreme cases, blister. 

In this disease symptoms must be watched. Good 
nursing is of especial value, and as the animal begins 
to recover, give soft and easily digestible food, and 
assist the system with golden seal and carbonate of 
ammonia. 

Poisoning, Internal. The cases of internal poi¬ 
soning are more frequent, especially with horses, than 
is generally supposed. Among the most common are 
those arising from drastic or powerful.drugs blindly 
given by the ignorant, either in disease or from some 
effect sought to be produced upon the general health. 
Of these, strong purgatives, diuretics and arsenic are 
the most common. 

We wish to take this opportunity to again caution 



Fig. 98. —Horse Suffering^/rom Drastic Poison. 

our readers about giving strong medicines. Do not 
rely too much on art and medicine for the cure of dis¬ 
ease. Medicine, when properly given, undoubtedly 
aids nature in restoring the system, but as too often 
administered it is only a curse. In the hands of the 
ignorant it becomes a most dangerous weapon. Let 
your practice harmonize with the laws of nature; aid 
her in all her ways, but never attempt to force her to 
adopt our system for that of her own: she will never 
do it. 

Other causes of internal poisoning, besides those 
above mentioned, are from eating poisonous plants, 
either in the hay or in the pasture, the ergot of rye and 
other grain. Ergot sometimes attacks the grasses; 
thus, smutty grain, castor beans, hellebore or poke 
root, etc., may be mentioned as common. Among 
minerals, sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids; and all 
the concentrated vegetable acids are caustic and 
irritant }X)isons. They are never taken unless forced 
down. The antidote to these is large doses of 
powdered chalk, whiting or lime water. In the absence 
of these give weak lye until relief is obtained, and 
follow with a full dose of linseed oil. 


Alkalies destroy the tissues. If quick-lime, caustic 
potash, strong lye or washing soda has been taken, 
give vinegar and water to neutralize it and follow 
with a dose of oil. 

Horses that are dosed with whisky “ to give them 
strength ” sometimes show alcoholic poisoning. Never 
give it except as a stimulant, as advised for disease. 

Forty grains of arsenic will kill a horse. The symp¬ 
toms are intense thirst, quick, feeble pulse, great pain 
in the bowels, with purging sometimes, irregular 
breathing, faintness, paralysis, convulsions and death. 
Give full doses of oil, in which is mixed two, three or 
four spoonfuls of carbonate of iron, as the case may 
seem to demand. 

Corrosive sublimate is a fatal poison; a quarter of 
an ounce will kill a horse. The symptoms are violent 
pain, intense thirst, effusion and blood discharges 
from the bowels, trembling, salivation, 
ending in stupor and death. Give the 
whites of a dozen eggs stirred in a lit¬ 
tle warm water. Follow this with lin¬ 
seed tea or with mucilage of slippery elm. 

Litharge and sugar of lead are poi¬ 
sonous. The symptoms are protruding 
tongue and foaming at the mouth, stag¬ 
gering and sometimes dashing wildly to 
and fro. Give large doses of purgatives, 
to be followed by from one to two ounces 
of iodide of potash daily for seven or 
eight days. 

Keep the animal quiet and in a dark 
place, and give a quart of sweet or 
linseed oil. Follow with powdered char¬ 
coal mixed with mucilage. Move the 
bowels by means of injections as quickly 
as possible, and if exhaustion ensues, 
give stimulants (whisky) freely. Tartar 
emetic in doses of 2 to 4 ounces 
will sometimes kill a horse. The symptoms are thirst, 
vomiting and purging, staggering, colic, salivation, 
convulsions and paralysis. Give strong tea, followed 
as soon as you can get it, with a decoction of white- 
oak bark. For the vomiting and purging, if they con¬ 
tinue, give ounce doses of landanum in a little water. 

Poisoning from aloes, castor oil or croton beans, 
is known by excessive bloody purging and straining, 
cold eafs and legs, hot, dry mouth, and bloating. 
Give 2 ounces of laudanum in a quart of linseed tea, 
and if necessary give a like dose by injection. 

In poisoning from ergot or other diseased and in¬ 
jured foods, give full doses of linseed oil, both by the 
mouth and as injections, with stimulants afterwards; 
and tonics, say 8 grains of quinine three times a day, 
during recovery. 

For poisoning by white hellebore or Indian ix)ke, 
give whisky in pint doses. The same means may be 
used in poisoning by laurel, followed by injections of 
salt and water, and also by linseed oil given as a 
purge. 

In case of poisoning by opium or laudanum, pour 
cold water on the head from a considerable height, 































HORSE. 


819 


and keep the animal in constant motion. For ix)ison- 
ing with Jamestown weed (jimson), known by faint¬ 
ness, giddiness, followed by convulsions, paralysis 
and stupor, give a quart of linseed oil with 2 ounces 
of laudanum. Give also an injection and subse¬ 
quently stimulate with pint doses of whisky. 

Tobacco jX)isoning is shown by purging, offensive 
dung, colic pains, weak pulse, prostration, convulsions, 
and stupor. Give a purge of oil, and follow with 
pint doses of whisky in slippery-elm or linseed tea. 

Poisoned Skin. There are many weeds and plants 
that sometimes cause irritation and jxiisoning of the 
skin. The means of cure is to move the bowels and 
apply some soothing wash to the irritated parts. For 
injury from jxiison, wash with a decoction of golden 
seal three times a day, oiling the surface at night. In 
the morning wash away the oil with soap and warm 
water, and use the golden seal again. A solution of 
sugar of lead is also a specific for vegetable poison¬ 
ing of the skin. 

Poisoning from Stings. It is not infrequent that 
animals are badly stung, or bitten by venomous ser¬ 
pents or insects. 

For the stings of insects, as wasps, hornets and 
bees, wash the stings repeatedly with onion juice, or 
ammonia, 3 parts to i part of oil. Washing with salt 
and water is also an excellent remedy. 

In some portions of the West, and especially in the 
South, gnats and certain species of venomous flies 
come in summer. The remedy against them is to use 
petroleum. When these insects are very bad, it is 
usual to smear the unprotected part of the animal’s 
body with a mixture composed of i part of tar to 2 
parts of lard. We prefer equal parts of petroleum, 
lard oil and tar; or, smear the sting with equal parts 
of aloes, strong decoction of walnut leaves, lobelia 
and capsicum. 

For the sting of centipedes, scorpions, tarantulas 
and other venomous spiders, give the following: 

pint decoction of plantain, 

I teaspoonful of ammonia, 

I pint of whisky, 

I pint warm water. 

Wash the bitten part with ammonia frequently and 
keep it soaked therewith by means of a sponge. Bites 
by venomous serpents are to be treated in the same 
Way. The wound should be well cauterized, when 
first discovered, with an iron at a white heat. 

Poll-Evil. This affection consists of a deep- 
seated abscess or fistula, with numerous sinuses, situ¬ 
ated on the back part of the head, or uppermost 
portion of the neck, immediately behind the ears, and 
gets its name from its location about the poll. If 
not attended to in its early stages, the surface of the 
first bone from the head, or that of the joint between 
the first two bones, becomes inflamed, and the joint 
or joints involved. 

'bhe most frequent causes of poll-evil are, the horse 
throwing up his head and hitting the beams of the 
upper floor of his stable; low doors; a blow iq^on the 
IX )11 by a brutal driver may very readily produce it; 
and much slighter causes, often repeated, result in 


this affection; as, forcing on of a tight collar day after 
day; hanging back and so bruising the poll with 
bridle or halter. In fact, any sprain or bruise of the 
parts may bring it on, and it is frequently the result 
of bad blood. 

Symptoms. The first symptoms are shown by a re¬ 
luctance on the part of the affected animal to move 
his head; the nose is pointed forward; the hay can¬ 
not be taken from the bottom of the manger, from the 
inability of the horse to bend his neck; a dull appear¬ 
ance about the eyes; a sluggishness of movement. 
All these are sometimes observed before any symp¬ 
toms of the disease may be discovered about the head. 

Sometimes no notice is taken of its existence until 
considerable swelling and even an unwholesome dis¬ 
charge have set 
in; but more fre¬ 
quently an oval 
tumor is discov¬ 
ered, hot, tender, 
situated directly in 
the region of the 
nape of the neck, 
but generally in¬ 
clining to one side. 
In the milder form 
this tumor is evi- 

Tic. Poll-Evil During: First Stage, dently Superficial, 

and the horse moves his head with comparative ease 
and freedom ; whereas, in the more advanced stage, he 
carries it stiffly, and every movement of it or the neck 
causes great pain. Sometimes the disorder is so 
deeply-seated that the tumor is not developed 
sufficiently to make much outward show. It is 
much likelier to discover itself plainly as a well- 
developed swelling when the hurt is superficial. In 
any case, it must be examined with the fingers to de¬ 
termine this point. Place the fingers gently upon it, 
and give the animal time to recover from the little scare 
into which this touching of a sore at first gives him ; 
then gradually press upon the part. If the hurt is near 
the surface, he will flinch quickly; if deeply seated, 
he will be correspondingly slow in showing evidences 
of pain. If suppuration has already set in, it can 
readily be known when near the surface by a sort of 
fluctuating feeling; but this fluctuation can scarcely 
be felt at all if the matter is deep-seated. 

Treatment. If discovered when there is nothing 
more than a swelling, no matter having yet been 
found, remove all tendency to general feverishness by 
giving purgative medicine according to evident full¬ 
ness of condition. Allow the horse to rest and put 
him on moderately light diet. Then apply three times 
a day the following absorbent lotion : 

1 ounce spirits turpentine, 

2 ounces tincture iodine, 

2 ounces oil cedar, 

2 ounces sulphuric ether, 

2 ounces spirits camphor. 

As soon as matter can be felt, have ready a large 
and very sharp knife; twitch the nose to prevent 
struggling; then open with a quick, steady and strong 










820 


HORSE. 


sweep of the blade through the tumor, being careful 
to have the wound open at the lower point of the 
tumor, so as to provide for more easily 
draining it of matter that may thereafter 
form. I 3 e careful not to cut the tendinous 
ligament that runs along the neck under 
the mane. If the matter appears to be on 
both sides, open the places separately; so 
as to leave this ligament undivided. It 
may, if absolutely necessary, be severed 
between the second bone and the head, and 
the head be not materially weakened, since 
the stress is on the second bone, and the 
divided ligament, if healthy, will soon heal 
again; but it is best to avoid all risks; and 
if at all convenient, the aid of an experi¬ 
enced veterinary surgeon should be had 
when it becomes necessar}' to use the 
knife. 

The wound must now be cleansed by 
being syringed daily with a stimulating 
wash (one-half dram chloride of zinc in one 
quart of water), until a healthy discharge 
sets in, and evidences of healing begin to 
manifest themselves. Nothing further will 
then be necessary than to keep the parts 
clean by daily sponging with warm soap¬ 
suds. 

Fig. loo. — Scalpel, 

It sometimes occurs that before remedial measures 
are resorted to, not alone the fleshy, but the tendinous, 
ligamentary and bony structures have become in¬ 
volved, and the disease has assumed a desperate 
character. If further neglected, the spinal cord is 
likely to become diseased, and the case hopeless. If, 
upon opening a tumor, the matter is found to flow in 
great quantities, resembling melted glue, with some¬ 
thing of an oily consistence, it may be known that the 
disease is deep-seated and dangerous; and the probe 
should be employed to find whatever cavities^ may 
exist. If any are found, the knife should again be 
employed, and another cut made, smooth down, and 
in the same direction as the first, to prevent all rough 
and hacked walls, till the lowest depths are reached. 
Then cleanse the wounds with warm soapsuds, using 
a good gum compress syringe; and dress with a mix¬ 
ture of equal parts of spirits of turpentine, linseed oil, 
and pyroligenous acid. 

In the more desperate cases, numerous openings 
are formed, and these discharge a matter resembling 
the white of an egg, which adheres to the surrounding 
parts, and gives to the animal a most repulsive ap¬ 
pearance. In this case the knife should be used so 
as to take in at one sweep the greatest number of 
openings, and then the other openings should be con¬ 
nected by cuts with this main channel; after which 
the wound should be cleansed as previously directed, 
and dressed with the mixture prescribed—spirits of 
turpentine, honey, and tincture of myrrh. 

After matter has formed, the knife is the last means 
of curing the horse; and, in the hands of the skillful 



man, it is a merciful means. The operation is brief; 
and the relief is more speedy than can otherwise be 
obtained. Let no one attempt it who is not acquainted 
with the anatomy of the parts. 

A horse that has once had the poll-evil should 
never afterward have a collar thrust over his head, or 
be hauled around with a halter or any other head-gear 
pressing upon the part. The poll will long remain 
tender, and a return of the disorder is likely. 

Polypus. If this excrescence can be made visible by 
causing the horse to cough, it may be removed by a 
ligature or a pair of polypus scissors by any physician, 
if no veterinary surgeon is at hand. 

When the polypus is entirely concealed from view, 
tracheotomy may have to be employed before an ex¬ 
amination can be made, since the polypus may have 
gone so far as to oppress the breathing. Thus, in all 
cases of polypus, unless it be so low that a ligature 
can be employed to strangulate it at the neck, it is 
altogether better to call on the aid of a veterinary 
surgeon. 

Profuse Staling. See Diabetes, page 775. 

Pumice Foot. This is usually the result of neg¬ 
lected founder. Sometimes it arises from bruises 
upon the inner sole. From injuries to the foot blood is 
secreted between the outer and inner, or sensible sole. 
Suppuration takes place and the outer sole drops off. 
Little can be done in the way of treatment. Careful 
shoeing affords the best means of relief. See Hoof 
Rot, page 799. 

Quarter, False. This difficulty differs materially 
from sand crack, inasmuch as it is a deficiency in the 
growth of the horn of the hoof extending from the 
coronet to the sole. It is a gap in the wall of 
the hoof rather than a crack. It is produced from 
a deficient secretion of the horn-making power, 
owing to previous quittor, frost-bite or other injury to 
the coronet. 

Treatment. The principal means to be used is 
careful shoeing with a bar shoe. If the injury has 
been recent, stimulate the coronet with a mild blister, 
or if there is a wound, cut the edges with a knife and 
dress with weak carbolic acid water, to induce a 
healthy growth of horn. In old cases, all that can 
be done is to fill the fissures with gutta percha, and 
protect the weak hoof with a bar shoe. 

Quittor. This is caused by wounds upon the 
sole or parts of the sensible laminae. It is accom¬ 
panied by great pain and lameness. The inner por¬ 
tion of the foot is chiefly composed of cartilage. 
Cartilage is a non-vascular substance, which, during 
health, is without sensation, but in disease renders 
the most acute anguish. The outer portion or horn 
is strictly inorganic, and is incapable of action. 
Therefore any pus or other foreign matter, which may 
be deposited beneath it, cannot penetrate even the 
thinnest layer. Knowing this, the reader may con¬ 
jecture the suffering inqxised, when suppuration takes 
place at the sole of the foot, and being confined 
within the horny wall has to work its way upwards 
until it breaks out upon the coronet. 




























































































































































































































HORSE. 


Symptoms. Quittor will be known by a large tumor 
being formed upon the coronet. The slightest press¬ 
ure upon the part calls forth the most energetic re¬ 
sistance on the part of the horse. A recent wound or 
ordinary abscess of the coronet may be mistaken by 
the inexperienced for quittor, especially if any lame¬ 
ness attends it; but a little examination will readily 
disclose the true nature of the case. From a simple 
wound there is not apt to be a fetid discharge of so 
unwholesome a character as that which oozes from 
the sinuses of the quittor, and the parts must be more 
or less swollen, and yielding to pressure ; whereas, in 
quittor the surrounding tissue is hard, though it has 
taken on a peculiarly unhealthy action, and probing 
will discover the presence of a sinus or of sinuses of 
more or less depth. There is almost always lame¬ 
ness ; the coronet is somewhat swelled into a ridge 
around the top of the hoof, and about the center of 
which one or more small orifices are found, that dis¬ 
charge in small quantities offensive matter—some¬ 
times rather thin and watery, again thick and having 
a curdled appearance. 

Treatment. The first step is to discover, if possible, 
the cause; and if this is still operating, to make every 
effort in your power to remove it. Sometimes there 
is such swelling around the hoof and such excessive 
tenderness that the animal cannot bear to have the 
foot handled except in the gentlest manner. In this 
case, apply a good softening and cooling ix)ultice, and 
keep him as still as possible—renewing the poultice 
as often as it begins to grow dry and hot—until 
the inflammation is something reduced, and the ex¬ 
treme tenderness overcome. Then remove the shoe 
and withdraw every nail if it can be done. If the trouble 
has been caused by a nail, and the nail can be re¬ 
moved, there is already something of a dependent 
opening made by which the accumulated pus may 
escape, and this opening must be enlarged by farther 
paring away the hoof, so as to reach the softer part, 
that can be more readily cut with a keen knife. 

A small probe, or bougie, should be inserted from 
above, and worked to the lowest depths of the sinus. 
If this extends far towards the base of the foot, the 
prime object should be to get an opening from below 
to meet it, no matter what may have been the cause 
—whether a prick, a bruise, or irritation caused by 
other foot diseases. This dependent opening estab¬ 
lished and kept open, the pus will in time be evac¬ 
uated, and the foot will return to its healthy state, 
unless the joints have been attacked, which seldom 
happens, when a cure is scarcely to be hoped for 

If the disease is of long standing, the internal sur¬ 
face of the sinus or sinuses has become more or less 
callous, and a stimulating lotion must be injected 
with a syringe every day, composed of one drachm 
chloride of zinc to one pint of water—increasing the 
chloride gradually to two drachms. 

This treatment will suffice. The main trouble, 
however, is to make the dependent outlet. In case 
this cannot be done owing to the shallowness of the 
sinuses from above, reduce the inflammation by poul¬ 


823 


ticing, as previously directed, and then inject this 
somewhat caustic solution into each channel or pipe : 

5 grains bichloride of mercury, 

I ounce spirits of turpentine, 
lo drops muriatic acid. 

Sometimes the trouble rises from a gravel having 
insinuated itself between the shoe and the sole, and 
creating a bruise or corn. This may be ascertained 
by removing the shoe and seeking for a spot unnatural 
in appearance, hot and tender on the sole. If found 
it ought to be pared down so as to reach the more 
sensitive part of the. foot, and, if possible, to discover 
and liberate matter. 

In any event, a complete cure requires much time 
and a more than ordinary exercise of patience and 
care. 

If the general health of the animal is scrupulously 
attended to, it will mnterially assist in the manage¬ 
ment of the local disorder. 

Rabies: see Hydrophobia, page 800. 

Rat Tails : see Surfeit. 

Rectum, Inflammation and Bleeding of the, is 
a difficulty that often accompanies or follows inflamma¬ 
tion of the bowels. There will be heat and swelling, 
with or without protrusion and bleeding of the rectum. 
Wash the parts with a weak solution of salt and wa¬ 
ter, and also use injections of the same as often as 
may seem necessary. If this does not give relief add 
a slight infusion of chlorate of potash and golden seal. 

Rheumatism. Perhaps in no disease of this faith¬ 
ful servant of man are there so many mistakes made 
as in rheumatism, both in the nature of the affection 
and mode of treatment. Rheumatism and founder, 
whether acute or chronic, are often treated as the same. 
The chief difference between acute or inflammatory 
rheumatism and acute founder is this: In the former 
there is fever, severe pain and great excitement, and 
it is located in the joints of the legs; while in founder 
there is pain, but no fever, and the disease is confined 
to the feet alone. In chronic rheumatism such mis¬ 
takes may have some excuse, as in it there is no fever; 
there is, however, an inability to move, as if the ani¬ 
mal was sprained over the loins. Rheumatism is a 
peculiar form of inflammation attacking the fibrous, 
structures of the body, such as the joints, tendons, lig¬ 
aments and muscles, and is accompanied by stiffness, 
pain, shifting from place to place. Exposure to cold, 
wet or drafts, especially when the system is over¬ 
worked, are the causes of this painful affection.' 

Symptoms. In its acute form there is dullness, fol¬ 
lowed by extreme lameness in one or more of the 
limbs. There is tenderness and then swelling of the 
joints, tendons or muscles, at first soft, then hard. 
There may be fluctuations from excess of synovia 
(joint fluid). With the inflammation there is fever. 
The pulse is full and hard; the mouth is dry and 
clammy ; there is hurried breathing, scanty urine and 
costiveness. 

In the chronic form the symptoms are the same as 
in the acute, but not so pronounced, and in this form 









824 


HORSE. 


it is unattended with fever. It may appear only uix)n 
undue exposure, or in damp, lowery weather, and dis¬ 
appear again upon the recurrence of fine weather. 
Chronic rheumatism is also less inclined to shift from 
place to place. 

Treatment. For rheumatism in its early acute stage 
relieve the bowels by laxative medicines, say 4 ounces 
of aloes. Put the animal in slings, as for lock-jaw, 
and clothe him from the hoofs to the ears in flannel. 
If practicable the first thing is to fill the box in which 
the horse is kept with steam, keeping it up 'for an 
hour. If the pain is extreme lessen it with ounce 
doses of laudanum. 

Give the following three or four times a day as a 
drench in a pint of gruel; 

20 drops extract gelsemium, 

I ounce bicarbonate soda, 

I ounce salicylic acid. 

If this cannot be obtained, give the following, at a 
dose, night and morning: 

Yi ounce powdered saltpeter, 

I drachm powdered colchicum 
I ounce oil of turpentine. 

Mix in Y pint linseed oil. 

For rheumatism in its chronic form the following 
will be found to be valuable, used internally: 

1 drachm tincture colchicum, 

I ounce powdered carbonate of potash, 

1 ounce powdered saltpeter, 

2 drachms iodide of potash. 

Give in one and a half pints of water. 

As a liniment for the joints and other affected parts, 
to be afterwards wrapped in flannel, the following is 
excellent: 

1 pound compound soap liniment, 

2 ounces liquid ammonia, 

2 ounces laudanum, 

2 ounces tincture capsicum. 

Rub in with as much friction as the horse can bear. 

A soothing and stimulating embrocation, when so 
severe measures as the foregoing are not considered 
necessary, may be made as follows: 

1 part tincture capsicum, 

I part spirits camphor, 

I part solution of ammonia, 

I part olive oil. 

Mix and apply by rubbing in, 

Ring-Bone. Ring-bone is similar in character to 
bone spavin: in fact it is the same disease, except dif¬ 
ferently situated. It is the ossification of the perios¬ 
teum on the front part of the foot, midway between the 
pastern joint and the hoof. It will first be dis¬ 
covered by a slight enlargement, accompanied with 
lameness. If not arrested in the early stage of the 
disease, it will not only produce anchylosis but the 
osseous deposit will become very large, producing a 
bad eye sore. In such cases, to stop the bony growth 
and remove a jxirtion of the enlargement and also the 
lameness, take i drachm finely pulverized corrosive 
sublimate, add this to 3 drachms of Venice turpen¬ 
tine, mixed well together. Apply a teaspoonful to the 
enlargement, rubbing it in well. Two applications 
are sufficient. Grease well with hog’s lard two days 
after the application. This will destroy the roots of 
the hair and leave a bare spot, but it is a positive cure. 

Ringworm. There are two kinds of ringworm,—one 


simple, of spontaneous origin, and non-contagious; 
the other contagious. The first is usually the result 
of indigestion or confinement in close and foul apart¬ 
ments, as in filthy and ill-aired stables, railroad cars 
or ship holds. The latter, or contagious kind, is found 
on horses of good condition, as well a,s on diseased 
and neglected ones, and is produced by vegetable 
parasites in the hairs arid hair-glands. It may be 
communicated from man to animals and from ani¬ 
mals to man. 

Sy?nptoms. It appears on the face, neck, shoulders, 
sides, and sometimes elsewhere. When non-contag¬ 
ious, it may usually be known by its appearing as an 
eruption of small blisters, about the size of a wheat 
grain, on inflamed patches of skin. These assume 
a circular form; and if not seasonably attended to, 
the circle enlarges and covers fresh portions of skin. 

The contagious type appears in round, bald six)ts, 
covered with white scales, and surrounded by a ring of 
bristly, broken or split hairs, with scabs around the 
roots, and some eruption on the skin. These broken 
hairs soon drop out, and a wider ring is formed. The 
most marked characteristics of the contagious or 
parasitical ringworm is the splitting of the hairs in the 
ring, and the perfect baldness of the central part. 

Occasionally the patches, in either form of the dis¬ 
ease, assumes an irregular rather than a really circu¬ 
lar form. 

Any attack of this sort is usually marked also by 
the horse’s rubbing and scratching himself against the 
sides of his stable, or convenient objects outside; but 
this is not to be depended upon as a marked symptom, 
since it likewise indicates surfeit and mange. 

Treatment. If a simple, non-contagious case, shave 
the hairs as closely as possible from the affected part, 
and paint with tincture of iodine; or, if scratches or 
little ulcers have appeared on the patch, rub it with 
the following stimulating and healing ointment: 10 
grains nitrate of silver; i ounce lard. 

If it is a case of the contagious or scaly variety, 
wash the patches thoroughly with soft soap, and then 
rub every day with the ointment recommended for 
mange. 

Roaring, Whistling, etc. This is when a horse 
emits any unnatural noise in traveling, whether he 
be simply thick-winded or emits the peculiar noise 
when hard urged, or the sharp sound denominated 
whistling and piping similar to roaring, but a more 
confirmed type, occasioned by a strong closing of the 
rima glottidis. Whistlers are simply chronic or con¬ 
firmed roarers, as roaring precedes whistling. Both 
impediments to breathing are produced by atrophy or 
wasting or degeneration of the muscles whose office it 
is to dilate the larynx. 

Thick wind is from an inflamed and thickened con¬ 
dition of the smaller and lower branches of the breath¬ 
ing tubes, whistling from a narrowing or constriction 
of the windpipe. Roaring, again, is of two kinds, 
acute and chronic. The first is, in comparison with 
the chronic and confirmed state, light and trivial. 
Fortunately it is comparatively rare in the United 














HORSE. 


825 


States, but quite common in England, and essentially 
a disease of high or well-bred horses. 

Causes. Any and all of these impediments are 
produced by various affections, and some of them, as 
thick wind and roaring, are considered by some as 
hereditary. Laryngitis, distemper, bronchitis, pneu¬ 
monia, tumors, diseases of the nasal membranes, and 
tight reining are the chief causes of this affection. 
Roaring and whistling are decided unsoundness. 
So also should thick wind be considered, if the 
horse is to be used for any other than slow work. 

Syftiptoms. There are many differences of opinion 
respecting wind, particularly as to whether some 
horses are or are not roarers and whistlers. Generally 
the examination of horses in regard to the condition 
of their wind is conducted in a careless way, and all 
that is thought necessary in that respect is to make 
the animal take a sudden inspiration, generally by 
holding him short and striking him suddenly, or 
threatening to do so, when it is thought, if he is a 
roarer, he will give a prolonged grunt characteristic of 
the disease. Animals that do this, from the peculiar¬ 
ity of the noise they make, are called, in the language 
of some horsemen, “bulls.” However, this test is a 
most fallacious one. There are many horses invete¬ 
rate roarers that make no grunting noise in being held 
and suddenly struck, and that yet, on being ridden or 
driven at such a pace as to accelerate the breathing, 
will be found inveterate roarers. In the majority of 
instances those horses which are called whistlers, 
from the character of the sound they make in hurried 
breathing, emit it not on being held still and struck; 
to detect their defect, locomotion, more or less rayjid, 
being necessar}\ The only reliable test to ascertain 
whether, in obscure cases, a horse is either a roarer or 
a whistler, is to have him galloped to such an extent 
as to distress the breathing. 

Treatmejit. Remedies are of but little avail. In 
slight cases and during the earlier stages-, swabbing 
the larynx with a decoction of tobacco, may be done 
by means of a small, soft sponge fixed on the end of a 
piece of whalebone, the sponge having a chord 
attached and longer than the handle, so as to be 
recovered if it comes off. Pads have been attached 
to the nose-band of the bridle, so as to lie on and 
compress the false membrane of the nose. These 
have given relief if the horse is not required to make 
extra exertion. 

When roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles 
of the larynx, hypodermic injections of strychnine 
every two or three days in half-grain doses have given 
relief. (See figure on page 206.) Relief is also some¬ 
times given by rubbing on daily, or once in two days, 
the following: 

1 drachrh iodine, 

2 drachms iodide potash, 

2 ounces lard. 

Mix at a heat little more than to melt the lard by 
placing in a vessel of hot water. In all of the diseases . 
mentioned, good, easily-digested food should be given, 
and sufficient water to satisfy the demands of the sys¬ 


tem, and the animal should not be put to work within 
an hour of eating his food. 

Rupture, or Hernia. Mechanical violence is 
done to the stomach and bowels in various ways, but 
in every case the symptoms will be those of severe 
inflammation of the serous coat, speedily followed by 
death, if not relieved when relief is possible. 

The rupture most commonly seen is of the bowels 
and omentum. The omenium is the membranous 
covering of the bowels or the caul. The bowels may 
pass through the caul by rupture, or the bowels and 
involved caul may, it is possible, pass through the 
mesentery, the membrane retaining the intestines in 
their proper position. 

If the rupture is into the chest, it is called dia¬ 
phragmatic, and may occur from a violent shock, as in 
leaping or in “bucking,” as jumping stiff-legged is 
called. In bad cases death is sudden from suffocation. 
In the slight forms there may be only difficulty of 
breathing, with lifting of the flanks, as observed in 
heaves. The only remedial means to be used are to 
give anodynes and rest. 

Hernia, or injury to the scrotum, can always be 
cured in the male by castration. The most simple 
manner of operating on a colt for successfully reducing 
umbilical hernia, is as follows; It is not necessary to 
cut the colt or have him submitted to any restraint 
beyond that of having his head held. The hernial 
tumor is emptied by forcing its contents into the belly; 
the loose integuments forming the pouch is gathered 
into the left hand, while the right surrounds it by a 
ligature placed as closely as possible to the abdominal 
parietes, and drawn sufficiently tight to interrupt the 
circulation. On the second day there is considerable 
swelling; around the parts below the ligature it feels 
cold, and often clammy and moist; when the ligature 
has not been sufficiently tight, or the pouch so large 
as to require strong compression for arresting the 
circulation, it is hot and tender. In all cases more 
than one ligature is necessary. Generally, on the 
third day, the first cord is loose, the circle it embraces 
has been reduced partly by absorption and partly by 
incision, and there is no longer any compression. If 
neglected after this, the tumor increases rapidly in size 
and is attached by a neck whose diameter is limited by 
the ligature. It is necessary, therefore, to renew the 
ligature twice or thrice a week. The second, third 
and fourth, should so many be required, must be 
placed above that which preceded and close to the 
abdomen. The whole will drop off in from ten to 
twelve days, leaving a flat granulating surface, which 
readily heals. No further treatment is required. 

Ventral hernia is known by the contents being 
movable and gurgling and easily pressed back to their 
place. If recent, the animal should be thrown on its 
back, using ether or chloral to keep it quiet, returning 
the protrusion, padding the orifice, and covering with 
strong factory muslin wound round the abdomen and 
laced along the back, the bandage being kept in place 
by bands fastened in front and carried to a collar 
worn on the neck. Except in case of very valuable 












826 


HORSE. 


animals treatment scarcely pays, unless a veterinarian 
can be employed who understands anatomy. 

Salivation. This is an increased flow of siliva, 
the result of mercury and other medicines. The 
second crop of white clover, late in the fall, or after 
slight frost, is a frequent cause. It occurs as a free 
discharge of saliva in frothy masses or in stringy fila¬ 
ments, with frequent swallowing, thirst and indigestion. 

Treatment. Remove the cause, if it be from 
alkalies, wash the mouth with weak vinegar; if from 
acids, use lime-water; if from caustic salts, use white 
of egg or tea of slippery-elm bark. If there is inflam¬ 
mation with costiveness, open the bowels with injec¬ 
tions of warm water or soapsuds, and wash the mouth 
frequently with vinegar and honey. If this does not 
effect a cure, wash the mouth with alum water. If 
there are ulcers, touch them with a feather wet with 
the following; i grain lunar caustic, i ounce dis¬ 
tilled water. If there are tumors with pus, lance 
them; if there is sloughing, wash with the following: 
Strong decoction of golden seal, or i drachm carbolic 
acid, to I pint of water. Give plenty of cool water, 
so the animal may take it at will, and feed with soft 
or boiled food, and if there is much swelling, keep the 
head tied up. 

Sallenders; see Maflenders, page 8io. 

Sand Crack.. Sand crack is a fissure in the hoof, 
which begins at the coronet, the thin edge first break¬ 
ing away. These are of two kinds, quarter crack, oc¬ 
curring in the inner quarter of the fore foot, and toe 
crack, occurring in the toe of the hind foot. It usually 
occurs in the former. Some claim that the whole 
difficulty is produced by bad shoeing. Low condition, 
impure state of the blood and lack of care, are, how¬ 
ever, predisposing causes. 

Symptoms. When the horse leans his weight on 
the hoof the crack will open, when the foot is lifted 
the crack will close. Sand and dirt work into the 
parts, causing excessive pain and lameness, often 
fever and the formation of matter. 

Treatment. In recent cases, before there is much 
inflammation, all that is necessary is to remove the 
shoe, cleanse the crack thoroughly, cutting into it if 
there is dirt or sand lodged inside, drawing the hoof 
together closely again by the means of two thin, clinch 
horse-shoe nails, one at the top and one at the bottom, 
and filling with the following composition: 

1 ounce oil of tar, 

ounce tallow, 

2 ounces resin, 

I ounce turpentine, 

. 4 ounces beeswax. 

Mix together, and fill the crack with it quite warm, 
and let it cool. The foot should be protected so no 
dirt can enter, and the horse turned to pasture until a 
new hoof has grown, placing a bar shoe on the injured 
hoof. 

If the crack is an old one g,nd there is inflammation, 
the edges must be pared and the fissures sufficiently 
laid bare so it may be thoroughly cleansed of all dirt. . 
The crack must then be thoroughly fomented to re¬ 
duce the inflammation, and poulticed until it assumes 


a healthy appearance. The parts must then be 
brought firmly together by means of clinch nails, cov¬ 
ered with the same ointment, a bar shoe put on, and 
a new hoof allowed to grow. 

Scarlatina. This is a modern disease in veter¬ 
inary practice. It is an eruptive fever, running a 
fixed and difficult course, and is closely allied to in¬ 
fluenza. It generally attacks light-colored horses. It 
is attended by sore throat, slight fever and dry skin; 
the glands of the neck are slightly swollen, and within 
a day or two the lining membranes within the nose 
and lips become s^xittedwith scarlet the size of a pea. 
These soon run together. Great thirst, with a failing 
appetite, breath hot and stinking, are prominent symp¬ 
toms. It is not considered contagious in its milder 
forms, but in a malignant stage it would doubtless be 
as much so as the same disease in the human family. 
It is sometimes regarded as a mild form of acute 
anasarca, and not entitled to be treated as a distinct 
affection. 

Treatment. Remove the animal from its fellows. 
Give an occasional watery bran mash to keep the 
bowels open, and if it is not found a sufficient laxative, 
give a dose of Epsom salts or linseed oil. Guard 
against too active and violent purgatives. Mix 3 
ounces liquor acetate of animonia with 3 ounces of 
cold water, and drench with this once or twice a day, 
according to the violence of the fever, for three days. 
Meanwhile, sponge the elevated spots on the skin 
with a tincture of muriate of iron mixed with warm 
water; or, put 2 ounces of hartshorn (aqua ammonia) 
into a quart of soft water, and use that. 

There is a tendency in this disease to dropsical 
effusions, and the limbs become very much swollen, 
even during the treatment prescribed; by the third or 
fourth day a whitish mucus will begin to run slightly 
from both nostrils; the scarlet spots will have spread 
and become redder. Give now, night and morning, 

fluid ounce sweet spirits of niter, for four or five 
days. Discontinue to sponge the elevated spots, but 
rub the limbs closely and often; and blanket the 
animal if necessary to keep him comfortable. The 
niter acts as a diuretic, and the dose and length of 
time it is given must be regulated by the effect iqxin 
the kidneys. If urine is voided too often and too 
freely, lessen the dose, or discontinue it altogether. 
Follow this up with a daily dose of 20 grains of 
sulphate of quinine for from three to six days, and 
continue to rub the limbs. When there are signs of 
returning appetite, give him, in addition to the bran 
mashes, a few oats and a daily small allowance of 
hay; and place him in a small inclosure, where he 
may have such moderate exercise as he may be 
prompted to take. Do not fail to supply him from 
the first with all the pure water that he will drink. 

Scratches; see Grease, page 792. 

Scrofula. The horse is not subject to this dis¬ 
ease as is man and the lower farm animals, yet, that 
he has the genus of the disease in his system, would 
seem to be indicated by ulcers on the liver, tumors 














HORSE. 


827 


in the glands, and tubercles of the lungs. Indeed, 
the scrofulous predisposition is very marked in cer¬ 
tain breeds of horses. Such animals are unusually 
prone to glanders. 

Shins, Sore. This is an inflammation of the mem¬ 
brane covering the shank bones, and is not confined 
to any particular classes of horses, though racing or 
other fast-worked horses are more subject to the affec¬ 
tion than are draft horses, the difficulty generally 
occurring before the animal becomes mature. The 
cause is undoubtedly over-working and abuse before 
the bones and integuments become fully developed. 

Symptoms. The lameness resembles that of splint. 
There is swelling over the shin bone, which is tense 
as though stretched, elastic, and doughy to the touch. 
There is heat and tenderness, and sometimes the 
swelling becomes excessive, and breaks, but always 
preserves its elastic feeling. Or the swelling may not 
be extensive, but gradually hardens through the for¬ 
mation of bony matter, until at length the pain disap¬ 
pears. 

In these slight cases, the matter thrown out between 
the bone and membrane is generally converted into a 
bony formation and the skin remains permanently 
thickened. In severe cases the throwing out of mat¬ 
ter may separate the membrane and the bone, and 
eventuate in necrosis, or death of the bone. 

Treatment. If the difficulty is not severe, cold 
water faithfully applied during the inflammatory 
stage, and later, blisters, will be all that will be nec¬ 
essary. In fact, treat it precisely as is recommended 
for splint. 

Side-Bones are a species of ring-bone. The only 
difference is that in side-bone the side cartilages of 
the foot are converted into bone, and do not, as in 
ring-bone, extend around the coronet, or portion im¬ 
mediately about the hoof. The cause and treatment 
are identical with those of ring-bone, which see on 
page 824. 

Sit-Fasts, or Warbles. When the saddle has 
galled the skin beneath it the inflammation resulting 
is called a “warble,” and if this is neglected, so as to 
cause a troublesome sore, the term “sit-fast’ is applied. 
The effect produced is similar to a harness gall, and 
there is not the slightest necessity for inventing names 
to distinguish each stage of cruelty in the rider, for if 
attention is paid to the warble no sit-fast will ever 
make its appearance. 

Treatment. The first and most essential thing is, 
that the animal shall be allowed to rest, or at any 
rate be subjected to such labor only as will not re¬ 
quire the same chafing, abrading saddle or harness 
which has produced the trouble. Then, if it is inerely 
a gall or scald—a heated, tender swelling, without 
either suppuration or hardness, bathe with cold salt 
and water two or three times daily. When the heat 
and tenderness are sensibly reduced, anoint occasion¬ 
ally, until the lump has entirely disappeared, with_ a 
mixture of equal parts of spirits of turpentine, spirits 
of camphor, aqua ammonia and oil of cedar. If it 


has assumed the character of a sit-fast, do not use the 
knife, or try to tear the dry skin away, but bathe with 
warm soft water, and then apply a poultice. This 
must be repeated if necessary until the callous skin is 
easily removed, and then anoint frequently until the 
sore is healed, with the following: 

I drachm tincture of iodine, 

1 drachm iodide of potassium, 

6 drachms simple ointment, 

2 drachms glycerine. 

Skin, Hardening of the. For that hardening of 
the skin which takes place in consequence of the 
pressure of some portion of the harness, from cutting 
the integuments and sub-cellular tissue from the calk¬ 
ing of the shoes, from cauterized fungi, etc., use the 
following: 

5 ounces water, 

I ounce acetic acid, 

I ounce pulverized cantharides. 

Mix and let the mixture stand 14 days to soften. 
Then filter through linen or blotting paper, and add 
one ounce of spirits of wine. Apply occasionally with 
a sponge; or use equal parts of oil of turpentine and 
olive oil, applied in the same way.. 

Spasmodic Colic: see Colic, page 770. 

Spavin, Blood. This may be defined as a disten¬ 
sion or enlargement (dilatation) of the veins of the 
hock joint, and overlying the seat of bone and bog 
spavin; a local venous congestion, caused generally 
by swelling, impeding the flow of the blood, and often 
connected with bog or bone spavin. It is harmless; 
in fact it may be considered as accompanying, or the 
result of, other disease of the joint. 

Treatttient. In the early stage cold water perse- 
veringly applied, followed by cooling lotions, equal 
parts of alcohol and rain-water, or one pint of brandy 
to one-half pint of water, applied as a lotion. If this 
does not relieve the difficulty, use a strong infusion of 
bayberry bark, and considerable friction by the hand, 
rubbing with either of the remedies named. 

At last use truss as represented by Fig. 102. 

Spavin, Bog. This is caused 
by over-exertion. Man loves 
to boast of exploits in the man¬ 
agement of their mute servants. 
Thus the animal which is 
made up of timidity and affec¬ 
tion is chronicled as vicious, 
fierce or fiery. He talks largely 
of applying whip and spur to 
the brute, and in his ignorance 
he thinks he has achieved 
miracles, by abusing a crea¬ 
ture which, had he courted 
with kindness, would have 
been subdued in less time and 
the subjection would have a 
more lasting effect. Of all 
parts .of the body, the hock- 
joints are most exposed to in- 

Fig. 102. —Spavin Truss, jury when any undue exertion 
is required of the animal. Bog spavin is a soft, puffy 
enlargement in the front and inferior portion of the 























828 


HORSE. 


hock. Overwork, sprains, injuries either from punct¬ 
ured wounds, fractures or bruises are the common 
causes. 

Symptoms. In its acute, early form there is a tense, 
puffy, fluctuating swelling of the front and inside por¬ 
tion of the hock at the upper or principal point just 
where usually there is a depression. There is also a 
swelling behind, where thorough-pin occurs, but it can 
be pressed forward, the front swelling filling up; but 
there is no swelling below and behind the hock as in 
thorough-pin. 

Treatment. Absolute rest and the use of the high- 
heeled shoe. Continued pressure on the swollen 
parts, by means of a truss. Fig. 102, or compress, 
with cold water applications or brandy and salt. In 
case there is much inflammation, reduce it by means 
of fomentations of water, and if there is pain let the 
fomentations be an infusion of hops. In the latter 
stages use tincture of arnica diluted with water. If 
the case is a bad one, when the extreme heat and ten¬ 
derness has subsided, a blister may be applied, since 
it sometimes goes on to ulceration of the joint, and 
even to bony deposit, destroying all movement of the 
joint. 

Spavin, Bone. When it consists in the deposit of 
bony matter about the hock joint, and the consequent 
cementing together of the tarsal bones, or the destruc¬ 
tion of the tarso-metatarsal joint, this disease is simi¬ 
lar to bog spavin, having essentially the same causes. 
This form of disease may exist in every degree, from 
a slight exostosis near the joint to such an amount as 
will entirely destroy the joint, and so invade the soft 
tissues that the slightest movement is productive of 
great suffering. 

Cure or alleviation is possible only in the first stages 
of the disease, so that on the occurrence of lameness 
for which the cause is not obvious, careful search 
should be made in the localities in which splint, ring¬ 
bone, or spavin may occur. 

The attack of spavin is sometimes so slow and 
blind that jockeys are often enabled to put off a spav¬ 
ined horse on the unwary, the horse afterward going 
dead lame. Nevertheless it will show itself if the 
horse is allowed to cool, or ridden into water and 
allowed to stand awhile; but in the end the horse be¬ 
comes permanently lame, until the deposit about the 
bone called anchylosis becomes solidified, when the 
joint is stiff and the lameness ceases. 

Symptoms. Lameness does not always attend this 
ailment. When there is swelling, it may be found in 
front and on the inside and lower part of the joint, 
and may best be seen by standing about midway of 
the body so as to get a side view of the front of the 
hock; but when the enlargement is on one side it may 
best be seen by standing in front of the horse and 
looking back between Iris legs. When the swelling is 
in front of the hock it is most to be feared. The ani¬ 
mal if turned from side to side in the stall moves stiff 
and on the toe. The horse will sometimes jerk up 
the limb as though he had string-halt. By turning 


him quickly in a small circle he will carry the limb 
more or less stiff, or rest on the toe only. 

Treatment. In all cases, rest and a high-heel shoe 
should be allowed. Foment thoroughly with hot water 
in which an ounce of tincture of arnica is mixed to 
each two quarts of water. Give four drachms of aloes 
if the bowels are costive, and give half an ounce to an 
ounce of saltpeter in water, morning and night, until 
free flow of urine is had. When the inflammation has 
subsided blister. The following will be effectual; 
one part red biniodide mercury, eight parts hog’s lard. 
Apply twice a week and grease between times with 
olive oil or lard. In no event, however, should resort 
be made to cutting away the bony parts which have’ 
formed, with mallet and chisel, as we have seen them. 
It is barbarous, inhuman, and can do no good what¬ 
ever. In young horses, if treatment be given in time, 
a cure may generally be effected. With old horses 
the cure is different. 

Spleen, Enlargement of. The pancreas and the 
spleen are subject to a variety of diseases, very diffi¬ 
cult to determine. The pancreas is a gland which 
secretes the pancreatic juice, by which emulsion takes 
place with the fatty aliments by means of a duct lead¬ 
ing into the intestines. The presence of fatty mat¬ 
ter in the dung will imply a suppression of these 
juices. If there are sharp, colicky pains without 
fever, obstruction of the duct by calculi may be sus¬ 
pected. If there is general fever, with pain and 
tenderness behind the last rib on the right side, in¬ 
flammation may be suspected. 

For calculi use fomentations of hot water over the 
parts affected, and give anti-spasmodics, as hyoscya- 
mus extract, 2-drachm doses; belladonna, 2-drachm 
doses, or tincture of lobelia, i-ounce doses. If there 
is inflammation, give laxative medicines—ounces 
dandelion. Blister the right side and confine the ani¬ 
mal to light diet. 

Splint. The name is given to a peculiar enlarge¬ 
ment generally found on the outside of the small 
bones of the fore leg, and inside the leg. These en¬ 
largements seldom cause lameness, except while the 
tumor is growing and the periosteum is inflamed by 
the pressure, or, when the deposit is situated so as to 
interfere with the action of the joint. Splint is caused 
by kicks or other external injuries. The same treat¬ 
ment as for bone-spavin is called for. 

Staggers, Blind or Stomach. Horses that are 
great feeders are the subjects of this disease. The 
stomach being over-gorged with food a determination 
of blood to the brain is caused. The animal is dull 
and sleepy, and presses his head against the wall, the 
thirst is excessive, the eyes are dull and snoring 
is heard at each respiration. Sometimes the legs are 
put into motion as if the animal was trotting, without 
the head being taken from the wall. At other times 
the sleepy stage passes off, the breathing is quickened, 
the eyes brighten, the body becomes wami, perspira¬ 
tion bedews the body, the sufferer gives expression to 
his agony by the most energetic action. The struct- 














































HORSE. 


831 


ures surrouuding him are destroyed, and nothing can 
quiet him until he falls exhausted. 

At other times lie will rear up or stagger like a 
drunken man, and then fall. He often becomes 
stubborn, and will go only his own way, evidently 
unconscious, and then come convulsions, followed by 
insensibility. When down, it occasionally happens 
that he lies down in this insensible state at first, but 

he usually struggles vio¬ 
lently, t Ji e n becomes 
tluiet; gradually recov¬ 
ers himself and gets up, 
ready to proceed on his 
way, being yet dull, 
however, and evidently 
affected by what has 
happened. 

Treatment. When it 
is discovered in time 
that he is suffering with 
disordered digestion and 
is constipated, relieve 

V\G.\o^.-Expression Characteristic him frOm WOrk if pOS- 

0/ Blind Staggers. sible, and lessen the 

quantity of dry food. Turn him out at night, at any 
rate, even if found necessary to have his services 
during the day. If he can have some continued rest 
and the run of a good pasture, or else be well fed 
with food suitable to his condition, and well watered, 
while occupying a roomy, dry and well ventilated 
stable, his chances for restoration to health and 
escaping violent attacks altogether, will be greatly 
increased. Of course he should have sufficient exer¬ 
cise, but in moderation. If the animal is young and 
of full habit, yet fallen into this disordered state, re¬ 
strict his diet, increase his exercise by degrees or turn 
him out to pasture until Iiis normal condition of stom- 
aoli and bowels has returned. In the beginning of 
this treatment give him the following: > 

I ounce salt, 

4 drachms Castile soap, 

7 drachms aloes, 

6 drops oil of caraway. 



Mix with mucilage or syrup sufficient to form a 
drench. This amount constitutes a dose. It may be 
repeated after twelve or fifteen hours if the first does 
not produce proper action. Every chance of even a 
partial return to usefulness is increased by rest. A 
horse once affected in this way should really not be 
driven again, though apparently recovered, for the fit 
is likely to recur, and the driver may himself be there¬ 
by seriously endangered. 

Staggers, Mad. See Inflammtion of the Brain. 

Stings and Bites. Not unfrequently do we hear 
of horses losing their lives from irritation and fever, 
originating from stings of bees, hornets, etc. To re¬ 
lieve a case of this kind, we use one of the following 
remedies, with which the coat must be thoroughly 
saturated: Solution of ammonia; weak carbolic acid 
wash (i ounce to a quart of water); i pint of lime 
water, in which one drachm of carbolic acid is dis¬ 
solved ; or oil of lobelia. In ordinary cases, the pre¬ 


ceding direction properly carried out will be sufficient; 
but in more aggravated ones, sponge the whole body 
with lime water, and then smear with linseed oil. If 
lime is not accessible, use a weak solution of soda. 
Spirits of turpentine and laudanum, in ecpial parts, 
will give relief. A decoction of plantain is good. 

To prevent the stings of gad-flies, make a strong 
infusion of the green bark of the elder, and wash the 
flanks before going out. To prevent the bites of 
buffalo-gnats, cover the parts most likely to be at¬ 
tacked with a mixture of tar and lard, two parts of 
lard to one of tar. 

Stomach, Inflammation of the, or Gastritis. 
Acute inflammation of the stomach seldom, if ever, 
occurs among horses as a spontaneous affection. It 
usually occurs from poisoning by arsenic given in the 
food by ignorant stable-men, to make the horse carry 
a shining coat and foam at the bit. It is also pro¬ 
duced by the licking of external corrosive applications, 
thus producing acute gastritis. 

When an irritating poison has been received into 
the stomach, and excites inflammation there, or when 
acute inflammation arises from any cause, the symp¬ 
toms which mark that inflammation are pain, distress, 
and restlessness; a loathing of food; for if anything 
be given by the mouth, it creates increased pain. The 
animal breaks out in a cold sweat, lies down and 
quickly rises again, becomes early and greatly pros¬ 
trated in strength, and has a pulse usually quick and 
much oppressed. Sometimes purging sets in; at 



Fig. 105. —Horse Suffering /rom Acute Gastritis. 

Others, the bowels are constipated. The disease is 
very apt to run into gastro-enteritis—inflammation of 
the stomach and bowels. 

Treatment. The first thing, if possible, is to find 
out what caused the trouble. If this can not be found, 
give at once— 

4 ounces olive oil, 

3 ounces sulphuric ether, 

3 ounces laudanum, 

4 ounces carbonate magnesia, 

I quart cold gruel. 

Mix and give as a dose. If the pulse is low, add 
to the above i drachm carbonate of ammonia. As 
soon as there is evidence of recovery, and in fact when¬ 
ever the animal will take it, thin starch or gruel of 


S 3 







































832 


HORSE. 




flour should be freely given to sheathe the mucous 
surfaces. 

Stomach, Gorged: See Founder, Grain, page 786. 

Stomach, Rupture of the. W hen this occurs 
there is no art which can prevent death. Rupture of 
the stomach is produced by working or driving a 


Fig. ioF,.—Unnatural Attitude Indicative of Abdominal Injury . 

horse until he is very hungry and then feeding or 
watering unduly. The only symptoms which show 
are violent colic and tenseness of tissues. There are 
many ruptures where animals die, and the owner does 
not know the difficulty. If the mischief has pro¬ 
ceeded to rupture, the animal may as well be killed. 

One of the jxisitions assumed by the 
horse suffering from abdominal injuries, 
is this: he will persistently sit on his 
haunches, as illustrated above. Ani¬ 
mals will assume this position and yet 
occasionally recover. Another position 
assumed is, for the animal to kneel and 
support himself upon his hind legs, as 
shown by Fig. 67. Still another is, the 
horse with a ruptured stomach will al¬ 
most invariably walk in a circle as if 
hitched to a threshing-machine. Such 
unnatural positions show the intense pain 
which leads to such attitudes to get relief. 

There is no cure. 

Stomach Staggers: see Staggers, 
page 828. 

Strangles. See Distemper, page 775. 

String-halt is the sudden jerking 
up of a hind limb, sometimes both, in 
succession. Sometimes several efforts 
will be made before the animal can progress 
at all. In other cases the spasmodic action of the 
hind-leg is shown in starting off, and, the animal 
becoming warm, it will nearly or quite cease. Some¬ 
times the action is so slight as to be almost unnoticed. 


and again it may be so strong that the hind leg will 
strike the belly. 

Veterinary writers differ in opinion concerning the 
cause and location of string-halt. Professoi Spooner 
has traced it to a morbid affection of the sacro-sciatic 
nerve. Percivall pronounces it an affection ot the 
posterior portion of the spinal column. 
Goodwin and Mayhew favor the opinion 
of the latter. Dadd thought it mav be 
the result of hock diseases, whicli irri¬ 
tates the nerves in the vicinity ot the 
part, and thus affects that portion of the 
nervous system which controls the mus¬ 
cles concerned. 

Treatment. There is no remedy known 
for string-halt. Rest, keeping the bowels 
open with 2-drachm doses of belladonna 
daily, will lessen the spasms for a time ; 
but fatigue or nervous excitement is 
sure to bring on a recurrence of the at- 
,tack. A careful driver will often prevent 
the disability being much shown by 
being careful not to excite or overwork 
the horse. 

Surfeit. This is a rash which ap¬ 
pears suddenly upon the surface of the 
skin. The spots are round, blunt and 
slightly elevated. Sometimes during the 
eruption the pulse is tranquil, the appetite good, and 
the general health does not seem to suffer. In this 
case hay should be withheld, the quantity of oats in¬ 
creased, the stable should be well ventilated and the 
following drink given every day for at least two 
weeks: 


Fig. 107. —A Horse Affected with Surfeit. 

I ounce liquor of arsenic, 
ounce miiriated tincture of iron, 

I quart water. 

Mix and give one pint at each dose. In other 
cases the pulse sinks, the legs swell and the animal 
shows symptoms of general debility. In the latter 









































HORSE. 


833 


case good nursing is required. The cleanliness of the 
stable should be attended to. The legs should be 
bandaged and the body warmly clothed. Give the 
drink recommended above, only give it twice each 
day, or give 

2 ounces nitrate of potash, 

6 ounces sulphur, 

2 ounces sulphuret of antimony, 

2 ounces sulphate of iron. 

Divide into sixteen powders and give one night and 
morning. 

Anoint the parts affected with 

I pint of sweet oil or hog’s lard, 

1 fluid ounce of carbolic acid, 

4 ounces of glycerine; 

or give r drachm cream tartar in one-half bucket 
water three times a day. Keep him from becoming 
costive by cooling and laxative food. See that 
he is comfortably stabled if the weather is at all 
inclement, and give three times a day— 

2 drachms levigated ffinely ground) antimony, 

3 drachms niter, 

4 drachms sulphur, 

4 drachms hyposulphite of soda. 

The food should be good—if possible, green and 
succulent; and it will be found advantageous to take 
the chill from water given him, if the weather is at all 
cold. If the appetite is bad, place gruel in the man¬ 
ger, so that he may use it in place of water till 
stronger food is relished. If it is summer, or spring is 
sufficiently advanced to be mild, he may be turned to 
pasture; but in any event he should be allowed to rest 
during treatment. 

Sweeny. A horse is said to be sweenied when the 
muscles of the shoulder appear to have perished and 
the skin seems to be attached closely to the shoulder 
blade. These symptoms may arise from chronic 
lameness of the foot or other part of the limb. In 
such case, of course it is of no use to apply remedies 
to the shoulder. Cure the foot, and the shoulder will 
come right, although stimulants and rubbing will expe¬ 
dite it. But genuine sweeny is quite different from 
the above, although the appearances are the same. It 
is caused by hard drawing in a collar that is too large; 
or where no whiffletree is ever used, but the traces are 
hitched directly to the thills, as in “jumpers," as 
they are called; or by jumping fences or the like. 

Symptoins. The presence of real sweeny may be 
discovered by moving the horse in a circle, or causing 
him to step over bars, when you can generally deter¬ 
mine the seat of the lameness. 

Treatment. By pressure on the parts, discover the 
seat of the inflammation by the flinching of the ani¬ 
mal. This found, reduce it by application of cold 
water to the part, if in the earlier stages, and continue 
until the acute symptoms have subsided. After these 
have subsided exercise must be given every day. 
Every effort should be made to increase the circula¬ 
tion over the fallen muscles by active rubbing. If the 
case does not yield to the treatment, and there is de¬ 
cided wasting, the muscles being hard, use the fol¬ 
lowing: I ounce spirits of turpentine, r ounce tincture 


cantharides. This should be rubbed in with consid¬ 
erable friction until nearly the excitement of a blister 
is produced. If this does not succeed, which will be 
seldom, put in a seton, wet with tincture of canthar¬ 
ides, from the top of the wasted muscle to the bottom. 
Light exercise should be given every day. 

Sweeny of the Shoulder. Tiie common effect 
of all lameness and diseases of a limb is a wasting of 
the muscles connected therewith. Therefore in all 
sprainsentailing inflammation and continued disease 
of a limb, and in all injuries entailing chronic, long-con¬ 
tinued manifestations, there will be wasting or atrophy 
of the muscles, and in extreme cases, sometimes per¬ 
manent contraction, even of the cords of the limb. 
This is sweeny. It is the result of the disease and 
not the disease itself. 

Causes. Overstrain, hard pulling on uneven 
ground, by stepping into holes, etc., thus causing in¬ 
jury to the muscles of the shoulder, and particularly 
those supporting the joints. 

Treatment. The principal treatment is rest. By 
proper diet and tonics the horse will gradually become 
more and more able to work. The affected parts may 
be bathed morning and evening with the following 
mixture: 

2 ounces fluid extract of wormwood, 

2 ounces extract of poppies, 

I pint of proof spirits. 

Should the feet be found too hot, bathe them with 
tepid water or a tepid infusion of hops. There may 
also be given daily 2 drachms of gelsemium until the 
febrile symptoms subside. 

Teeth Ache. The most frequent cause of this 
most afflictive ailment is the injury to tlie tooth by 
biting on some hard substance, by which the crusta 
petrosa is affected; also the too frequent use of acids, 
which tend to injure the ciy'stalline enamel. The 
horse sweats easily while at work, the saliva hangs in 
tough streams from the mouth. The head is some¬ 
times carried to one side or pressed against the wall 
or manger. The food is (juidded, that is, when half 
masticated the animal will relax its hold and the 
morsel will fall from its mouth. Sometimes, however, 
the horse will show no signs of the ailment. The 
head is carried gracefully, the lips are compressed, the 
saliva ceases to flow from them and the food is 
eaten with a greedy relish. The proprietor is praised 
for the vigorous movements of Iiis horse, but the 
duration of this period of happiness over the animal is 
only temporary, and in a short time tlie pain will 
return with all its former tortures. Should nothing be 
done to relieve the suffering, the animal will soon 
present a staring coat, a tucked-up belly and the skin 
will adhere tightly to the ribs. In some cases he will 
be drowsy, needing the whip to urge him on, while in 
others he will grasp the bit tightly in his teeth and 
become almost unmanageable. The only cure is to 
extract the diseased tooth. 

Teeth, Decay of the. The teeth of horses, under 
an artificial system of management, are (piite subject 















834 


HORSE. 




to decay. Usually this is found in the grinders, al¬ 
though it sometimes, but 
rarely, occurs in the nip¬ 
pers. 

Causes. Anything that 
will destroy the enamel or 
corrode the teeth, strong 
mineral medicines, fer- 
mi'iST mentations in the stom¬ 

ach, breaking of the teeth 
. by biting hard substances. 

Fig. io 8 .—Horse ivith Toothache, or natural causes froui in¬ 
creasing age. . . , , 

Symptoms. The most unmistakable symptoms are 

sudden jerking up of the head when drinking co d 
water; sudden dropping . of food from the mouth 
while eating; slavering, exhibition of pain; impenect 
chewing of the food and consequent fiinding of whole 
grains in the dung; indigestion; unthrifty state of the 
^ hair and skin; loss of 

condition, generally with 
swelling of the legs; 
swelling of the jaw-bone 
about the carious tooth; 
quidding of the partially 
chewed hay; accumula¬ 
tion of food around the 
tooth and between it and 
the cheek. 

Treatment. Put a ball¬ 
ing iron (Fig. 109) in the 
horse’s mouth and exam¬ 
ine the jaws for broken 
and decayed teeth. If 
suspected, tap it gently. 
If there is inflammation, 
lance the affected parts, 
and sponge with the tinct¬ 
ure of myrrh. If the 
tooth is ulcerated it is bet¬ 
ter to extract it at once; 
if not it may be cleaned 
with a pair of dental gouges 
(Fig. no) and the cavity 
filled with gutta percha. If 
tender from exposure of 
the nerve, it must be re¬ 
lieved, or deadened, with 
crystallized carbolic acid 
and opium, before filling. 
Fig. 109. —Balling Iron. As a rule in extensive 

caries, the tooth may be extracted. If so the op¬ 
posing tooth must be occasionally rasped down. The 
extracting of teeth, however, should only be under¬ 
taken by a veterinary sur¬ 
geon, except in the case 
of loose teeth, which may 
be extracted with a large 
pair of forceps. A good, 

^ fcpp —Dental Coupes. 

Strong parrot forceps tsee 

Fig. in) should be used, and when tightly clasped 



around the loose tooth, should be pulled with a 
steady, strong pull, and not a quick 
jerk, as is commonly the case. 

Teeth, Scurvy of the. Old 
horses are subject to deposit of 
calcareous matter, by which the 
teeth become ridged with a white 
scurf, extending down the gums, in¬ 
flaming them and keeping them 
sore. This is generally confined to 
the front teeth. Young horses also 
sometimes suffer from this disability. 

Causes. Imperfect digestion and 
sour stomach, evolving gases, or 
any cause injuring the enamel of the 
teeth. 

Treatment. First find if the sys¬ 
tem is in good condition. Put a 
twitch on the animal’s nose, and with 
proper instruments remove the in¬ 
crustations. Files, scrapers and fine 
emery paper are the means to be 
used; the teeth afterward to be 
oiled. In ordinary cases a stiff 
brush and a mixture of tartaric acid 
and salt will do it, rubbing afterward 
with clean hard-wood ashes. Keep 
hard-wood ashes and salt where the 
horse may take it at will. 

Teeth, Sharp and Projecting. 
The remedy for this disability will 
be obvious. Secure the animal, put 
a twitch on the nose, if a horse, and 
a balling iron in the mouth, and file 
the teeth until smooth and even, 
using a rasp made for this purpose, 
flat and with a slightly crooked 
handle. See Fig. 113. 

Tetter. See Surfeit, page 832. 

• Thorough-Pin. An affection of the hock-joint 




Fig. 112. —Dental Mallei* 

accompanying bog and blood spavin. It is character¬ 
ized by soft, fluctuating swellings, containing fluid or 
joint oil in increased quantity and an altered quality. 

Symptoms. Pressure on one side will cause bulg¬ 
ing on the other, and pressure on both sides will 
cause fluctuation along the tendon below and behind 
the hock. 

Treatment, Use the same treatment as for curb, 
cold-water bandages or hot fomentations in the early 
stages of the disease; also absolute rest and a high- 
heeled shoe. When tenderness ceases and lameness 
is gone, apply a spring truss, so the pads will clasp 
j and cover the puff on both sides, and exert a pretty 
I firm and steady pressure. 






























































HORSE. 


835 


'Phroat, Swelled. The most common cause of 
this disorder is foul stables. Few stables are properly 
drained or ventilated, and the dumb slave is com¬ 
pelled after each day’s labor to stand in the narrowest 
possible limits. The prisoner is only allowed to 
breathe a limited quantity of the air which nature has 
supplied in such great abundance and in such purity. 
The quantity of air contained in a close stable must 


Fig. 113. —Dental File. 

be frequently respired during the night. The horse 
being taken from the hot, contaminated atmosphere of 
the stable, and ex^xjsed to the cold, pure air outside, 
although the latter is much to be preferred, yet the 
delicate structure of the larynx being weakened by 
abiding in a morbid medium, when brought into con¬ 
tact with the cold air, is stimulated, inflammation is 
produced and laryngitis is the result. The symptoms 
are characterized by dullness, there is a slight en¬ 
largement of the larynx, the neck is stiff and the head 
awkwardly carried, a short cough is heard at almost 
every respiration, and a hoarse sound may be heard 
by placingthe ear against the trachea, the pulse is full 
and throbbing, the nasal membrane is of a scarlet 
color, and any attempt to handle the throat calls forth 
the most energetic resistance. 

Treatment. Give upon the tongue every two hours 
ten drops tincture of aconite, until the pulse is ren¬ 
dered soft. Apply the nose-bag and keep it in almost 
constant use, the application of which is as follows; 
take a common bag, into which put a pail three parts 
filled with bran, pour sufficient boiling water upon it 
to thoroughly scald the bran, and apply it by holding 
the bag well up around his nose; do not be persuaded 
to steam a horse’s head with burned leather or sul¬ 
phur, as it is injurious to the bronchi and lungs. Next 
procure a piece of stout canvas, one yard and a quar¬ 
ter long and nine inches wide, three slits should be 
made at each end a quarter of a yard in length. The 
middle part, or the part not slit, should be put under 
the throat and the tails tied, four in front of the ears 
and four behind. This is termed an eight-tailed ban¬ 
dage, and is the best appliance for keeping any 
application on the throat. Poultices of hot boiled 
roots should be applied as hot as can be borne with¬ 
out scalding, by means of the eight-tailed bandage. 
Or, ferment the throat with cloths wrung out of hot 
mustard water. If there is difficulty in swallowing, 
j)Lit a teasix)onful of the following well back on the 
tongue several times a day ; 

I drachm powdered Indian hemp , 

I drachm powdered assafoetida ; 

I drachm blood-root ; 

drachm powdered opium. 

In case the disease becomes chronic, the following 
incitant to the throat will be indicated : 

I part pulverized cantharides • 

I part turpentine; 

I part solution of ammouia ; 

I part olive oil. 

Mix, shake the bottle before using, and rub well in on the throat daily. 


If this does not relieve, apply the following blister: 

I drachm Croton oil ; 

I drachm sulphuric ether ; 

10 drachms alcohol. 

Mix, and apply by rubbing with considerable friction. 

^Vhen the symptoms become more favorable, by the 
membranes of the nose becoming pale or more natural 
in color, by the cough becoming more free, or louder, 
easier and with less violent breathing, and by the 

_ appearance of a white 

and thick discharge from 
the nostrils, put a seton 
in the throat, and allow 
nothing but moist and 
succulent food. Move the seton daily until healthy 
pus (matter) is formed. Then cut one of the knots 
and withdraw it, and as the horse recovers allow drier 
food hay and grain—but that entirely free from dust. 

Thrush. One of the most common of the diseases 
of the foot bears the popular name of thrush. Of its 
exact nature and locality perhaps no two hippopath- 
ologists agree. Mayhew, Youatt, Spooner, McClure 
and others characterize the disease by one of its 
symptoms, and speak of it as “ an offensive discharge 
from the cleft of the frog,” to which is sometimes 
added, “with disorganization of the horn.” Both 
these are symptoms of the real disease, which is a 
low form of inflammation in the soft tissues of a tender 
frog. ^ It exists in feet that have been allowed to 
stand in damp, ill-cleaned stalls, where they are con¬ 
tinually covered with wet manure. Running in a 
wet yard predisposes to it. Gamgee describes thrush 
as a “diseased condition of the villous membrane 
covering the frog,” and says that it is, in its usual 
form, produced by filth and neglect. 

The true seat of the disease is, we believe, in the 
superficial and less fibrous tissues of the sensitive frog. 
It is doubtful whether true inflammation exists. Pain is 
usually present in inflamed tissues, and thrush is, 
to a remarkable degree, a painful disease. One of 
the properties of the sensitive frog is to secrete the 
tissue that becomes the horny frog. Now, if, by 
reason of local or constitutional debility, the secretive 
action of the part is imperfect—if the secreted matter, 
lacking vitality instead of producing horn, breaks 
down into pus, or pus mingled with half-formed or 
decomposing horn, we should get just the condition 
we have in thrush. 

In a healthy frog the cleft is so perfectly covered 
over by an arch of horn that fluid could escape only 
through an artificial opening; but in this diseased 
condition the horn is in so imperfect a state from 
defect in its original secretion, and so disintegrated by 
the direct influence upon it of the diseased secretion, 
that the offensive pus escapes freely from it. 

It has been claimed that contracted feet and too 
great and long-continued paring of the frog are the 
main causes of this disease. They undoubtedly pre¬ 
dispose to it, as they contribute, by change of the form 
of the foot, to effect a change in the ni.trition of the 
organ. But thrush is seen, perhaps, in a well-spread, 
open foot as frequently as in a contracted one. Con- 

















HORSE. 



836 


stitutional condition has much to do with the local 
manifestation. An animal poorly nourished and 
cared for, other things being equal, will be more 
likely to exhilht the disease. 

Any treatment that loses sight of the constitutional 
condition will fail to do its best work. First of all, 
the horse should be placed in a stall ha.ving a dry 
floor, or on a short and dry sward, covering a warm, 
sandy soil. Then he should have a thoicughly 
nutritious diet, and, if the disease has been of long 
standing, alterative and tonic medicines may be given. 
Red bark, sulphuret of antimony and nitre, m the 
proportion of two parts of the first to one pait each of 
the last two; or a ball, consisting of a quarter of a 
grain of strychnine, half a drachm of iodide of iron, 
half a scruple of extract of belladonna, and extract of 
gentian and ^xrwdered quassia sufficient to make it, 
may be given night and morning. The foot should 
be put into a bath of warm water and thoroughly 
cleansed; all dust and pus should be carefull} 
removed from the commissures, and the part dried 
by the use of drj' tow. Then into the crevices should 
be poured once a day a little of a solution of tlie 
chloride of zinc (3 grains to the ounce of water), ddie 
foot is to be kept shod with calkins, so that a free 
space may be left under the foot for the circulation of 
the air. Cases will yield more readily to simply con¬ 
stitutional than to simply local treatment. A judicious 
combination of the two will have the happiest results. 

Thumps. This is a spasm of the diaphragm. It 
is produced by over-driving and oppression, paraly¬ 
zing the accessory nerve, which causes the flapping of 
the diaphragm. 

Symptoms. 'I'he action of the heart will he violent 
and convulsive; the beatings can be seen, felt and 
heard. The disorder comes on abruptly, generally 
from excitement; excited eyes; rapid breathing and 
a more or less diminution of the palpitation. If signs 
of temporary excitement are not present; if the attack 
comes on slowly, is constant with aggravated inter¬ 
vals; if there is a heavy, prolonged, unequal beating, 
with Ved mucous membranes and swelling of the limbs, 
it may be inferred that the difficulty is connected with 
structural heart disease. 

Treatment. Avoid sudden excitement and over¬ 
exertion, but give gentle exercise, stimulants and 
tonics, 'oive cold water with plenty of common salt. 
If this fails to give relief in a few hours, then give 

20 drops aconite; 

I ounce tincture lobelia ; 

I ounce laudanum ; 

I ounce sulphuric ether ; 

% ounce chloroform ; 

Repeat every hotir until relief is obtained. 

Tongue, Inflammation of the. Symptoms. There 
will be difficulty in eating and drinking; the tongue 
will lie swollen and inflamed, sometimes hanging 
from the mouth. In treating, use the same means 
recommended for inflammation of the mouth. If the 
tongue hangs from the mouth, put the end in a bag, 
supported with tapes extending from the corners of 
the mouth and tied behind the ears. 

Tracheotomy is an operation to open the windpipe 


m case of closing by tumor or thickening of membrane. 
It i's performed only in desperate cases, where the 
animal is likely to suffocate for want of breath. The 
operation should be performed as follows: Have an 
assistant hold the horse’s head high, with the nose 
extended, so as to best stretch the skin of the neck. 
Then, feeling along the neck for that part least covered 
with flesh, make a bold incision with a sharp knife— 
one with a round point and thin being preferable. 
Make the incision about four inches long, and along 
the central line of the windpipe and down to it. Then, 
with a sharp-pointed knife, pierce one of the upper 
exposed rings of the windpipe; cut downward along 
the central line, dividing two or three of them._ Run 
a crooked needle (Fig. 1.14) through the integu¬ 
ments on each side; tie the lips of the wound to a 



bunch of the mane to keep them from closing the 
orifice. After the horse can again breathe free, 
stitch up the place and treat as a common wound. 

Tumor, Fungous Collar. This, in its nature, is 
essentially the same as that described as saddle gall 
or sit-fast—differing, however, in location and specific 
cause. It is an inflammation and swelling beneath 
the large, fat muscle that covers the front of the 
shoulder, and is caused by the chafing of the collar. 
It is scarcely necessary to undertake farther descrip¬ 
tion of a well-known visible affection. It is usually 
found near the point of the shoulder, and the character 
of the tumor as to simplicity or severity can be readily 
determined by examination. If of considerable stand¬ 
ing, it will be found so hard as to render it almost 
impossible to detect any fluctuation that would indi¬ 
cate the presence of matter. Where there is much 
swelling, however, there is almost invariably matter, 
and no cure can be effected until this is removed. In 
cases less marked there will be a small, hard or indur¬ 
ated lump without matter. Under similar conditions 
as those mentioned in the preceding section, it may 
form a leathery patch in the center and become a 
real sit-fast. 

Treatment. The tumor must, if possible, be so 
treated as to leave no scar or lump, as this would be 
easily irritated by the collar upon subsequent use, and 
prove a source of constant trouble. The first thing in 
order will be to take the horse from work, if at all 
practicable. If not, use a breast-strap, so as to pre¬ 
vent all further chafing. If the swelling is recent, 
apply cold water often, or coiner the part with a wet 
rag' hung over the shoulders.in such a way as to 
remain in contact with the swelling, 'hhis must be 
kept constantly wet with water and tincture of arnica. 

But if the tumor is large and of long standing— 
already hardened and containing matter deeply hid¬ 
den—open with a knife, making a smooth, vertical 
cut, and of sufficient, depth to thoroughly evacuate 
I the pus. Syringe the opening well every day with 


















HORSE. 


the following solution: Equal parts of pyroligneous 
acid, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil. 



If the wound seems inclined to heal and leave a 
hard lump in doing so, discontinue the injection and 
rub frequently with the following liniment to promote 
the absorption of the callous or gristly formation: i 
ounce iodine, 12 ounces soap liniment. 

In treating this, as in other tumors which 
suppurate, a n 
as pi r a tor, as 
shown by Fig. 

115, will be 
found valuable. 

The advantage 
of this aspirator 
is compactness. 

Its bottle is 
small, but never¬ 
theless it is as 
efficient as an 
apparatus with 
a bottle of any 
larger size. This 

IS achieved bj Fig. 115.— Aspirator. 

the hole in the bottle, at F., through which the con¬ 
tents can be emptied most conveniently by opening 
the stop-cock ( 7 , and removing the fitting con¬ 
nected with the pump from the bottle B. The stop¬ 
cock at D controls communication from the bottle 
with the pump as well as through the needle. To 
exhaust the bottle of air the stop-cock C is closed and 
the stop-cock at D turned, as shown in the figure, and 
the pump worked. By turning the stop-cock at D 
horizontally, as shown by the dotted lines, communi¬ 
cation through the needle to the bottle is established. 

Urine, Albuminous. This disability in horses, 
characterized liy a thick, ropy, albuminous discharge 
of urine, is quite common in its milder forms, being 
an attendant on extensive inflammation of important 
organs, on rheumatic fevers, and some conditions of 
blood-poisoning. It is especially attendant on infiam- 



Fig. 117. —Position Assiiinedby Horse Having Albuminous Urine. 

mation of the kidneys, both acute and chronic, 
attended with degeneration and shedding of the epi¬ 


837 


thelium (the layers of cells) lining the kidney tubes. 

Symptoms. I'here are two special positions as¬ 
sumed by horses suffering from severe secretion of the 
albuminous urine. One is the stretched-out position. 
In the other the back will be roached as seen in 
Fig. 118. In its mild stages, the urine is thick, 
ropy, mucilaginous; when it first begins to flow, of a 
reddish-brown color, but changing to a more natural 
condition, ending with a whitish milky fluid; some¬ 
times the reverse, commencing white. When the dis¬ 
ease is farther advanced the urine is thicker, more 
deeply tinged and sometimes offensive to the smell. 
It may degenerate into a number of forms, and finally 
terminate in Bright’s disease of the kidneys. 

Treatment. Blace the animal where it may be 
comfortable ; clothe warmly. If there is inflammation 
of the kidneys foment with a sheepskin wrung out of 
hot water; or better, with an infusion of a handful of 
digitalis in a pail of scalding water, and use other 
measures recommended in this article. If it be thought 
necessary to liquefy the urine, not always beneficial, 
prepare the following: 

I ounce golden seal, 

1 ounce powdered assafoetida, 

2 ounces powdered juniper berries, 

8 ounces powdered poplar bark, 

I ounce copperas. 

Mix, divide in eight parts, and give one night and 
morning in the food. 

The real animus should be to remove the cause, 
which, as we have stated, is various. Attend to the 
general health of the animal, keep the bowels open 
by a free use of bran mashes and other food of an 
opening nature. Give a laxative if necessary—say, 5 
ounces salts, and Peruvian bark i to 2 ounces daily 
at two or three doses. 

Urine, Bloody. The causes of this distressing 
disease, which consists of extravasation of blood from 
the urinary organs, is often obscure. Sprains or 
bruising of the loins, stone in the kidneys, urinary 
passages or bladder, blood-jxiisoning. Strong diuretics 
are operative in producing this disease 



Fig. 118. —Horse Suffering from Bloody Urine, 


Symptoms. If from local irritation, the blood being 
in a healthy state, there will be clots of blood passed 
and fibrinous casts of the urinary tubes entangling 
blood globules. These may be seen with a magni¬ 
fying glass. If there is gravel more or less gritty 





















































838 


HORSE. 


matter will be passed. If from blood-poisoning, the 
tests must be made by a veterinary surgeon from the 
urine, who can then prescribe. 

Treatment. The general practice is to give sound 
food, good shelter, mucilaginous drinks, as linseed or 
slippery-elm tea, or marsh-mallow tea; also acid 
astringents, vinegar, buttermilk, a weak decoction of 
white-oak bark. If the passages are profuse apply 
cold water to the loins. If there is inflammation 
foment with warm water, and follow with a mustard 
plaster. If the bowels are inactive, give the following: 
4 drachms aloes, i ounce cream tartar. Mix in one 
and a half pints of warm water and give when cool, 
aiding the operation by an injection of one quart of 
soapsuds and four ounces oil turpentine. 

Urine, Suppression of. This is produced by par¬ 
alysis of the bladder, meningitis, lock-jaw, severe 
colic, or other acute diseases, or from irritating drugs 
given by ignorant stablemen, so that the operator must 
be informed of the nature of the case. 

Treatment. If it be caused by paralysis the urine 
must be drawn off several times a day with a cathe¬ 
ter. The following will be indicated to be given 
internally: V-z drachm nux vomica, i pint water. 
Give as a drench twice a day. 

Another remedy: Take a hypodermic syringe. 
Fig. 119, and throw one half grain of the following 
under the skin, twice daily: 

4 drops sulphuric acid, 

2 grains strychnine, 
ounce alcohol. 


If the difficulty is due to general weakness of the 
^ bladder, give the following 

stimulant: 20 grains pow¬ 
dered cantharides, i drachm 



powdered digitalis. Make 
into a ball with soap. If 
there is an accumulation of 
hard faeces in the rectum, it 
must be removed by full in¬ 
jections of strong soapsuds, 
and if necessary removal of 
the partially softened dung 
with the oiled hand. If 
there is inflammation of the 
neck of the bladder, as 
shown by heat, swelling, 
tenderness, give injections 
of I drachm extract of bel¬ 
ladonna in a quart of warm 
water, thrown repeatedly 
into the rectum of horses 
and into the vagina of 
mares. To relieve pain 
give from one-half to two 
.. drachms of opium, as may 

Fig- 119.— Hypodermic Syringe.^^t needed, Or One-half 

outice of the tincture of lobelia. 

Veins, Inflammation of the, or Phlebitis. 
Horses, whose fate it is to belong to men who wi1 
bleed for every ailment, are most subject to phlebitis. 


It was formerly the custom to bleed for everything 
and for nothing. It was not considered that an ani¬ 
mal whose life was one continued period of toil, was 
more likely to become the victim of debility than of 
repletion. The thought never occurred to the owner 
that his wretched slave stood more in need of having 
blood put into his veins than taken out; conse¬ 
quently the animal was subjected to the erroneous 
notion of ignorant humanity. Fortunately the light 
which science has thrown upon their subject, partially 
renders bleeding a thing of the past, although there 
still exist people whom science cannot advance past 
the customs of ancient fogyism. Phlebitis always fol¬ 
lows bleeding. No particular quantity abstracted and 
no condition of the animal indicates the disorder. It 
has appeared in different forms of the operation, and 
all classes of horses are alike subject to it. If in the 
opinion of some it is found necessary to bleed, the 
animal should be kept in a stall with the head tied up 
to the rack for at least a couple of days, as exercise, 
and the horse being allowed to hang his head after 
blood being abstracted, have brought about the disease. 

Symptoms: The first noticeable symptoms are: the 
lips of the wound begin to enlarge and separate and a 
foul discharge issues from the vein. Next, a round, 
hard enlargement appears above the opening as large 
as a hickory-nut and the vein becomes swollen and 
hard, superior to the orifice. Next, abscesses are seen 
along the line of- the vein which soon maturate and 
send forth a filthy discharge. Should the case be neg¬ 
lected, the discharge becomes thick, dark and fetid. 
The animal grows dull and stupid, at length the in¬ 
flammation extends to the brain and a violent death 
from phrenitis relieves the sufferer. 

Treatment. The treatment consists in blistering 
along the line of the diseased vein; as soon as the first 
blister becomes smooth apply another, and sometimes 
a third one is necessary. The abscesses should be 
opened with a sharp knife. 

Vermin. Vermin are both a cause and a conse¬ 
quent of skin disease; and being also bred in the 
hairy covering, perhaps in the very skin itself, they are 
properly treated in this connection. Every species of 
animal is more or less* troubled with his own peculiar 
insect tormenter; and while no well defined cause 
can be assigned as to their origin, they are almost 
always found associated with filth and squalor. 
They sometimes, however, trouble animals of fair con¬ 
dition, and accustomed to reasonable care, but in this 
case they are generally caught by contact. Poor, ill- 
cared for, mangy horses, colts in the spring of the 
year, with long uncurried coats, and old and feeble 
horses with like rough and shaggy covering, most 
probably breed them; and on these they are most 
frequently and plentifully found. 

The itching torment to which they subject diseased 
animals doubtless intensifies whatever disorder 
may exist, and the very earliest opportunity should 
l)e taken to eradicate them from the sufferer. When 
horses stand in proximity to a hen-house, they are 
often seriously annoyed with hen lice, which are even 















































HORSE. 


839 


more tormenting than those peculiar to the horse him¬ 
self. 

Symptoms. The horse infested with vermin will 
usually manifest his uneasiness by biting and rubbing 
himself; but their presence may be unmistakably de¬ 
tected by a more or less careful examination of his 
coat. 

Treatment. If the horse is suffering from some 
skin disease requiring treatment, the means adopted 
for this will almost invariably suffice of themselves to 
remove the vermin; but where no such disease exists, 
and it is a simple case of lousiness, anoint him with 
the following salve; one drachm carbolic acid crys¬ 
tals ; one quart fresh lard; or one ounce of sulphur 
to one pint of lard. Rub it upon every part of the 
body thoroughly ; wash with warm soapsuds next day; 
repeat if necessary—at last washing and drying. 

Attention to his general health will also be de¬ 
manded ; and to this end he should be upon good 
pasture, or a liberal supply of nourishing but not heat¬ 
ing food should be given. 

If it is a case of hen lice, the first thing to be done 
is to remove the horse from the place infested with 
these, and then to anoint and wash as before di¬ 
rected. 

Various Fractures. To fracture a limb com¬ 
pletely, so the leg hangs loose, is of so serious a nature, 
in the horse, that unless in the case of a very valu¬ 
able animal for breeding purixises, it had better be 
killed at once. 

Warts. It is difficult to point out anything that 
may be implicitly received as the cause of these 
excrescences. They are abnormal growths, which 
appear upon all parts of the body. They are highly 
vascular and sometimes the source of great annoy¬ 
ance. The manner of their formation seems to be 
this: Knots form in the true skin and gradually develop, 
being surrounded with a covering of the scarf skin, 
sometimes thickened and matted together, and this 
outer covering generally dries and splits into fibers 
towards the top, while blood, in greater quantities 
than usual, is sent to the inner or vascular parts, and 
more nutriment is thus diverted than to the surround¬ 
ing flesh, so that an upward or outward growth is pro¬ 
moted. Seed warts usually make their appearance 
on the eyelids, the nose, the sheath and adjoining 
parts of the belly ; the encysted or sac warts on the 
pasterns, hock joints and knee joints, and sometimes 
upon the sheath and neighboring parts. Unless warts 
appear upon the penis they are not injurious to health, 
and at first occasion little inconvenience, unless u]X)n 
the shoulder or some part where harness or saddle 
touches constantly; but they should be removed, never¬ 
theless, ])articularly the sac wart and those seed 
warts which manifest a tendency to enlargement. 

SvmptofHs. There are two kinds of these formations, 
one of which is fibrous, white and gristly or cartilagin¬ 
ous, but somewhat spongy lump, contained in a sac 
or cell which has taken its rise from the outer or 
scarf skin, and the other is a somewhat cartilaginous 
substance, not inclosed but adhering firmly to the 


skin—a hard excrescence, the “ seed wart,” which is 
too well known to require description. It is some¬ 
times difficult to distinguish the blood wart, as the 
former is sometimes called, from the seed wart; but 
it generally presents a more rounded, smooth appear¬ 
ance, and sometimes hangs as by a little stem, in 
which last case it is readily known. 

Treatment. The best method of treatment, in all 
cases were the situation will admit, is to take a sharp 
scalpel (Fig. 120) and cut the wart down level with 



the surface, and then apply at once tincture of iron 
until the hemorrhage is arrested. To prevent its 
return, apply equal parts of powdered alum, corrosive 
sublimate and arsenic. Apply Venice turpentine in 
case the styptic should fail to arrest the hemorrhage. 
When the wart is first removed with the scalpel, take 
a piece of iron and heat it to a dull red heat and 
apply it well to the parts, which will not only close 
the arteries and arrest the hemorrhage, but will have 
a powerful tendency to prevent their return. Where 
the wart is very large, and the party lacks boldness to 
remove it with the scalpel, there may be a ligature 
tied tightly around the corn, and by tightenir'g it 
every day the wart will soon drop off; then treat as 
above. 

Wind-galls. Wind-galls may arise either from 
strains, over exertion, or dropsy of the parts. As a 
rule they are elastic, round swellings on each side of 
the tendons, rarely becoming solid from coagulation 
of the lymph, unless, as is occasionally the case, the 
strain is so severe as to cause inflammation of the 
bone, ulceration and bony deposit. They do no injury 
whatever, and do not cause unsoundness. 

Treatment. If the puffs (wind-galls) are just appear¬ 
ing, they may be scattered sometimes by a strong 
decoction of white-oak bark and alum. They may be 
reduced by blistering, from subsequent contraction of 
the skin, so the liquid lymph may be drawn out with 
a hypodermic syringe, after which a wet bandage 
should be applied over the part. If there is heat and 
tenderness in connection with the wind-galls it must 
be treated with fomentations and a high-heeled shoe, 
as recommended for such disabilities. As a rule, 
simple wind-galls, being so common, often appearing 
on colts and doing no injury, had better not be med¬ 
dled with, unless there is inflammation attending 
them. 

Withers, Fistulous. See Fistulous Withers, page 
783 - 

Worms. See Intestines, page 803. 

Wounds, Lacerated. A lacerated wound is a 
torn wound. The wound by treading, calking etc., is 









840 


HORSEBACK RIDING. 


a lacerated wound. The tearing up of the skin and 
sub-cellular tissues, leaving a flap, is a lacerated 
wound. 

Treatment. In any wound, if feverish symptoms 
occur, give -ounce of pulverized saltpeter in the 
drink night and morning, and administer a moderate 
purge, unless the bowels are open, say 3 drachms 
podophyllin. i drachm cream tartar, and 25 drops 


tincture aconite. In the case of any lacerated wound, 
if extensive, clip away all torn shreds, bring the 
edges nicely together and sew them with fine catgut, 
or white waxed silk, and let the'subsequent treatment 
be as directed for other wounds. 

Wounds Penetrating the Abdominal Cavity. 
A penetrating wound of the walls of the abdomen is 
generally followed by protrusion of the bowels. Some¬ 
times it is so extensive as to allow a large portion of 
the intestines to escape. If so, they should be sup¬ 
ported by a sheet fastened over the back to prevent 
injury by the feet and the admission of dirt until re¬ 
lief is given. 

Treatment. The horse should lie cast, the bowels 
washed with tepid water, the horse turned on his 
back, the intestines properly returned to their place by 
pressure, and the wound sewed up with catgut, well 
soaked in warm oil, and at intervals of an inch apart, 
bringing the edges nicely together. Then encircle 
the belly with a strong bandage properly fastened, by 
being laced along the back. Empty the rectum, if 
necessary, by means of injections of warm water or 
soapsuds, and keep the bowels open by feeding 
scalded shorts pretty well salted. 

Wound, Punctured. A nail, the point of a fork, 
a splint of wood, a thorn, or any similar substance, 
makes a punctured wound. They are the most dan¬ 
gerous of wounds, from risk of internal poisoning, or 
ending in fistula, lock-jaw, etc. 

Treatment. First examine carefully by means of a 
probe for any foreign substance lodged inside. If found 
remove it, even if a clean cut has to be made. A clean 
cut is not dangerous unless an artery is severed. If 
^le instrument inflicting the wound was dirty or rusty, 
syringe the wound thoroughly with weak carbolic wa¬ 
ter. If the wound heals kindly, use the dressing for 
contused wounds. If inflammation sets in, and mat¬ 
ter forms in a deep, narrow wound, it may be neces¬ 
sary to enlarge the opening to let out the pus. Then 
treat as directed for contused wounds. 


Yellow's; see Jaundice, page 803. 

Horseback Riding. We need not attempt to im¬ 
press upon minds of the rural residents the impor¬ 
tance of this healthful and inspiring exercise. It 
certainly cannot fail to commend itself to those of 
either sex who attain any proficiency in the-art. It is 
quite important that the saddle should rest easy and 
firm upon the horse. Beneath, the saddle should be 
w'ell chambered,—that is, it should be wide over the 
withers, and free from stuffing at this point, and there 
should be a space of at least two inches between the 
pads of either side to leave a free space over the 
horse’s spine, from one end of the saddle to 
the other. The pads should only be sufficiently 
stuffed to protect the horse’s back from injury, 
as too much stuffing, by increasing the dis¬ 
tance between the rider and his horse, gives 
an insecurity to his position. On either side 
of the saddle, just in front of the stirrup bars, 
there should be a ring about three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter, to which to attach the breast¬ 
plate, if it should at any time be necessary to use one. 

There should be two girths made of the best qual¬ 
ity of webbing, good width, and supplied with strong, 
long-tongued buckles. The stirrup irons should be 
of sufficient size to permit the ball of the foot to pass 
through them without difficulty. A light stirrup 
should be avoided, as it is more easily lost by the foot 
and more difficult to recover. The crupper should be 
used only on such horses as are, from their straight 
shoulder and low withers, unfit for the saddle. It is 
claimed by some that martingales should only be em¬ 
ployed by unskillful riders on fretful horses, their use 
being deprecated as unnaturally constraining the 
movements of the horse. The bridle for horseback 
riding is generally of russet leather, with polished 
steel or nickel-plated mountings. It should be as 
plain as possible. As to the form of bit, much de¬ 
pends upon the temper of the horse and the condition 
of his mouth. This matter is fully presented in the 
article Bridle, commencing on page 121, to which we 
refer the reader, in order to prevent repetition here. 

To educate or gauge a horse to certain modes of 
travel, as well as to hurry him up in cases of emer¬ 
gency, a spur is of the greatest convenience. The 
new style, represented by Fig. 2, is superior to the old. 
Fig. I, in several respects, as may readily be seen in 



Fig. I. — Old Style. Fig. 2. —Neiv Style, 

* • 

the engravings. The new is small and light, w'eigh- 
ing less than an ounce, and is easily carried in the 



tiG. I2I. Forceps/or Bleeding and Wounded Blood-Vessels 

so they may be tied. 


















HORSEBACK RIDING. 


841 



Fig. '^.^Thompson 's Pocket Spur, 


pocket, or a jxjcket-book; it allows the trowsers to 

come down full 
length and smooth, 
and can be inserted 
into the boot heel 
and taken out with 
readiness, and, if 
done with care, many 
hundreds of times 
with one pair of boots 
before the thread is 
worn out. 

'I’he regular trot is 
easy to produce, but 
sometimes, when the canter has been much adopted, 
it is not so readily effected. The best plan for riding 
in the trot is this ; The foot should bear strongly on 
the stirrup, so that the elasticity of the ankle takes off 
the jar and prevents the double rise, which in some 
bad horses is very apt to be produced. The knees 
should always be maintained exactly in the same 
place, and the legs be held perpendicularly from the 
knee downward. The chest should be well forward, 
the waist in, the rise nearly upright but slightly for¬ 
ward, and as easily as can be effected without effort 
on the part of the rider, and rather restraining than 
adding to the throw of the horse. 

To develop the canter, by restraining the gallop, 
there are required good hands, a quiet seat and a curb 
bit properly adapted to the mouth. To make a horse 
start off at once, just at the moment before starting 
pull the rein and press the heel on the side op'posite 
to the leg which it is desired the horse should lead; 
for every horse, in starting to canter (and many even 
in the canter itself), turns slightly across his line of 
progress, in order to enable himself to lead with that 
leg he first throws forward. A similar process on the 


other side will cause him to “change his leg,”—that 
is, make the other side take the lead. 

The gallop retiuires no special skill to develop, but 
there are two modes of riding it. One is, to sit down 
close to the saddle and the other to partially stand in 
the stirrups; the former is the most common method. 

Mounting. The breaking of the horse to the 
saddle, the mode of mounting to do this, etc., is treated 
on page 719. 

There are two methods recommended for mounting. 
One is to place the left hand on the withers, or grasp 
with it the horn of the saddle, at the same time hold¬ 
ing the reins in that hand, while standing with the 
back towards tlie horse’s head; then place the left 
foot in the stirrup and spring up from the ground 
with the weight partly on this stirrup and partly lifted 
with the hands. In this jirocess the right hand first 
grasps the cantle of the saddle, or is placed on the 
back of the animal corresponding to the cantle, and 
as the right leg is thrown over, the right hand is 
removed to the horn of the saddle or to the withers. 
The left hand all (he while holds the reins in such a 
manner as to keep control of the horse and be ready 
for guiding or checking him on the instant. The 


other method of mounting, recommended by Rarey, is 
to place the right hand and arm over tlie saddle, with 
your face toward the horse’s head, put the left foot in 
the stirrup and draw yourself skillfully up into the 
saddle. 13 ut by this method one is more apt to receive 
a kick, if the horse be vicious. 

The position in the saddle is various, mainly accord¬ 
ing to the relative length of the stirrups. In the 
military style these are comparatively long, permitting 
the body to come well down into the seat; but for 
ordinary riding the stirrups should be adjusted in the 
following manner; Sit easily in the saddle and let the 
feet and legs hang down passively as far as they will; 
then take up or let out the stirrups until their basal 
portion is directly opposite the ankles. This enables 
the rider to distribute his weight in proper proportions 
between his feet, thighs, and seat. While riding, no 
effort should be made to move in any direction, but 
the body and limbs should be permitted to follow the 
motion of the horse. To attain a position that “looks 
well,” the aid of a friend who is a good horseman is 
necessary, for printed rules are of no account. A 
rider may think he sits square and all right when in 
reality he does not. For most purjxises, however, 
where pride does not prompt one to show off, the 
rider will assume the easiest position regardless of 
appearance. Even such a position, moreover, is diffi¬ 
cult for some persons to attain. 

The most graceful manner of holding the reins is 
to hold them both in the left hand, in such a manner 
that it will be easy to guide the animal ; but to rest 
that hand the right must be used a portion of the 
time. Horses difficult to manage require both hands 
to be used at once to some extent; but such horses, 
of course, do not permit their riders to “show off” 
much. The attainment of “good hands”—that is, 
the light and delicate handling of the reins—is, or 
ought to be, the aim of every rider. The most deli¬ 
cate mouth in the world is soon spoiled by bearing 
heavily upon it, as is generally the case. In order to 
keep a horse from stumbling, or falling into an 
unnatural gait, he should be allowed to “ have his 
head,” for this is just as necessary as that a man in 
walking or running should be allowed the free motion 
of his hands and arms. Bad riders use the reins as a 
means of balancing themselves in the saddle. As to 
the manner of using the reins the late Henry William 
Herbert makes the following observations: 

“ Lightness of hand,” about which much is said, is 
really a firmness ; and, except with delicately-formed 
and perfectly-trained horses, a light hold of the bit is 
not only dangerous but is injurious to the perfect action 
of the horse. On the road the rider should always 
maintain his horse’s head in a perpendicular position; 
this requires the rein to be drawn to a certain point, 
at which it should be constantly kept, unless it be 
necessary to slacken the pace. 'I'he horse will soon 
learn that it is only within this limit that he can be 
free from the pain caused by the pressure of bit, and 
by keejring his mouth just within it he will render the 
hold a light one; but should he attempt to pass beyond 














842 


HORSE-BO T—HORSE CHESTNUT. 


it, he should find his rider’s hand as firm and unyielding 
as iron. When in this position, the horse is extremely 
sensitive to the least movement of the rider’s hand, 
and by an awkward motion he may be thrown upon 
his haunches, or at least interrupted and confused in 
his gait. 

Every rider should be taught to go through all the 
paces, and to jump the bar without any reins in his 
hand ; and when he finds he is able to do without 
them, he will learn to use them only in the way for 
which they were intended. 

Etiquette of Riding. The etiquette of horseback 
riding should be observed by those who practice it, 
either for pleasure and exercise or as a mode of travel 
in pursuance of business or professional calls., There 
are a few observations we desire to make in reference 
to some of the principal points. 

Your left when in the saddle is called the nearside, 
and your right the off-side. Mounting is always done 
on the near side. In doing this, put your left foot in 
the stirrup; your left hand on the saddle ; then, as 
you take a spring, throw your right leg over the ani¬ 
mal’s back. Remember, also, that the rule of the 
road, both in riding and driving, is, that you keep to 
the right. 

In riding with ladies, recollect that it is your duty 
to see them in their saddles before you mount; and 
the assistance they require must not be rendered by a 
groom ; you must assist them yourself. 

The lady will place herself on the near side of the 
horse, her skirt gathered up in her left hand, her right 
on the pommel, keeping her face toward the horse’s 
head. You stand at its shoulder, facing her, and 
stooping, hold your hand so t hat she may place her 
left foot in it; then lift it as she springs, so as to aid 
her, but not to give such an impetus that, like “vault¬ 
ing ambition,” she loses her balance and “falls o’ the 
other side.” Next, put her foot in the .stirriq), and 
smooth the skirt of her habit; then you are at liberty 
to mount yourself. 

If the lady with whom you are to ride is a good 
horsewoman, and her horse is perfectly trained, your 
responsibility is a light and pleasant one, involving 
only those usual attentions in mounting and dismount¬ 
ing wliich suggest themselves. Any unnecessary in¬ 
terference with the lady, or her horse, or excessive 
solicitude for her safety, must, to a woman of good 
sense, be annoying, and may not unfrequently be the 
cause of accidents. As, however, a lady is never so 
well prepared, from her mode of dress, natural timid¬ 
ity and inferior strength, for the exigences of an acci¬ 
dent, or a contest with a frightened horse, you should 
always be watchful of her horse, without appearing to 
be so, especially when passing vehicles or unusual 
objects on the road. 

Few ladies know how to dress for horse exercise, 
although there has been a great improvement, so far 
as taste is concerned, of late years. As to the head¬ 
dress, it may be whatever is in fashion, provided it 
fits the head so as not to require continual adjustment, 
often needed when the hands would be better employed 


with the reins and whip. It should shade from the 
sun, and, if used in hunting, protect the nape of the 
neck from rain. The recent fashions of wearing the 
plumes or feathers of the ostrich, the cock, the pheas¬ 
ant, the peacock, and the king-fisher, in the riding 
hats of young ladies, are highly to be commended. 

The hair should be arranged in the firmest manner 
possible. If suited to the style of the lady, it may be 
plaited at the back and looped across, in a manner 
which will support the hat and jiresent a very comely 
appearance. Or it may be found pleasanter to turn 
all of the hair back to the top of the head, where a 
high hat is used. All loose arrangements of the hair, 
except short curls, when they are natural, should be 
avoided. But few hair-pins should be used, and 
those long and firmly woven ihto the hair. 

Ladies’ habits are usually made too long; if the 
extra length be turned to a heavy hem at the bottom, 
it will be found much more likely to stay well down 
over the feet, which is all that is required; weights 
are unnecessary and cumbersome. A foot longer 
than an ordinary skirt will be found sufficient, if the 
material be suitable. Light cloth will be found the 
most appropriate for the skirt, if the color be becoming 
and sufficiently dark. For country riding it may be 
bordered a foot deep with leather. A habit of the 
same should be worn in winter, adapted in shape to 
the figure of the lady. If she be short and plump, 
the more closely it fits the figure the better, particularly 
the sleeves, which should never be large. If she be slight 
the dress may be opened in front and the sleeves 
loosened at the wrist, with white linen chemisette and 
sleeves. No basque, or a very slight one, should be 
worn, nor anything else which will flutter in the wind. 
No ornament is needed. A good effect of color and 
form is all that is seen or that is desirable. 

Keep to the right of the lady or any ladies riding 
with you. 

Open all gates and pay all tolls on the road. Never, 
under any circumstances, allow a lady to attend to 
any duty of this kind while under your escort. You 
must anticipate her every need, and provide for it, 
making her comfort your first thought. 

If you meet friends on horseback, do not turn back 
with them; if you overtake them, do not thrust your 
company upon them unless you feel assured that it is 
agreeable to them for you to do so. 

If you are on horseback and meet a lady who is 
walking, and with whom you wish to speak, dismount 
for that purpose, and lead your horse. To put her to 
the inconvenience of straining after and shouting to 
you, would be a gross breach of manners 

Horse-Bot. See Gadfly, page 553, and Bot, page 
761. 

Horse Chestnut, a tree of the Buckeye tribe, note¬ 
worthy for the beauty of its figure, flowers and early 
foliage. The wood is soft and of little value. The 
nuts contain much nutritious matter, which is com¬ 
bined with a disagreeable bitter. A valuable tree for 
the landscape. 













843 


HORSE-FL ]' FA MIL ) '—HOKSE-PO I PER. 


Horse-fiy Family. This family comprises large 
two-winged insects, which in the female have a pro¬ 
boscis enclosing six sharp lancets, and in the male 
four. The eyes are very large and cover almost the 



Black Horse-Jly. 


entire head. These are among 
the largest of the diptera, and 
are notorious for their attacks 
upon horses and cattle, piercing 
them and sucking their blood, 
and causing them great pain. 
'The larvae live in the ground. We give an illustra¬ 
tion by the accompanying engraving of the black 
horse-fly. This is nearly seven-eighths of an inch 
long and expands nearly two inches. In this genus 
are also the orange-beetled horse-fly and the lined 
horse-fly. 


Horse Jockey, a dealer in horses. 


Horse-Power, as a measure of force, the capacity 
of raising 33,000 pounds one foot in a minute; a unit 
or standard by which the capabilities of steam engines 
and other prime movers are measured. Work is an 
exertion of pressure through space. The unit by 


the nominal horse-power. The elements of its calcu¬ 
lation are the speed of the piston, and the pressure 
uix)n it as shown by the indicator card, or as calcula¬ 
ted by approximate rules. 

The term “ horse-power,'’ in the farmingcommunity, 
is more generally understood to be a machine to com¬ 
municate the power of horses to other machinery. 
Fig. I gives a cut of a large, substantial horse-power, 
such as is used for driving threshers. It has the great 
advantage of working on the wheels by which it is 
moved from place to place. It has ample strength 
for 12 horses, being devised in competition with steam 
power. The bull-wheel is made so strong as never to 
break, and at the same time the power is compara¬ 
tively of light draft. 

The “ spur-speed ” mounted ix)wer of Nichols, 
Shepard & Co , Battle Creek, Mich., is constructed on 
the Woodbury principle, possessing all the good points 
of the foregoing, with perhaps some advantages. The 
shafts are made of the best quality of steel, the lower 
friction pinion is provided with an improved adjusting 
bridge tree, by which it can be easily kept in gear; the 
line shaft is so arranged that the tumbling-rod can be 





Fig. I. — Bpur-Speed Mounted Power. 


which quantities of work are measurable is the labor 
necessary to raise one ix)und through the height of 
one foot. The rate at which work is done is expressed 
in horse-power, and one horse-ixjwer is equivalent to 
the work done by continuous exertion at the rate of 
33,000 ix)unds raised through one foot in one minute ; 
that is, to the performance of 33,000 units of work per 
minute. As a horse can exert such a force but six 
hours a day, one machinery horse-jwveris equivalent 
to that of four and two-fifths horses. “ Nominal horse¬ 
power ” is a term still used in England to express cer¬ 
tain proixjrtions of cylinder, but of no value as a 
standard of measurement. The actual or indicated 
horse-power of an engine is from three to five times 


attached at either end, which is very convenient when 
operating threshers with different side gear; the line 
shaft boxes are provided with set-screws for properly 
adjusting the line shaft; and a powerful brake is also 
provided. 

A fine example of a sweep ix)wer is illustrated by 
Fig. 3, which is a cut of a horse-ix)wer manufactured 
by the Taylor Horse-Power Company, Chicago. This 
power has been well tested, having been in use for 
many years. As can be seen in the cut, it is adapt¬ 
able to the various purposes of the farm, the dairy, etc. 
The same company make also a smaller sweep jx)wer. 
Fig. 2, to be run by one, two and four horses. This 





































































844 


HORSE-RA CING~HOR TICUL TURE. 



arrangement of having the gearing and tumbling-rod 
overhead is patented by this company. 

Tread-jjowers 


Fig. 2 .—Horse Sweep Power, 


possess an im- 
portant advan¬ 
tage for the 
moderate far¬ 
mer. He may 
do his threshing 
at any time in 
winter, without 


securing the large force of laborers required to man a 
large machine. With lever jxiwers six to ten horses 
may be employed and more rapid work, performed. 


Horse-Racing: see Speed. 

Horse-Radish. This popular salad for meats is 
so easily raised, growing spontaneously, with such 
vigor, that no directions for its cultivation are re¬ 
quired. By cultivation, however, the size and quality 
of the root is somewhat improved. The roots are dug 
in early spring, washed and grated to be used as a 
salad upon meats. It is almost an ecpiivalent of mus¬ 
tard. Its leaves are also used in making pickles, 
poultices, etc. To keep horse-radish to use in winter, 
take it up in the fall and put it in the cellar, in a 
large box filled with earth, or put in the cellar with 
plenty of earth around it. 

Horse Rake, generally used for raking hay. The 



Fig. 3 — The Taylor Horse Sweep Power. 



Among the tread-jwwers, that made by E. S. Bris¬ 
tol & Co., Chicago (Fig. 5), is one of the best. 

Dederick & Co.’s, Fig. 4, is also a substantial tread- 
power, having wrought links and steel rods. The 
speed is adjustable to any sort of work, pressing hay, 
threshing grain, sawing wood, etc. The horses work 

abreast on all but 
the four-horse pow¬ 
er, in which they 
work two abreast, 
and the other two 
beliind them. The 
four-horse power is 
designed for rapid 
and steady work, as 
the power may be 
placed so near 
level that the horses 
will walk all day 
steady without rest. 

Fig. A—Dederick Co.'s Tread Power. ^.^orse pOWer 

is no wider than two-horse, but nearly twice the length. 


Long & Allstatter Company, of Hamilton, Ohio, man¬ 
ufacture an excellent sulky horse rake. Fig. 6, on 
the next page, plainly illustrates the manner of its 
working. We also illustrate the wooden hay-rake by 
Fig. I of article on Hay. 

Horse Tick. I his is one of those tenacious in¬ 
sects, about the size of the horse-fly, which attack the 
horse. It prefers those parts of this animal where the 
hair is thinnest, and skin softest, particularly under 
the belly and between the hind legs. Its bites cause 
severe pain; indeed, so terribly annoying is it that it 
will irritate the gentlest horse into kicking, rendering 
him almost uncontrollable. It clings so tenaciously 
that its removal is quitedifficult; norisit easily crushed, 
which should always be done, however, on first being 
noticed. Fortunately they are not numerous. 

Horse Shoe. See page 745. 

Horticulture. On page 424 in the article on 
Farming, we spoke of Horticulture as embracing the 
second great division of Agriculture, or that which per¬ 
tains to the forest, the orchard and the garden. These 


































































































































HOSE—HO T-BED. 


845 


include pomology, arboriculture, vegetable gardening, 
floriculture and landscape gardening. See Garden, 
Orchard, Floricultuie, Forestry and the respective 
fruits and vegetables. 



Fig. 5. —Horse Tread Power. 

Hose (hoze), covering for the legs; close-fitting 
trowsers or breeches, as formerly worn, reaching to the 
knee; stockings; also, flexible pipe for watering plants 
or throwing water u}X)n fires, etc. 

Hospitality. See Etiquette. 

Hot-Bed. About six inches of soil 
over about two feet of well packed fresh 
manure, and enclosed so that it can be 
protected against the excessive cold of 
frosty nights and against rains, constitutes 
a hot-bed. It is generally covered with 
glass windows or doors. The use of the 
hot-bed is to “ force ” the germination of 
seeds in early spring, so that the iflants 
will be of some size when the settled 
warm weather of .May arrives. It is used 
for both vegetables and ornamental plants. 

Of course, care will be required to have 
the bed just warm enough to suit the 
nature of the plants to be started in it, 
and generally during the day the covers 
should be tilted up a little to let in the air. 

These covers should slope facing the 
south, and the lights in them so arranged that they 
will turn the rain, when more is offered than is 
needed for the plants. The inexperienced should use 
a thermometer,as for most vegetables the temperature 
should not rise above 85*^ during the day or sink be¬ 
low 65® at night. As the heat of the bed declines 


with the age, fresh manure may be put around the 
outside, with closer watching of the weather; but 
this is seldom necessary, as it will generally last until 
warm weather arrives. “ Cold frames ” are simjjly the 

hot-bed frames set upon a warm 
spot of ground, and covered at 
night to preserve the warmth 
accumulated during the day. 

'I'he structure and manage¬ 
ment of a hot-bed is much the 
same as that of a cold frame, 
treated on page 256, with the 
exception that being staited 
earlier the requisite temperature 
has to be kept up by artificial 
means, fermenting manure be¬ 
ing relied upon for the purpose; 
and the loss of this heat has 
to be checked more carefully 
by straw matting, and in the far 
North by shutters also, d'he 
front and back are also made 
higher than in a cold frame. 
Horse manure with plenty of 
litter and about quarter its bulk 
in leaves, if attainable, all hav¬ 
ing been well mixed together, is 
thrown into a pile, and left for 
a few days until steam escapes, 
when the mass is again thrown 
over and left for two or three days more, after w'hich 
it is thrown in the pit (or it may be placed directly on 
the surface) from 18 inches to two feetin depth, when 
it is beaten down with a fork and trodden well to¬ 
gether. The sashes are now put on and kept there 



Fig. 6 . —Horse Rake. 

until heat is developed. The first intense heat must 
be allowed to pass off, which will be in about three 
days after the high temperature is reached. Now 
throw on six inches of fine soil, in which mix a veiv' 
liberal supply of well rotted manure free from all straw, 
or rake in thoroughly superphosphate or guano at the 






















































846 


HO T-HO USE—HULLED CO RN. 


rate of 2,000 pounds to the acre and plant the seed as 
in cold frame. Keep day temperature 70 to 80 de¬ 
grees and don’t allow it to fall below 55^^ at night. If 
the temperature exceed 75^^ the plants are liable to 
grow spindling and weak. Do not move the sashes to 
give air immediately after removing the mats in the 
morning, lest the young plants damp off. 

The following variety of detail is also good : 

Select a place well exposed to the east and south ; 
now cut it out evenly with the spade about 18 inches 
deep, then fill one foot of the depth with fresh horse 
manure and litter, tramping it down well, and then 
cover it over with good, rich garden soil. Next pre¬ 
pare a frame and fit it in the top of the trench hav¬ 
ing the north side the highest by a few inches; let the 
bed stand open two or three days until it feels hot to 
the hand, which, if it does not do in the time stated, 
lX)ur on it a pail or two of hot water, which will soon 
make it all right. For the cover make the frame to 
fit the other in the bed, have a cross-piece in the center 
and braces on the corners (it is well to make it strong, 
for the frames will do for many years). • Take white 
cloth (new or old will do) for the cover, tack it on the 
frame even and make a paint of linseed oil, one pint 
with two well-beaten eggs, mix and paint it all over 
the cloth, seeing that it is all well saturated, and let 
it dry; and when the bed is ready to sow, fasten it on 
the other frame with strips of leather for hinges, then 
the wind cannot blow it off. Now, if the bed is done 
steaming, even it down nicely, sifting, picking out all 
stones and lumps, and finally sift over it about an inch 
of nice, rich soil, and it is ready for the seeds, which 
sow in even rows and not too thick, for they are very 
sure all to come up. Write the names on a piece of 
shingle to mark the different sorts. Some use this 
cloth cover not because it is cheaper, but because it 
is really the best. In the use of glass there is need 
cff constant watching and care, or all is lost, while with 
this plan there is no danger of heat or damping off, 
but the plants come as if by magic, and they are so 
robust, and do not feel the change when transplanted. 

It makes a nice place to set slips of house plants, 
or sow perennials after annuals are out of it. 

Hot-House, a green-house heated with fire, the 
heat passing through pipes around the inside of the 
structure. Heated water is preferable to either steam 
or hot air, as it is more easily kept uniform. See 
Green-house. 

Houdan (hoo-dan'), a breed of the domestic fowl. 
See Fowl, page 524. 

Hound, literally a dog; conventionally, a dog of 
several vtirieties, which traces game by the scent; a 
dog used for hunting. They are more slender and 
better built for running than the mastiff and bull-dog 
kinds, which are better calculated for attacking, fight¬ 
ing, killing or holding animals. See Dog. Hound of 
a wagon, is the forward portion, to which the tongue is 
attached. 

House: See Residence 


Household, the family. “ Household science,” those 
sciences and arts which pertain to housekeeping and 
the welfare of the family; called also “ Domestic 
Economy,” which see. A large portion of this ency¬ 
clopedia is devoted to household science. 

Housekeeping, taking care of one’s self and his or 
her family, furnishing board and lodging, as independ¬ 
ent of other families. 

Houseleek, a fleshy plant, which is very tenacious 
of life, often growing on old walls and roofs, with no 
roots; called also “ live-for-ever,” “life-everlasting,” 
etc. Has been used in Herbal practice. 

Hovel (hov'l), a shed, or rude building used for 
shelter. 

Hoven (ho'vn), swelled or puffed out; applied 
mostly to cattle when distended with gas from eating 
too much green food; colic; blown. For treatment, 
see pages 206 and 769. 

Huckleberry, or Whortleberry, a popular fruit, 
of several varieties, growing on shrubs in the Lake re¬ 
gion. The largest kind grow oh low shrubs, are 
bluish black, with a whitish bloom, and are known 
also as blueberries. The small, glossy, black sort is 
the true or black huckleberry. These berries are pro¬ 
duced so abundantly by nature that no attempts at 
cultivation in their native region have yet been made ; 
and in other regions such attempts would probably 
prove unremunerative. 

/ Hulled Corn. To hull corn is generally regarded 
As a tedious and dreadful task, because an effort is 
made to eat off the points of the grain with the lye, 
and with weak lye at that. The result is, that by the 
protracted boiling the grain becomes saturated with 
the lye, which has to be “ parboiled” out; this cannot 
be done perfectly, and at the same time the richness 
of the corn is considerably reduced. Take strong lye 
water, say half as strong as that which first runs from 
a leach tub of good ashes, heat it to boiling, throw in 
the corn, and boil it briskly for five or ten minutes, but 
not a minute after the hull begins to slip easily; take 
it out and immediately wash it in several waters; it 
is then ready for the final boiling, and will not need 
parboiling. In four or five hours it will be done, and 
done nicely. The second and third hour of the boil¬ 
ing the corn swells very rapidly, and drinks up water 
excessively. Keep it well supplied with boiling water, 
so that the cooking will not be retarded, and watch it 
closely that it does not scorch. Just fire enough to 
keep it boiling is sufficient. Do not stir it. In pre¬ 
paring the lye, by sifting the ashes the corn can be 
boiled with them and much time be saved. From 
the time the corn is poured into the lye to the time it 
is put into the water for the final boiling need not be 
more than 15 or 20 minutes. It is best to prepare 
this corn in freezing weather, so that it can be kept in 
a frozen state. When done boiling, pour it into a tin 
pan and set it in a cold place to freeze. The next 
morning, w'arm the pan a little and the corn can be 








HUMBLE-CO W—HYDROPHOBIA. 


847 


easily slipped out into a clean tub or u[X)n brown 
paper, where it can be cut into chunks of convenient 
size. Re-set it in the cold place, and it will be ready 
for use at any time. The most healthful way to eat 
it—and as palatable as any—is to thaw it and boil it 
a minute or two, in as little water as possible, taking 
care not to let it scorch, and then eat it with sweet 
cream or rich milk. Many persons prefer it even 
without salt. 

Hominy is prepared from coarsely ground corn: 
see Hominy. 

Humble-Cow, a hornless tow. 

Humbug, an imposition under fair pretenses; 
something contrived in order to mislead; a piece of 
trickery ; a hoax; also, one who deceives. The term 
is often applied also to false systems of doctrine or 
false and plausible ideas. See Swindle. 

Humor (humor or yu'mor), moisture or fluid in 
the body; a vitiated or morbid animal fluid, such as 
often causes an eruption of the skin; also, the erup¬ 
tion itself; a rash ; state of mind, etc., as good humor, 
or bad humor. See Blood. . 

Humus (hu'mus), a pulverizable brown substance 
formed by the action of air on solid animal or vegeta¬ 
ble matter. It is a valuable constituent of soils, not, 
however, directly nourishing plants, but having the 
power, under moisture and heat, of rendering nutrient 
material soluble and available for the plants. No 
soil should be without an abundance of humus. 

Hunting : see Guns and Gunning. 

Hurdle, a texture of twigs, osiers or sticks; a crate 
of various forms ; a movable frame of split timber or 
sticks wattled together, serving for gates, inclosures 
and the like : sometimes made of iron. 

Husbandry, that branch of agriculture which in¬ 
cludes the raising of farm crops, stock, the feeding 
and fattening of animals, dairying, etc. See Farming. 

Husk, the external covering of certain fruits or 
seeds of plants; glume; hull; rind ; chaff; especially 
the covering of ears of corn. To “husk” is to strip 
off this covering. 

Hyacinth (hi'a-sinth), a very graceful plant of the 
lily family. 

Hybernation, that state of torpidity into which 
some animals fall during a part of the autumn and in 
winter, but from which they escape early in the spring. 
Although we are wholly ignorant of the cause of this 
winter sleep, the effects and design are well known. 
It seems intended to preserve the animals in situa¬ 
tions where they could not have maintained their 
existence, from the impossibility of finding an ade¬ 
quate supply of food. Accordingly, all the active 
functions of life are suspended. 

At a more or less advanced period of the autumn, 
depending upon the degree in which the te’mperature 
is lowered, animals possessed of this peculiar consti¬ 
tution seek to shelter themselves from the cold and 


wind by retiring into holes in the ground, walls, trees 
or among bushes. These retreats they line carefully 
with grass, dry leaves, moss and other bad conduc¬ 
tors of heat. Hybernation occurs among several of 
the mammalia, as in the dormouse, hedge-hog, bats, 
Alpine marmot, etc. Animals with cold blood hyber- 
nate as well as some of the mammalia. Many rep¬ 
tiles become torpid in cold climates, as well as some 
insects and worms. In general, however, the degree 
of their lethargy is much less profound than that of 
the hybernating mammalia. They pass this period 
without food, but are not always deprived of sensa¬ 
tion and motion, even at the freezing point. 

Hybrid (hi'brid or hib'rid), the product of cross¬ 
breeding; the product of mixing two species in one 
individual; mongrel. A hybrid in the vegetable 
kingdom corresponds to a mule, for example, in the 
animal kingdom. 

Hybridize (hi'brid-ize or hib'rid-ize), to cross-breed; 
to produce a new variety by mixing two species. For 
process, see Breeding and Varieties. 

Hydrangea (hi-dran'je-a), a beautifully flowering 
plant, popular in lx)use cultivation. See figure on 
page 489. 

Hydraulic Ram, an apparatus for raising water 
several times higher than its source by employing the 
momentum of the descending current in successive 
beats or strokes. 

Hydro-carbon, any oily, waxy or resinous product 
of vegetation which is rich in hydrogen. An essential 
element in nutrition. 

Hydrophobia. Perhaps the most awful of all 
diseases is that which is derived from the bite of an 
animal suffering under dog madness, or rabies, and 
unluckily the apprehension often produces mental 
torture hardly less terrible than the disease itself. 
It is consolatory, therefore, to be assured that the dis¬ 
ease in animals is more rare than might be inferred 
from the constant cry of “mad-dog” which is raised 
whenever a poor cur, being worried into a bad temper, 
bites and foams at the mouth. Dog-bites are extremely 
common; hydrophobia one of the rarest of maladies. 

The disease derives its name from the dread of 
water which its development causes in the human 
subject, but rabies in the dog causes no such dread; 
in fact the dog generally seeks the water greedily, 
though possibly spasm may prevent him from swallow¬ 
ing it. The disease in the dog ought to be known, in 
order that proper precautions may be taken against 
them when thus afflicted. Indeed, the subject is so 
important in respect of precaution that we think it 
necessary to give the symptoms of dog madness. 
There are three well-marked stages of the complaint 
in the dog. The first is characterized by melancholy, 
depression, sullenness and fidgetiness; the second by 
excitement and rabid fury; and the third and last by 
general muscular debilitv and actual paralysis. 

Whether the disease originated in the dog or was 
communicated, the dog looks ill and sullen after a 


54 









848 


HYDROPHOBIA. 


period of incubation of very variable length; he is 
constantly agitated, turning round and round inside 
his kennel, or roaming about if he is at large. His 
eyes, when turned on his master or friends of the 
house, have a strange look in them, expressive of sad¬ 
ness as well as of distrust. His attitude is suspicious 
and indicates that he is not well. By wandering 
about the house and yard he seems to be seeking for 
a remedy to his complaint. He is not to be trusted 
even then, because, though he may still obey you, yet 
he does it somewhat slowly; and if you chastise him, 
he may, in spite of himself, inflict a fatal bite. In 
most cases, however, a mad-dog respects and spares 
the person to whom he is attached. But his agitation 
increases; if he is in a room at the time, he runs 
about, looking under the furniture, tearing the curtains 
and carpets, sometimes flying at the walls as if he 
wished to seize a prey. At other times he jumps up 
with open jaws, as if trying to catch flies on the wing; 
the next moment he stops, stretches his neck, and 
seems to listen to a distant noise. There follows 
then an interval of calm; he shortly closes his eyes, 
hangs down his head, his fore-legs seem to give way 
beneath him, and he. looks on the point of dropping. 
Suddenly, however, he gets up again, fresh phantoms 
rise before him, he looks around him with a savage 
expression, and rushes as far as his chain allows him 
against an enemy who exists only in his imagination. 
By this time already the animal’s bark is hoarse and 
muffled. Loud at first, it gradually fails in force and 
intensity, and becomes weaker and weaker, apparently- 
indicating incomplete paralysis of the muscles of the 
jaws, just as the dropping down pointed to the paraly¬ 
sis of the muscles of the fore-legs. 

In some cases the power of barking is completely 
lost, and his tongue hangs out through his half-opened 
jaws, from which dribbles a frothy saliva. Sometimes 
his mouth is perfectly dry and he cannot swallow, 
although in a majority of cases he can still eat and 
and drink. Although he can no longer drink, people 
are misled into the belief that he does so from his 
lapping fluids with great rapidity. On close examin¬ 
ation, however, the fluid is found to keep the same 
level in the vase which contains it, and one can see 
that the dog does not in reality swallow,—that he does 
not drink, but merely bites the water. Although he 
cannot swallow fluids, he can still, in some cases, 
swallow solids, and he may thus swallow anything 
within his reach,—bits of wood, pieces of earth, the 
straw in his kennel, etc. The circumstance is one of 
very great importance to bear in mind, because when 
the body of a mad-dog is dissected, a good many sub¬ 
stances which have not been digested may be found 
in his stomach, and do thus furnish a proof of his com¬ 
plaint. 

One period of the disease does not pass suddenly 
into another, but by an easy transition. Even in the 
first stage, that of depression and melancholy, the 
animal is from time to time very agitated, and shifts 
his posture. This agitation increases to a consider¬ 
able degree, and in the second stage constitutes the 


rabid fury which characterizes this period, together 
with hallucinations of sight and hearing. During this 
second period the animal drops down in a state of 
exhaustion after paroxysms of rage; he seems com¬ 
pletely prostrate; his head hangs down, his limbs 
give way under him and he can no longer swallow. 

Towards the close of the second stage the dog often 
breaks his chain and wanders about, seized from time 
to time with paroxysms of fury, and then he stops 
from fatigue, as it were, and remains several hours in 
a somnolent state. He has no longer the strength to 
run after other creatures, although, if he be worried, 
he can still find strength to fly at and bite an individ¬ 
ual. If he be not destroyed as he wanders about, he 
generally dies in a ditch or in some retired corner. 
He apparently perishes from hunger and thirst and 
intense fatigue. 

What distinguishes hydrophobia from every other 
form of poisoned wound is the great uncertainty of its 
period of incubation, and the incredible length of time 
during which the poison may remain latent, and yet 
ultimately break out in all the virulence of the disease. 
Many cases are recorded in which more than a year 
has elapsed between the receipt of the injury and the 
outbreak of the disease. The disease undoubtedly 
originates spontaneously in the dog, but in the human 
subject it is only known as a consequence of inocu¬ 
lation. 

Like other poisons, except, perhaps, those which 
are most virulent, the poison of hydrophobia is very 
uncertain in its action. Thus, if several persons be 
bitten, only one may suffer. The disease begins not 
uncommonly with renewed irritation in the scar of the 
wound, or with irritation in the nerves leading from it, 
testifying to the fact that some morbid action is going 
on there. And there is often a period of sullen 
depression, a passion for solitude, and a change of 
temper and disjxisition exactly analogous to the first 
stage of rabies in the dog. Feverishness then suc¬ 
ceeds, more or less marked in different cases, and 
then, at a variable period, the peculiar and character¬ 
istic feature of the disease manifests itself, viz., that 
any attempt to swallow fluids will produce severe 
paroxysms of dyspnoea; and in the worst cases these 
paroxysms are produced not only by attempts at 
drinking, but by swallowing anything, and even by 
the sight or the very idea of fluid, and in some cases 
they occur spontaneously. As the case jnoceeds the 
mind, which was at first quite calm and reasonable, 
sinks under the agony produced by thirst and by con¬ 
stant restlessness, and the patient becomes more or 
less insane, yet is usually quite under control and 
easily made conscious of his own delusions. The 
excitement increases, the eyes become wild and star¬ 
ing, the whole countenance expressive of rage mixed 
with terror; the patient is in a constant state of 
excitement, and gets hardly any sleep, and that little 
is unrefreshing and imperfect. After this stage of 
excitement and mania often follows one of exhaustion, 
in which the patient recovers his reason and his power 
of swallowing, but dies of asthenia; at other times he 







HYGIENE. 


849 


dies in the furious stage, either exhausted or suffo¬ 
cated. No instance of recovery has hitherto been 
recorded. 

The disease has never, as far as vve know, been pro¬ 
pagated from man either to other men or to the lower 
animals, though the saliva of hydrophobic men has 
been inoculated for experiment into the dog. 

Immediate attention should be given to the bite of 
a dog, in whatever condition ; but should he exhibit 
any of the symptoms above described, there is great 
danger, should his teeth have penetrated the skin. It 
is claimed that the bite of a dog afflicted with rabies 
would far more often prove fatal was it not for the 
often heavy clothing through which the teeth pass, 
thus rubbing from the teeth the saliva. We give 
numerous prescriptions resorted to for relief. 

No. I. Take sweating baths and thus work the 
virus out of the system. 

No. 2. Take immediately after the bite, warm 
vinegar or tepid water, wash the wound clean there¬ 
with, and dry it; then pour ujxin the wound a few 
drops of hydrochloric acid, because mineral acids de¬ 
stroy the poison of the saliva. Take large draughts of 
vinegar for a day or two. 

No. 3. Drink freely of a strong decoction of white- 
ash bark, say a gill three times a day for a week 
or two. 

No. 4. One ounce of elecampane root, boiled in i 
pint of milk until reduced to pint; take such a dose 
three times for a week. The second and third doses 
may be a little stronger. 

No. 5. After washing the bitten part with clean 
water, poultice it with good leaf tobacco, renewing 
three or four times a day for a week. 

No. 6. Inject under the skin large doses of mor¬ 
phine and give large doses of powdered castor, mixed 
with sirup. 

No. 7. Instantly tie a string above the wound, cut 
out the bitten part, or cauterize it freely with lunar 
caustic; tranquilize the system by a suppository of 10 
grains of opium; give a mixture of opium, ammonia, 
camphor and ether; apply bladders full of pounded 
ice to the spine, administer chloroform, and use the 
hot bath, with all the means and remedies advised 
under Bites, Stings, Rattlesnake, Neuralgia, and 
Lock-jaw, which see. 

Hygiene, the laws of health,—not the “ rules of 
health,” as laid down by some eminent physician. The 
term refers to what is really necessary to physical per¬ 
fection, and not to any man’s opinions. Nearly, if not 
quite, all the laws of health come under two heads, 
bothof whicharenegative,namely,Clennliness and Ab¬ 
stinence from Exhaustion, taking the latter term in its 
literal and most extended sense. To any one who 
fully comprehends the scope of these two phrases, it is 
unnecessary to give details. 

That the principles of preserving health are num¬ 
erous, intricate and difficult to understand, and sub¬ 
ject only for professional study, is an error. The care 
of the health being in each individual’s own hands. 


they must of necessity be few and simple. The doc¬ 
tor cannot be with you every moment, as a mother is 
with her babe. The whole art, in fact, of preserving 
health may be properly enough said to consist in sup¬ 
plying what is deficient in the system, and carrying 
off what is redundant, in order that the body may be 
habitually kept in its natural state; and hence it fol¬ 
lows that all the supplies from eating and drinking, 
and all the discharges of perspiration, and by the other 
channels and distributions of nature, should be regu¬ 
lated in such a manner that the body shall not be 
oppressed with repletion, nor exhausted by evacuation. 
Of these two, one is the cure or antidote of the other, 
every error in repletion being corrected by a season¬ 
able and congruous evacuation; and every excess of 
evacuation, should, if it has not proceeded too far, be 
cured by a gradual and suitable repletion. This is the 
art of enjoying a life of health, or of recovering lost 
health, and preserving it when onceestablished. “It 
is health that makes your bed easy and your sleep re¬ 
freshing; that renews your strength with the rising 
sun; that makes you plump and comely, enriching the 
complexion with nature’s choicest colors; that makes 
your exercise a sjxirt, increases the natural endow¬ 
ments of your mind, and makes the soul delight in 
her earthly mansion.” 

In this article we will attempt to enumerate only 
the particulars required to set the average reader to 
looking in the right direction at every point of daily 
life. 

Air. The air we breathe should always be pure, 
both day and night, and nearly always the out-door 
air is much purer than that indoors, night as well as 
day. Many persons are so afraid of catching “cold” 
that they exclude out-door air and so pursue the surest 
way to bring about that malady, besides render¬ 
ing themselves effeminate. While a person, although 
sick in bed, is kept warm, he cannot have fresh air too 
constantly, and even a draft will not hurt him so long as 
his face is turned toward it. In foul-srnelling cham¬ 
bers, do not depend upon disinfectants and deodor¬ 
izers for purifying the air. Remove the cause of the 
impure air so far as possible. Some impurities are 
absorbed by quicklime, charcoal, onions, etc. Pure 
air is not only necessary for the lungs, but for the skin 
all over the body. Indeed, strictly speaking, air and 
sunlight are the only things that “ toughen” the skin, 
or even the body; they are the only true “tonics.” 
Frequent rubbing the whole body while exposed 
naked to pure air and sunlight are the best tonic 
baths. 

The most prolific source of malaria (foul air) about 
a residence is the cellar. No matter how neat it is 
kept, on entering it from out doors one always per¬ 
ceives a damp, heavy odor, which indicates an at¬ 
mosphere that generates moss, mildew, mold, mush¬ 
rooms or fungi, microscopic germs, seeds of disease, 
etc. Many people do not notice it much, but an ex¬ 
treme case may so call their attention to it that they 
will ever afterward recollect its nature vividly enough; 
and that is, if they will pass along the sidewalk in the 
















850 


HYGIENE. 


business part of a village, on the lee side of the build¬ 
ings, on one of the wannest days in May, June, or 
July, they will almost constantly breathe such a rank 
exhalation from the cellars as will nearly or quite turn 
their stomach or take away their appetite for dinner. 
After once noticing that fact, they will be able to per¬ 
ceive more or less of the same odors in every cellar. 
Such effluvia continually pass up through the cracks 
of the floor into the various apartments of the house, 
and, combined with the already confined and vitiated 
air of the house, contaminate the lungs, blood and 
tissues of every inmate, rendering him or her pale, 
weakly, diseased and susceptible of severe attacks of 
sickness of any kind. Hence, office men in the towns 
and cities and women everywhere show the effects of 
such exposure, for “exposure” it is, most emphatically. 
Burning sulphur in the cellar, when it is tightly closed 
all around, is the best way to kill off all vegetable 
growths in it. For health’s sake, there never should 
be a cellar,—at least under the house. Have it any¬ 
where else; have an ice-house, a conservatory, any¬ 
thing, rather than a cellar under the building in 
which you reside. The best way to fix the ground 
under the house is, to first dig away all the soil, and 
then fill up with clean yellow clay, or sand and gravel, 
heaping up a little toward the center and leaving 
space enough between the surface of this filling and 
the floor to allow an opportunity to remove the top j 
earth or sand, and renew with fresh once a year or two. i 
It is well to have movable planks nicely fitted around 
the building next the ground to keep it warm under the j 
floor in the winter time, and moved away during the 
summer to allow a free circulation of air underneath, j 

Some houses are so constructed and kept as to i 
generate a musty odor, even independently of the 
cellar. Dark, unventilated rooms, rotten wood in ! 
the floor and walls, wall-paper, old and new, nasty j 
sinks, foul cupboards, closed cases and shut-up closets, 1 
all are manufactories of the agencies of disease and i 
death. In every part of a dwelling, above and below, j 
the air should be as fresh and sweet as out of doors, j 
and it is a great deal more imix)rtant, as the family | 
pass the largest portion of their time in the house. J 

Some stoves and fire-places are great enemies to | 
man. The draft is not strong and uniform, especially 
during the night when a smothered fire is being kept 
over, and carbonic acid and sulphurous gases fill the 
apartments where the innocent and unsuspecting are 
asleep, and commit irreparable depredations upon 
their constitutions. In this volume we tell how to 
construct houses, sinks, drains, cellars, fire-places, 
stoves, etc., etc., with a view to health as well as to 
beauty. 

Light. The difference between the white, tender 
potato sprout in the dark cellar and the green, tough 
vine out in the field, strikingly exemplifies the hygi¬ 
enic influence of light. As remarked above, light 
is essential, next to good air, to a healthy condition of 
the skin. So far as concerns physical perfection, 
artificial darkness should never be resorted to except 
in case of weak eyes. As to the swarthiness of the 


skin resulting from exjxisure to light, this is not the 
place to say anything, as we cannot argue the “ looks ” 
of any object. All special rules necessary to the 
preservation of the eyes are embraced in the prohibi¬ 
tion, “Never strain the eyes.” 

Heat. While it is well for tne body to be exposed 
to some changes of temperature in the atmosphere, a 
severe change is to be deprecated. As within enclosed 
rooms the warmer air is always overhead, it should be 
our constant care to “keep the head cool and feet 
warm ” by special appliances. Out of doors it is 
always slightly warmer at the surface of the ground, 
where the feet naturally are, than at any jxiint above 
the surface. Our method of dress in this country is 
far from perfect in a hygienic point of view, as it is 
out of proiX)rtion and keeps some parts of the system 
too warm, or others too cool. (See Clothing, a little 
further on in this article.) In abnormal conditions it 
is often necessary to heat up, by fire, friction exercise 
or hot water, certain parts of the body, or all of it, in 
order to equalize the temperature and the circulation, 
and thus restore healthy action to the debilitated 
portions. Heat is applied to the body in various 
ways, according to the nature and location of the 
malady, as by full hot baths, partial hot baths, Turk¬ 
ish and vapor baths, packs, fomentations with flannels 
wrung out of hot water, boiled meal or corn. India- 
rubber bags of hot water, bags of sand, flat-irons, soaj)- 
stones, etc. Some of these processes, to a certain 
extent, are very simple and require no description 
here, while some of them, to have their best effect, 
are too complicated to delineate in a single article 
like this, but should be learned from a professional 
nurse. 

While in a state of rest, as standing, sitting or lying 
down, never suffer the wind to blow upon any part of 
the body, except as it strikes the face first: by the 
latter provision one can cool down in a short time 
from an overheated condition with comparative 
impunity. Walking or working with a hot sun con¬ 
stantly shining on your back, especially after a hearty 
meal or when you have on a black coat, is very injuri¬ 
ous. Nor should we remain long in a close room in 
cold weather, after the fire has gone out, as that is a 
very sure way to “catch cold,” while we still feel 
comfortable and can scarcely imagine we are expos¬ 
ing ourselves. Nearly all “colds” are caught in con¬ 
fined air, especially if it be foul. • Sitting in cold 
chairs, as the cane or wood-bottomed, in cold weather, 
induces neuralgia, rheumatism and sciatica in the 
hips, back and legs, lameness in the back and various 
disturbances of the bowels, urinary system, liver, and 
sometimes even the stomach and head. 

Food. As to quality, “absolute cleanliness ” again, 
and as to quantity, “no exhaustion”—of the stomach. 
Most persons will agree with this maxim in general 
terms, but when we descend to particulars, every one 
cries out, “Let me alone; don’t preach to me; ‘what 
is one man’s food is another man’s poison.’” • Yet 
when one is brought down to a bed of sickness he is 
constantly inclined to inquire of his friends and of the 

















HYGIENE. 


851 


doctor, “May I eat this?” and “ May I drink that?” 
Everybody in a state of health is more unapproachable 
on the subject of food and drink than on any other 
thing in the whole round of hygienic law, but sick¬ 
ness reduces us to submissiveness; hence, what little 
the physiologists have to say on this topic must be 
addressed to the invalid. 

The most jjopular maxim is. Eat whatever agrees 
with you, and as to quantity. Stop a little short of 
satiety. We would add that, as condiments are not 
food, the less we take of them the better. Good 
cookery and a proper degree of hunger supersede con¬ 
diments, and by this rule one can “enjoy his victuals” 
through a long and happy life much more than by 
the present practice. 

As to time, we urge the importance of not eating 
when the mind or the body is excited or exhausted 
with fatigue. Nor should one rush into severe exer¬ 
cise, either of body or mind, immediately after eating, 
especially with a hot sun shining on the back. Piec¬ 
ing between meals, even by taking a taste, interferes 
with digestion, or with the stomach’s rest. Many 
persons can feel the evil results of irregular eating 
very definitely. Drinking at meal times should mainly 
be done on first sitting down at table, for copious 
drinking during the progress of eating will surely get 
some of the food down into the stomach before it is 
sufficiently chewed and insalivated. The temperature 
of food and drink should always be moderate,—not 
colderthan 60^^ or 70” (Fahr.), nor warmer than about 
105''. 

.\‘very popular error on the question of food is to 
reason that, because many have eaten this and drank 
that until a very old age with apparent impunity, there¬ 
fore it is not very injurious,—at least not injurious 
enough to speak of. “Because sentence against an 
evil work is not speedily executed, therefore it is set 
in the hearts of men to do evil.” One individual 
uses tobacco and lives to a goo(\ old age; another 
drinks tea and coffee and has average health (“ extra 
good health,” some imagine), until he is 90 years old; 
another eats an abundance of pork and sausage, with 
no apparent trouble; another drinks whisky and leads 
a jolly life until nearly 100 years of age; another 
indulges in all doubtful things promiscuously, with 
no care on his mind as to “laws of health,” and 
remains a stout man until three-score and ten; and 
so on, with all the foul substances in existence. 
Now, take a second thought and consider what pro¬ 
portion of mankind, going it rough-and-tumble in all 
these respects, keep their bodies in good trim until a 
hundred years old, as they should: very few, indeed. 
There is something at fault. 

The following we believe are excellent rules or ob¬ 
servations on such food as should be given to the 
sick, and if observed, together with those given above, 
alleviate much distress and (piickly restore health. 

I. Solid food should rarely be given duringthe prog¬ 
ress of an acute disease, as the stomach and digestive 
organs are not in a condition to furnish the fluids nec¬ 
essary for^its proper comminution, and hence it does 


not digest, but decomposes, giving rise to irritation 
and other annoying results. 

2. Asa general rule, the severer the disease, and 
the further the system is from a condition of health, 
the lighter and more diluted should be the food. Thus, 
in a high grade of fever or inflammation, we would 
give whey, toast-water, thin farina, or tapioca, weak 
chicken or mutton broth, etc. 

3. In states of great exhaustion the food should 
be concentrated, very nutritious, and yet deprived, as 
far as possible, of all material that cannot be appro¬ 
priated by the stomach. Thus we would give beef 
essence, concentrated chicken or mutton tea, farina, 
with milk, etc. 

4. In all febrile and inflammatory diseases the 
food should be given at that period of the day in which 
there is least vascular and nervous excitement, and it 
should never be forced on the patient when suffering 
from high fever. 

5. Never give food when the patient is suffering 
from severe pain, as at such time it is impossible for 
the digestive organs to appropriate it. 

6. If the tongue is heavily coated with a yellowish 
coat, a bad taste in the mouth, and a feeling of weight 
and oppression at the stomach, it is better not to give 
food, or at least give it in a fluid form and in small 
quantities. 

7. Never force food on a patient when his stom¬ 
ach revolts at it, or if it produces nausea, oppression, 
or pain. It is much better to wait until medicine or 
time has placed the stomach in condition to di¬ 
gest it. 

8. When the digestive powers are much impaired, 
and it is imjxirtant to give food to sustain the strength, 
it should be given in small quantities, and at regular 
intervals, like medicines. 

9. If there is an absolute demand for nourishment 
to sustain the strength of the patient, and it cannot 
be given by mouth, it is sometimes an excellent plan 
to administer it as an injection. 

10. Much care is necessary during convalescence 
from disease that the patient does not eat too much, 
or that which is indigestible. The digestive organs 
are now enfeebled, and, if overworked, there is not 
only an excess ofimperfectly-elaborated material taken 
into the system, but the exhaustion is extended to the 
entire system, and impairs the functions of other 
organs and parts. 

Water, and Bathing. Water is the only inorganic 
substance which all parties agree should ever be taken 
into the stomach; and where one eats all the juicy 
fruits physiology prescribes, and does not inflame the 
stomach with condiments, he will scarcely ever be 
thirsty. Water is the only neutral solvent, and thus 
the only proper vehicle of nutritious matter to the tis¬ 
sues and of effete matter from them, as nitrogen is the 
neutral solvent and vehicle of oxygen to the lungs and 
of carbonic acid gas from them. 

As a beverage the qualities of water differ materi¬ 
ally. Every one is sensible of the great difference be¬ 
tween that of a soft and clear spring and that of a 










HYGIENE. 


85^ 


stagnant pool. Many persons, iiiuch accustomed 
to this simple beverage, can distinguish flavors 
which are not sensible to others. All water in a 
natural state is impregnated with a certain proportion 
of air, which is highly useful; and of many other sub¬ 
stances found more or less in water, some are harm¬ 
less, while others are extremely prejudicial. For 
further facts on the composition and general proper¬ 
ties of water, see the article on Water. One can 
scarcely over-estimate the importance of an abundant 
su])[)ly of pure water in order to preserve health. 

That the function of perspiration holds an import¬ 
ant relation in the general economy to the health and 
well-being of the system none will deny. Among the 
means best calculated to promote a healthy condition 
of this function, that of frequent bathing may be 
claimed among the most valuable if not altogether the 
most valuable. Cleanliness of the body, it must be 
remembered, is one of the fundamental conditions of 
health, because it is essential to a healthy condition 
of the skin, and consequently of the entire perspira¬ 
tory apparatus. Frequent bathing of some sort or 
other is to be recommended during the entire year, 
and especially should it be observed during the warm 
seasons. The condition of the water for such pur¬ 
poses may be warm, tepid or cold, according to the 
time and the inclinations of the individual. As a 
general rule, however, the morning bath should be 
cold or cool, and the night bath should be warm or 
tepid. 

Of the different modes of taking baths, there are 
the following; A “full bath” is taken by lying, stand¬ 
ing or sitting for a few minutes with all the body ex¬ 
cept the head in the water. A “ half bath” is taken 
by sitting in water with the legs extended, so that the 
water covers only the lower part of the body, from the 
waist to the feet. A full “ pack” is the envelopment 
of the whole body in bed clothes for a half hour or 
more, so as to produce copious perspiration and uni¬ 
form, vigorous action for expelling morbific matters 
from the system. A cotton sheet or woolen blanket, 
wrung out of hot water, is placed next the body. 
Sometimes a “dry pack” is taken for a similar pur- 
ix)se, when the hot wetting is omitted. A “ half 
pack” is the same, given to the lower half of the body. 
A “ compress” is a wet cloth, cotton, linen, or woolen, 
cold or hot, laid upon a part,—not bound tightly, as 
the word seems to signify. A “sitz,” “sitting,” or 
“ hip” bath is taken by sitting in a tub (generally a 
tin one made for the purpose) partly filled with water. 
A “ vapor” bath is given in a box so arranged that the 
person has his head just outside, to breathe pure air. 
A “Turkish” bath is simply a universal hot-air bath. 
In this the air is raised to 150° or over, which pro¬ 
duces copious perspiration. Besides the above, there 
are head baths, arm baths, etc., according to the 
locality treated. All these baths may be medicated, 
or accompanied with electricity, for specific purposes. 
.\n excellent moderate morning bath may be taken 
by simply applying the water from the wash-bowl 
with the hands, rubbing vigorously with the hands 


and afterward with a coarse towel until dry. Dress 
immediately. This simple bath opens the pores of the 
skin for the healthy action of the perspiratory function 
and greatly invigorates the system. 

The greatest care is required to come out of a bath 
properly. Almost every universal sweating bath cures 
the “ cold” for which it is taken, except that in many, 
possibly most, cases, the patient comes out in such a 
way as to reproduce the “ cold.” He should, on coming 
out, be wiped and rubbed with the hands vigorously, 
and dress verj' warm, or get into a bed and warm up 
quickly. In either case he should rest an hour or 
two after the bath. Nor should a bath ever be taken 
soon after a meal, or after eating anything which it is 
at all difficult to digest. A cold bath should never be 
taken when one is weary or exhausted. “ Going in 
swimming” at the close of a hard day’s work, as 
farmers sometimes do, is sure to do mischief, often 
very severe mischief. Ordinarily, from 10 to 12 
a. m. is the best time for general bathing. When 
boys “ go in swimming” they generally remain in the 
water too long. The hint which nature gives as to 
the time of coming out of the water, is known by a 
sensation of passiveness or non-resistance. Indeed, 
it is better to come out before this sensation is real¬ 
ized, for this condition is really one of congestion. It 
is no objection to plunging into cold water that one 
is hot and covered with sweat, if he only has a strong 
sensation of resistance and activity at the time. But 
a minute or two, and that of activity, is sufficient time 
for a universal cool bath. In going in to swim, it is 
best to wet the head and upper part of the body first. 
Plunging in head foremost is a good substitute. 

Bath-tubs can be obtained through most dealers in 
hardware or furniture, made either of tin or copper 
lined with tin, or of zinc, all with wooden bottom. 
But if a portion of the bottom is bare metal, an oil 
stove can be set under to heat the water, a great ad¬ 
vantage. A mechanic can make a bath-tub or trough 
out of staves, barrel-fashion, with stout iron hoops, at 
a cost of^ about %. Wood tubs, however, are not so 
neat as tin or zinc, as the woody tissue collects dis¬ 
ease-matter from invalids bathing in them and ex¬ 
poses others to contagion. A vapor-bath can be 
cheaply taken by sitting in a chair while loosely 
enveloped in quilts, sheets, or blankets, over a pan of 
hot water into which heated bricks are thrown. 

Clothing. In this connection we can say nothing 
about “fashion;” we can merely state what is health¬ 
ful. Clothing is worn mainly for keeping the body in 
a proper temperature, but the prevailing modes often 
fail to do this. In men s habit of dress the principal 
faults are, confinement of air and exhalations upon 
the scalp by heavy, air-tight hats or caps; the upper 
l)ortion of the bosom and the waist exposed by having 
over them only one thickness of cloth, and that cotton, 
while the vest and pants together constitute several 
folds, part of them wool, on the abdomen; hanging 
the trousers and drawers by a belt around the waist 
instead of wearing suspenders over the shoulders; 
wearing leather shoes, often too tight. With women’s 














HYGIENE. 


853 


dress the chief faults, in a hygienic [X)iiit of view, are : 
A large body of hair confined to one spot on the back 
of the head; too little protection to the arms; wear¬ 
ing gloves too constantly; loading down the waist by 
suspending dresses upon it, often a superfluity of skirts; 
wearing corsets and garters; tight lacing; thin, light 
shoes, generally, if not always, too tight, although the 
wearer thinks them large enough. 

As to material of clothing next the skin, cotton and 
linen are the purest, but woolen is generally recom¬ 
mended, on account of its capacity to protect against 
sudden changes of temperature and to keep up activity 
1 ))' friction. Dyed material should never be worn 
next to the body, as the coloring matter is more or less 
{xjisonous. Not even socks or hose should be dyed. 

In respect to color, the lighter the more healthful, 
the year round, for several reasons, namely: White 
is a reflector of heat, and thus preserves the warmth 
of the body in cold weather and excludes excessive 
heat in summer; light-colored clothes show dirt sooner 
than dark-colored, and will therefore be washed oftener 
and kept cleaner; they have not so much }X)isonous 
dye-stuff in them, and have less capacity to catch in¬ 
fections. 

Clothing should not remain packed in a bureau or 
confined in a closet, but promptly and thoroughly 
aired and sunned; nor should we sleep in the same 
undergarment we have worn during the day. 

Childrens Clothing. Some further hints and facts 
on the subject of clothing for children may be found 
useful. The practice of binding a newly-born infant 
with bandages and flannels, which has rendered 
many a healthy infant weakly and ailing, has 
happily gone out of fashion. Still, however, we 
often see a baby so loaded with clothes that 
they almost equal its own weight, which ren¬ 
ders a healthy child so tender and chilly that it 
cannot bear the external air; and if by accident it 
should be exposed to a refreshing breeze, the conse¬ 
quence is frequently a serious inflammatory affection 
of the lungs or bowels. The clothes should be in all 
cases proixjrtioned to the climate and temperature of 
the atmosphere. A newly-born infant is more sus¬ 
ceptible than an adult to changes of temperature. 
The clothing should be loosely put on, so that the 
bowels may have room, the limbs liberty to act and 
exert themselves, and the circulation of the blood 
through the superficial vessels may not be impeded, 
for malformation or unnatural swellings may be pro¬ 
duced by partial compression. To this error are 
doubtless attributable very many distortions and de¬ 
formities, particularly among females, who suffer more 
in this respect than the males. I’he great pleasure 
a child manifests on being divested of a' superfluity 
of dress by all its powers of expression one would sup¬ 
pose sufficient to convince nurses, were they capable 
of making just observations, that the free use of its 
muscles is both agreeable to its feelings and neces¬ 
sary for its proper growth and strength. A flannel 
waistcoat, without sleeves, should be made to fit the 
body and tie loosely behind with a petticoat, and 


over this a kind of gown, which in summer should be 
thin and light. The petticoat should not be too long, 
and the gown or robe should be a few inches longer. 
Shoes and stockings are often an encumbrance. I'he 
latter keep the legs wet and nasty if they are not 
changed two or three times a day, and the former 
frequently cramp the legs and hurt the feet so as to 
prevent them learning to walk. Children in this 
simple dress would be perfectly easy, and enjoy the 
free use of their legs and faculties. They should be 
put into it as soon as they are born, and continued in 
it until they are three years old, when it may be left 
off for any other more fashionable and genteel. The 
baby’s clothes ought to be changed at least once a 
day. The night-clothes should be loose, and less in 
quantity than those worn during the day, otherwise 
the child will be very' liable to be affected with cold 
and complaints of the bowels. Safety-pins should be 
used instead of ordinary pins in fitting on napkins. 
The common practice of leaving the neck and upper 
part of the chest bare all the year round has been 
very largely a source of disease. The parents must 
not, however, run into the opposite extreme by over¬ 
heating the body. The infant’s clothes should be 
light, but warm enough to meet the requirements of 
the season; and the best materials for this purpose 
are flannel and calico. For some months after birth 
the infant’s skin is peculiarly sensitive, so that a shirt 
of fine linen between it and the flannel should be put 
on. A child’s clothes should allow for growth, and 
never be too tight around the chest, arm-holes, or 
wrists, and should be easily put on and taken off. 
When the child is short-coated, socks should be put 
on which will keep the legs sufficiently warm accord¬ 
ing to the condition of the weather. Shoes should be 
light and jDliable, and by no means small. A child 
should not be short-coated in cold weather. Garters 
and tight stays are things to be avoided in children’s 
clothing. 

Exercise. Exercise is one of the best means of 
keeping the muscular system healthy and vigorous. 
Every part of the animal system is so intimately and 
curiously interwoven with every other part that causes 
affecting one affects the whole. If the muscular action 
becomes enfeebled for want of proper exercise and 
development, the digestive powers suffer, and a loss 
of appetite ensues. The necessary work of animal 
combustion does not go on with its proper vigor, the 
blood circulates slowly, the respiration grows imper¬ 
fect, indigestion sets in, and all its long train of at¬ 
tendant diseases and complaints begin more or less 
seriously to threaten life. 

Various Kinds of Exercise. Although the kind and 
degree of exercise should be varied to suit the special 
constitution concerned, the main object should be to 
liring the whole of the muscular system into action 
with special reference to such muscles as by the ac¬ 
cidents of occupation or position are weak for want of 
proper development. Walking agrees with almost 
everybody, but the exercise obtained by‘it is chiefly 
confined to the muscles of the loins and those of the 











HYGIENE. 


854 


lower limbs. Rowing, fencing, boxing, and other sports, 
on the other hand, bring into action the muscles be¬ 
longing to the upper parts of the body. Excessive 
fatigue should, however, always be avoided. Riding 
is excellent exercise, its special advantage being that 
ot not hurrying the respiration. It calls almost all 
the muscles into play, and is extremely favorable to the 
proper circulation of the blood. Dancing is a very use¬ 
ful e.xercise, and would be more so if it were not associ¬ 
ated with the heated and dust-laden air of ball-rooms. 
Certain handicrafts, such as carpentering, turning etc., 
afford useful exercise. Gymnastic exercises, provided 
they be suited to the constitution, not over-indulged 
in, and not too violent, are very valuable. Excessive 
perspiration, it must be remembered, is injurious; nor 
must it be forgotten that exercises suitable for the 
strong and robust may be very unsuitable for others 
wliose constitutions are of a different kind. Bodily 
exercise, judiciously regulated, strengthens the whole 
body, removes the causes of certain disorders, gives a 
proper tone to the system, and enables it to resist 
contagion. In children it promotes growth in its best 
and most proportionate degrees, for beauty and health 
are more intimately associated than many people im¬ 
agine. Jumping, running and wrestling are all good 
in moderation, and, in excess, all equally bad. For 
the delicately constituted, exercises of this description 
should be carefully planned, with a view to this or 
that special case. For strengthening the muscles of 
the chest, fencing is an excellent exercise. Ball play¬ 
ing benefits the trunk, chest and arms. Dumb-bells, 
used in moderation, and when they are not too heavy, 
or when the exercises are not too difficult, are very 
useful. When they are too heavy, mischief is done. 
Reading, singing and reciting aloud exercise certain 
important muscles to an extent which few people 
dream of. The lungs may be exercised both directly 
and indirectly,—indirectly by means which quicken 
and deepen the respiration, and, as in the above exer¬ 
cises, directly. Walking up-hill is a capital e.xercise 
for strengthening die lungs, giving expansion to the 
chest, promoting free circulation, and more completely 
oxygenating the blood. For the same reason, playing 
on wind instruments is often found beneficial if in¬ 
dulged in by one free from anything like active pul¬ 
monary disease. Throwing the arms and shoulders 
back, and while in that position slowly inhaling the 
open air, is to be recommended for young persons, 
who would find great benefit from its daily practice. 
The loud laughter and noisy voices of children serve 
the same beneficial ends. 

The best single exercise, which calls into play all 
the muscles and departments of the human system 
in proper proportion, is probably climbing a tree and 
going through all the motions involved in gathering 
fruits and nuts. This is far better than all the gym¬ 
nastics and lifting machines ever invented. Severe 
exercise in-doors, where the air is more or less confined, 
is not so good as that out-doors. In very foul air it is 
worse than no exercise at all. Walking, merely for the 
sake of exercise, is not so good as “ going somewhere on 


an errand.” The best thing in the world, under this 
head, is an excursion to the wilds of nature, where one 
can ramble at will. When the noon hour arrives he 
has a better appetite for his dinner than he had 
thought he was capable of having. The plainest of 
food tastes extraordinarily good. 

One should not exert his utmost strength at the 
first outset. As with lifting machines one should 
make several lifts some minutes apart before doing his 
utmost, so in any other severe labor, he should go 
into it somewhat gradually. 

“ Passive exercise ” is that which is received from 
an operator. The subject, who is an invalid, lies upon 
a couch, while a friend rubs, kneads and spats him, 
either with dry hands or with hands wet with wateror 
medicated liquid. This practice is essential in nearly 
all cases of sickness, and sometimes indeed is the 
only thing necessary to a thorough cure. It has gone 
under the names of “ kinesipathy,” “ motorpathy,” 
“movements,” “ Swedish movements,” “ manipula¬ 
tions,” “ rubbings,” “magnetic treatment,” etc. It is 
often given by Spiritualists, “ Hygienists,” and other 
“irregular” practitioners, generally with good results. 
In the cities there are establishments fitted up with 
steam machineiy for giving nearly all sorts of move¬ 
ments to all parts of the body. In most cases of pro¬ 
tracted sickness passive exercise is more important 
than active, as the latter is generally impracticable. 
Exercise of Children. Without a proper degree of 
exercise, all our care in feeding and clothing infants 
will not succeed to our wishes till, by due degrees, a 
child is brought to bear a good deal of exercise with¬ 
out fatigue. It should be pushed forward and taught 
to walk judiciously, but soon, so that at the end of 12 
months it may (if healthy) be capable of walking 
alone. It is a common error to suppose children are 
not to be put on their legs because they are weak, or 
at least bent or crooked. Daily experience shows 
crooked legs will grow in time strong and straight by 
frequent walking, and that disuse makes them worse. 
The walks should be increased gradually every day, 
till they can go two miles without weariness, which 
they will very well be able to do in three years, if 
they are properly accustomed to it. From this daily 
exertion they will, from the impulse of their own vigor 
soon be found running, leaping and playing all day 
long. Thus a dull, heavy child becomes playful and 
sprightly, and acquires good habits and permanent 
health. 

The rocking, jolting, jouncing and swingingof babes 
is happily going out of use. Tickling a babe by gen¬ 
tly scratching the soles of its feet or manipulating its 
ribs, is also a dangerous piece of cruelty. 

Rest. Naturally, this is an element in exercise, 
for all action has more or less intensity, according to 
the degree of rest mixed with it; and exercising one 
department of tlie human system seems to give rest 
to the other parts, as exercise of the muscular system, 
for instance, acts as a sedative to the nervous system, 
brain work rests the muscles, attending orchard is a 
rest from field work, etc. After very severe labor one 











HYGIENE. 


855 


generally “ feels so tired he can’t rest ” thoroughly. 

It is therefore our instinct, under those circumstances, 
to keep up a little e.xercise for a time, and cpiiet down 
gradually. The system cannot bear very sudden re¬ 
actions without injury, and it is therefore possible for 
one to undertake a rest which is too sudden, thorough 
and radical. It is a rule, however, in physiology, that 
one should. rest thoroughly, in the course of some 
hours,—indeed, until he “feels like ” going to work 
again. Hence' many laborers work too hard all the 1 
week, and not enough on Sunday, and on this day 
they feel stupid. 

Sleep. No arguments are requisite to prove tlie 
necessity of sleep; nor will it answer any practical or 
useful purpose to enumerate or attempt to reconcile 
the various and fanciful speculations relative to the 
causes of sleep; experience tells us, in a language 
not to be misunderstood, that “ the chief nourisher of 
life’s feast,” “tired Nature’s sweet restorer, balmy 
sleep,” cannot safely be dispensed with for any con¬ 
siderable length of time. When its accustomed visits 
are not paid, or, when paid, are not attended to, the 
whole frame is thrown into disorder; the appetite 
ceases, the strength fails, the spirits become dejected, 
and the whole body is reduced to a state of exhaus¬ 
tion and miser)'; in fact, a prostration and dissolution 
of all the animal and vital powers seem likely to en¬ 
sue, And it may be added that nothing gives the 
countenance the early appearance of age more than 
the want of healthy and refreshing sleep. But while 
too great exertion or prolonged action enervates both | 
body and mind, exhausts and unhinges all the organs, 
and lays the train for a host of destructive evils, ex¬ 
cess of sleep, or prolonged inaction, is equally to be 
guarded against; it deadens and enervates the body, 
and occasions a concentration of the vital powers on 
the brain or the stomach. On the due equalization, 
therefore, of sleep and activity, the preservation of 
health and strength depends; and regularity in the 
hours of rising and retiring to rest mainly contribute 
to this preservation. The common abuses on those 
points necessarily induce numerous indisiX)sitions, and 
often serious diseases. The causes or circumstances 
which principally contribute to* sleep are: good air, 
labor or exercise, wholesome diet, and regular habits 
and hours. 

Various practices have been recommended for pro¬ 
moting sleep. Walking up and down the parlor or 
bedroom before retiring is one of the specifics; after 
supper walk a mile is an excellent rule, and may be 
practiced in the house as well as the open air. Wash¬ 
ing the mouth and rubbing the gums and teeth with 
a brush before going to bed, is a wholesome practice, 
and has a tendency to promote sleep. Friction,or rub¬ 
bing the l)ody, arms, legs, soles of the feet,etc., with the 
hard flesh brush, or a coarse towel, besides promoting 
the insensible perspiration, is one of the most effect¬ 
ual sedatives to repose. 

The most important thing to observe under this 
head is to have the sleeping apartment clean and well 
ventilated. The toughness of Indians and of pio¬ 


neers in this country who sleep in open rooms is pro¬ 
verbial. But the trouble is, many persons imagine 
they have clean and well-aired rooms when they have 
not. To meet this difficulty, we say to all, the nearer 
you come to sleeping out-doors entirely, and yet keep 
comfortably warm, the better you do. No one can 
catch cold in bed so long as he keeps himself warm, 
and does not permit a draft to strike him anywhere 
except in the face. Some persons, who are very par¬ 
ticular to keep all draft out of the room, will never¬ 
theless turn over so carelessly in bed sometimes as to 
leave a hot and perspiring portion of the body par¬ 
tially uncovered, and hey “ catch ” either a “cold” 
or a rheumatism, or some other ailment. To keep 
the neck and shoulders and the feet properly warm 
requires special pains in the adjustment of the bed¬ 
ding. The covering should be kept up close to these 
parts, except when the nights are so warm and sultry 
that one wants no covering at all. The modern prac¬ 
tice of making up a bed by tucking the ends of the 
quilts under the foot of the ticking is all good enough 
for the day, and so long as the bed is not used; but 
to do one’s self justice when he sleeps in it he must 
jerk the covering loose from such moorings, that he 
may be able properly to tuck it close around his feet 
and legs. 

The use of feathers in bed and pillow ticks is hap¬ 
pily going out of fashion; and any animal matter, 
either feathers or hair, is not so pure and wholesome 
as husk’s, straw, moss, or other vegetable fiber. 

As to amount of sleep, the substance of modern 
advice seems to be. Sleep all yoii can; but commence 
your sleep early in the evening. Surely,to be natural, 
or normal, we should sleep as much, or nearly as 
much, before midnight as after. Remember still, that 
in announcing the demands of health one cannot 
compromise with custom, or even with emergencies. 
Both these often interfere with our highest physical 
interests. 

Agreeable and lively conversation, and listening to 
music, reading, etc., are often good preparations for 
repose. Gently titillating the soles of the feet will 
frequently produce sleep. Again, when the soles of 
the feet are cold, no disposition to sleep can be in¬ 
duced, on account of their affinity with the brain, 
until their natural warmth is restored. The best 
means of procuring the required warmth is to rub the 
feet with a hard brush or a coarse towel for some min¬ 
utes before going to bed, which will be found a more 
effectual method of preventing the sense of coldness 
and conciliating sleep, than the immediate applica¬ 
tion of bottles filled with warm water, or anything 
else actually hot. It is scarcely necessary to add, 
that in order to enjoy sound and refreshing sleep, 
every object that may excite unpleasant ideas or 
violent emotions in the mind, should, for some time 
before going to bed, be most sedulously avoided. If 
none of these practices will procure sleep, then try 
the effect of conning over some task that in childhood 
was apt to create it, or of the counting from one to 
five hundred, or a thousand, or reciting any long pas- 














856 


HYGIENE. 


sage from any ancient or modern author. By these 
means the attention is diverted from uneasy thoughts, 
and you are overtaken by sleep in the midst of your 
efforts. Many other methods may be also adopted 
to induce sleep. For instance, reading aloud in a 
slow, monotonous manner, and the gentle noise pro¬ 
duced by vessels full of water, so arranged that it may 
fall drop by drop into a sonorous vessel. A continued 
sound indeed, if uniform and moderate, is well suited 
to absorb the attention without fatiguing it; the vibra¬ 
tions of a pendulum, or the sound of soft, gentle mu¬ 
sic, or a long, uninteresting recital, are often product¬ 
ive of similar results. But it is frequently in vain 
that every means are resorted to to induce the balmy 
influence of repose; it evades, like a fleeting vision, 
the feverish body, or the busy mind. In this case, if 
you find yourself restless from feverish heat, a parched 
state of body, or any other cause, or should you be 
awakened by any accident, and cannot easily get to 
sleep again,then put into practice Dr. Franklin’s rules, 
viz., get out of bed, beat up and turn the pillow, shake 
the bed-clothes well and repeatedly, with at least 
twenty shakes, then throw the bed open, and leave it 
to cool; and, in the meantime, take some turns about 
the room, till the skin has dispersed its perspirable 
matter, and become^ sufficiently cool; then turn to 
your bed, and you may soon fall asleep, and your 
sleep will be sweet and pleasant. If the room be 
cold,* or the season of the year be winter time, both 
stockings and a dressing-gown should be put on while 
you are out of bed. There are other various artificial 
means of procuring sleep, such as opiates, but they 
should be cautiously and sparingly given, as they can¬ 
not be employed for any length of time without con¬ 
stitutional inconvenience, and even danger of apo¬ 
plexy and the different kinds of paralysis. Air, exer¬ 
cise, wholesome diet, and regular habits, will best in¬ 
sure sleep in its natural form. 

Sleep is repelled and interrupted by a variety of cir¬ 
cumstances, as noise, light, sleeping in a new apart¬ 
ment, having slept during the day, or just before go¬ 
ing to bed, repelled perspiration, from too great a 
weight of bed-clothes, mental disquietude, over-exer¬ 
tion, the nightmare, deficiency of muscular action, 
drinking tea, coffee, or any thin or weak liquor imme¬ 
diately before going to bed, etc. But the more com¬ 
mon causes of disturbed and restless sleep, frightful 
dreams, etc., and which are often erroneously ascribed 
to the vaix)rs and other unfounded causes, arise either 
from the defective state or the derangement of the 
functions of the digestive organs, or are occasioned 
by the use of heavy suppers, malt and other fer¬ 
mented liquors, just before retiring to rest; in which 
last-mentioned case no rest can be obtained until the 
first stage of digestion has been performed, and the 
stomach relieved from its crudities. Though diges¬ 
tion is favored by a state of repose, and increased 
energy is given to the circulation by the concoction of 
the food being allowed to proceed uninterruptedly, 
yet the habit or custom of indulging in diurnal sleep 
or taking a nap, as it is called, after dinner, should be 


avoided by every one in good health, and not aged, 
or who is of a plethoric habit of body ; for when a 
person is in a recumbent posture, and the stomach is 
distended with food or aliments, it is apt to press on the 
great blood-vessels,by which too much blood is thrown 
on the brain, and thus plethoric headache or apoplexy 
is sometimes occasioned. When habit, however, has 
rendered the custom of napping after dinner almost 
natural, or where nature, from extraordinary fatigue 
or want of rest during the preceding night, requires 
some refreshment, an afternoon nap may be indulged 
in, provided that it is taken in a sitting posture, with 
the body inclining towards the back of the chair, and 
a little turned to the left side, with the feet raised by 
means of a stool about four or five inches from the 
ground. Care also should be taken that all those 
parts of the clothes, which are likely to prevent the 
circulation of the blood, be removed, and the body 
should be well covered, by putting on a great-coat, or 
some external covering, in order to defend it against 
catching cold, and prevent it from becoming chilled, 
and the circulation checked. The same indulgence, 
provided it is not carried to excess, and is not likely 
to break or interrupt their rest during the night, may 
also be taken by the infirm, the delicate, the sickly, 
the care-worn, or those whose bodies are enfeebled or 
enervated by the relaxing influence of the weather. 
Persons advanced in years may advantageously sleep 
a little after dinner, that the heat of their bodies, 
which is weak and feeble, being internally concen¬ 
trated, may enable the digestion to perform the better. 
It has been said that “ the most complete and healthy 
sleep that can be taken in the day, is in summer time 
out in a field.” It must, however, be recollected, that 
though the sensation of slumbering on the grass or 
hay is exceedingly pleasurable, yet it, as well as fall¬ 
ing asleep on a garden bench, may be attended with 
injurious consequences. Neither should we ever suf¬ 
fer ourselves to “take a foretaste of repose, a relish¬ 
ing snatch of slumber,” before we go to bed, lest it 
should diminish the chance of getting sleep for a con¬ 
siderable part of the night. 

Dreaming and nightmares are always caused by a 
noise or some physical disturbance of the body. They 
are made more annoying by intense mental care or 
anxiety. Not only late, heavy suppers, but also any 
twisted or cramped position of the body will create 
disagreeable dreams or nightmare. If one’s body 
were turned over every few minutes during his sleep, 
these dreadful spells would be avoided. 

Ei.ectricity. As a hygienic agent this is recom¬ 
mended by many, opposed by some, and treated with 
comparative indifference by nearly all. As a remedial 
agent for some chronic affections it is generally recom¬ 
mended. _ The most important of these conditions 
are mentioned under the different diseases in this 
volume. No directions as to its use are required 
here, further than the general warning not to take 
electrical treatment as strong as you can for the 
moment bear, else you may cripple j'ourself or other¬ 
wise create a local trouble. 














n J GIKNE. 


857 


We wish*to say a word to the farmer in the way of 
caution upon this point. The aggregate amount 
of imposition, petty swindling, and larger humbuggery, 
now practiced, based upon ‘‘ electricity,”“ magnetism,” 
“ galvanism,” etc., is incredible to any one who has 
not watched the general newspaper advertising, and 
collected an assortment of a class of circulars now 
being daily distributed throughout the country by the 
ton, in the mails, from drug stores, shops, and in 
various other ways. I'liere are now heralded electric 
or magnetic or galvanic bands, batteries, belts and 
brushes, pills, potions and lotions, in infinite form and 
variety; while “ electrical doctors” rival Egyptian 
frogs in number. As the enormous expense of all the 
above is kept up continuously, there must be an im¬ 
mense number of people gulled into paying the taxon 
their credulity, often at the sacrifice of the comforts 
and even necessities of daily life. 

There is some satisfaction in the fact that most of 
these mechanical contrivances sold, are in them¬ 
selves positively inert and useless, and there¬ 
fore not injurious; while imaginatively sick people, 
and others with slight nervous disorders, are soothed 
and comforted, and sometimes actually cured through 
their belief in the efficacy of the otherwise useless 
nostrums. Take an illustration: We know a person 
in good ixjsition, of more than ordinary intelligence 
on most other subjects, who positively believes him¬ 
self benefited by a large horse-chestnut always carried 
in his pocket! To lose this, and be unable to get an¬ 
other, would give him the blues, if not bring on a 
spell of actual sickness. Another person, of like in¬ 
telligence, has ec^ual faith in a combination of copper 
and zinc, the size of a- silver dollar, worn suspended 
from the neck, and called an “ electric battery,” though 
having no more electrical or galvanic or magnetic 
effect than so much silver, iron, stone, or wood,—that 
is, no effect at all save upon the imagination. 

'There are now half a score or more varieties and 
forms of the wonderfully be-puffed and advertised 
electric things, all equally nonsensical and intrinsically 
useless so far as electrical or magnetic or galvanic 
effect is concerned. A hair-brush, costing 50 cents 
to $2, according to the quality of bristles and handle, 
if applied briskly to the head may, and often will, 
have a soothing effect, and sometimes relieve pain on 
the principle of “counter-irritation.” The effect may 
be heightened if the user can only be persuaded that 
there is some electrical or magnetic effect. This can 
easily be done with those not skilled in the science of 
electricity. Conceal in the handle or back of the 
brush a slender steel magnet (or even a bit of iron or 
steel), and when the brush is brought near a small 
]K)cket compass, the concealed metal will disturb the 
needle just as a pocket-knife, or scissors, or a nail will 
attract and move the needle of any compass. For 
appearance’ sake, fine wire may be mingled with or 
substituted for part of the bristles, though any wire in 
a brush, however fine, we consider too harsh for use 
upon the delicate cuticle that ought always to exist 
upon the human head. 


'The entire class of fixed combinations of metals of 
whatever kind, whether offered by Boyd, Elias, or any 
one else, whether called “ electric,” “ galvanic,” or 
“magnetic,” whether of American or foreign origin, 
whether large or small, whether round or oblong, or 
any other shape, whether ornamented with embossed 
figures of devils or angels, with the flames of Hades 
or the lightnings of heaven, are all in reality just as 
useful “electrically,”“magnetically,”or “galvanically,” 
as so much plain copper, or lead, or zinc, or silver, 
except as they operate upon one’s faith through the 
preposterous claims put forth for them in the enter¬ 
prising sellers’ advertisements. This faith is so strong 
in many people that it is even safe for the dealers to 
promise to “ return the money” if the purchaser does 
not find benefit—albeit it is easier in most cases to 
pay money than to get it back for “ guaranteed” medi¬ 
cines and the like. The man who has got your 
money by ingenuity will be ingenious enough to worry 
you out with pretenses that “ it was not used according 
to directions,” or some other subterfuge. 

Magnetism, animal or vital. Manipulations are 
already spoken of under head of “ Passive Exercise.” 
How much magnetism is imparted by the operator is 
a mere theory, and therefore is without the pale of 
this volume. 

Cheerfulness. In order to have good digestion 
and be perfectly healthy, we are generally exhorted to 
be cheerful, and not borrow or brood over trouble; but 
our moods are so dependent upon physical conditions 
and uncontrollable circumstances, that all exhortation 
of this kind is useless. To be cheerful one must have 
his body right, and then have “ good luck ” generally. 
Next to all other appliances in hygiene, sociability and 
frequent rumblings through the wilds of nature are 
the best general means of putting the mind into good 
humor. 

An erect posture of the body, with the head up and 
shoulders well back, is generally insisted iqion. All 
sedentary work should be broken by change as fre¬ 
quent as practicable. Dosing to keep off diseases, to 
keep one in trim, tone-up, etc., is prohibited by the 
priests of nature. Moderation, or temperance, in all 
normal things, and total abstinence from all abnormal 
or doubtful things, constitute the “ golden rule” of 
physical morality. 

Hygiene, Public; Sanitary Science. This refers 
to health laws which concern a community as such, 
and hence becomes a subject of public legislation. 
Leaving dead animals or other foul matter above 
ground where it becomes a nuisance to the public, is 
a moral and civil misdemeanor of which the public 
must take cognizance. This is especially important 
in towns and cities, but even in the country are some 
regulations necessary. The propagation of contagious 
diseases also becomes a contraband of civil law. The 
best manner of disposing of excreta and all manures 
and decaying rubbish, and the arrangement of cess¬ 
pools, etc., are indicated in the proper places under 
head of Manure, Privy, Cess-pool, Landscape Gar¬ 
dening, Barn, Drainage, etc. 













858 


HYFOCHONJJRIA—H YSTERIA. 


Hygienic system of medication. This is treatment 
of the sick, in all cases, by hygienic or nonnal means 
only, excluding all drug medication. As we give, in 
this work, the ‘‘ Hygienic” prescriptions as \>^11 as 
others, for certain diseases, we will greatly abridge 
mattps by outlining the general hygienic treatment of 
all diseases here, which is far more im^xirtant than 
the special appliances: 

1. Warm up or cool down the liody, or any jiart of 
it, by water, air, or manipulations. 

2. Whenever the body or any part is too cold or 
inactive, warm it by hot water, hot compresses or hot 
air, or by rubbing and kneading with warm hands, or 
by exercise, generally passive. 

3. Reduce inflammations by warm or tepid water, 
sometimes cool or cold water. “Sponge off” fever 
patients as often as is comfortable to them. This is 
done by wetting them, either by hand or a sponge or 
a towel, and wiping them off very gently. 

4. Direct emetics and jiurgatives are given in the 
form of warm water. For the former sometimes a quart 
or more of water is necessary, accompanied by tickling 
the throat with a finger or a feather, kneading the 
region of the stomach, etc. For a purgative, or 
“enema,” sometimes a pint or more of water is neces¬ 
sary. But in either case, if the water is not soon 
ejected, no harm is done. Nausea is often allayed by 
a few sips of hot water. 

5. For a general purifying of the body, the various 
sweating processes, described under head of Bathing, 
in the article on Hygiene, are prescribed. In this 
connection the most important thing is to take no 
more impurities into the body, either as medicine or 
as food. 

6. In dietetics, eat or drink nothing that is doubtful 
or disputed, as white flour bread (or anything else 
made from such flour), jxirk, or even flesh of any 
kind, intoxicating liquors, beer or cider, tea, coffee, 
tobacco, butter, cheese and all the condiments, min¬ 
eral waters, “ herb teas,” etc. 

7. Observe all the directions given under head of 
Hygiene. 

Hypochondria, or Melancholy, a nervous affec¬ 
tion in which the patient is gloomy, and inclined to 
imagine the most absurd things happening to him. The 
disease is intimately connected with, and probably 


caused by dyspepsia, disordered liver, etc. All schools 
of physicians unite in prescribing an out-door life, 
with labor and cheerful company; or, an excursion by 
camping out, “roughing it,” etc.,—such things as aid 
digestion, tone up the nervous system and keep the 
mind of the patient off of himself. No drugs are a 
substitute without injuring the sufferer in some other 
way. 

Hypodermic Syringe (hiji-o-der'mic sir'inj), a 
small syringe with a beveled, needle-like tube, for 
thrusting through the skin and injecting a medicated 
fluid, as a morphine solution, to produce insensibility 
to pain. Useful in cases where the stomach cannot 
bear the drug. See cut, page 206. 

Hysteria, or Hysterics, 'bins disease mostly 
affects young, nervous, single women. It manifests 
Itself by fits, often preceded by nervous lowness, diffi¬ 
cult breathing, sickness at the stomach, palpitations 
and a pain at the left side, a rumbling noise in the 
bowels, the sensation of a ball ascending to the throat, 
with a feeling of suffocation, convulsions, laughing and 
crying without any apparent cause. Almost every 
part of the nervous system is liable to this affection. 
The disease seldom proves fatal. It is caused by 
menstrual irregularities, indolence, irregular living, 
costiveness, indigestion, worms, obstructed perspira¬ 
tion, etc. An hysteric fit may be easily distinguished 
from fainting; for, in fainting the pulse and respira¬ 
tion are entirely stopped; in hysterics, they are both 
perceptible. The fit may be prevented by the admin¬ 
istration of 30 drops of laudanum, and as many of 
ether. When it has taken place, open the windows 
loosen the tight parts of the dress, sprinkle cold water 
on the face, put the feet and legs in warm water, etc. 
Give a glass of cold water when the patient can 
swallow. Avoid excitement and tight lacing. Friends 
should not indulge in tones of sympathv, but rather 
in scolding. The general or constitutional treatment 
consists, of course, in observing those specialties 
recommended under the heads of Dyspepsia, Hypo¬ 
chondria, etc. When uterine disease exists in con¬ 
nection with this trouble, nine times in ten it is the 
cause of it, and the cure of one consists in the cure of 
the other. In such cases, consult a good sur¬ 
geon, whom, by the way, it is generally very difficult 
to find. 













I 



Every frozen liquid—in a more limited 
sense frozen water—is known by the term 
ice. As soon as the temperature is raised, 
^ the solid state again gives way to the liquid. 
We see, then, that ice is nothing but water de¬ 
prived of its heat. The freezing of water is a 
phenomenon so remarkable that the greatest nat¬ 
uralists have thought it worthy of a careful in¬ 
vestigation. Expose a glass, filled with water, to a 
degree of cold producing ice. An extremely thin film 
of ice is observed first on the surface of the water in 
contact with the cold air. Slender threads of ice are 
soon seen to shoot out from the sides of the vessel, 
generally forming with it obtuse or acute, seldom right 
angles; from these rays, new ones continually shoot 
out, till the whole surface is covered with a single 
coating. While this process is going on, a great num¬ 
ber of air-bubbles arise, as in boiling, which pass out 
of the water when the congelation is slow; but when it 
is sudden, they are frozen in, and by their expansion 
cause rents in the ice. Although cold generally pro¬ 
duces contraction, ice occupies a larger space than 
water: it is hence specifically lighter and floats 
upon it. 

It is well known that stagnant water freezes sooner 
than flowing water ; perfect rest, however, seems to be 
unfavorable to freezing, for we know by experience 
that water perfectly still is not frozen when its tem^r 
perature is reduced much below the freezing point, 
but a little agitation is sufficient to change it into ice. 
Sea-water, and in general all salt water, freezes with 
greater difficulty, because the salt and other ingredi¬ 
ents retain the caloric longer. Salt is, moreover, separ¬ 
ated in the process of freezing, and precipitated to the 
bottom; so that drinkable water can be made from 
sea-water. Salts, however, produce a degree of cold 
beyond the freezing temperature, and, by means of 
them we can cool water much below the freezing point, 
while it still remains fluid. Most salts have this prop¬ 
erty, especially nitre, muriate of ammonia, and 
common salt. A degree of cold sufficient for the 
freezing of water may be produced by them in sum¬ 
mer or even over a fire. Artificial ice is formed, also, 
by exposing pure water in proper vessels to such 
freezing mixtures. The more severe the cold, the 
greater the hardness and firmness of the ice. The 
ice of the polar regions can hardly be broken with a. 
hammer. See Freezing point, page 543. 


Strength of Ice. Ice two inches thick will bear 
men on foot. Ice four inches thick will bear men on 
horseback. Ice six inches thick will bear cattle and 


teams with light loads. Ice eight inches thick will 
bear teams with heavy loads. Ice ten inches thick 
will sustain a pressure of 1,000 pounds per square 
foot. This supposes the ice to be sound throughout 
its whole thickness, without “snow-ice.” 

Besides the ordinary signification of water solidi¬ 
fied by cold, ice denotes concreted sugar and ice¬ 
cream. We give two or three recipes for that fancy 
dish called “ice.” 

Lemon Ice. Lemon juice and water, each ^-pmt; 
strong syrup, i pint; the rind of the lemons should be 
rasped off, before squeezing, with lump sugar, which 
is to be added to the juice; mix the whole; strain 
after standing an hour, and freeze. Beat up with a 
little sugar the whites of two or three eggs, and as the 
ice is beginning to set, work this in with the spatula, 
which will much improve the consistence and taste. 

Raspb erry or Strawberry Ice. One-half gallon 
of the fruit, the juice of a lemon, a jxjund of sugar, or 
I pint of strong syrup, J^-pint of water. Rub the 
fruit through a sieve, mix and freeze. 

Ice-Cream, frozen cream, flavored and sweetened. 

Self Freezing Ice-Cream. One quart rich milk, 
8 eggs, whites and yolks beaten separately and very 
light; 4 cups sugar, 3 pints rich sweet cream, and 5 
teaspoonfuls vanilla or other seasoning, or i vanilla 
bean, broken in two, boiled in the custard, and left in 
until it is cold. Heat the milk almost to boiling, beat 
the yolks light, add the sugar, and stir up well. Pour 
the hot milk to this, little by litthf, beating all the 
while. Put in the frothed whites, and return to the 
fire—boiling in a pail or sauce-pan set within one of 
hot water. Stir the mixture steadily about 15 min¬ 
utes, or until it is thick as boiled custard. Pour into 
a bowl and set aside to cool. When quite cold, beat 
in the cream, and the flavoring, unless you have used 
the bean. Have ready quite a quantity of ice, cracked 
in pieces not larger than a pigeon egg—the smaller 
the better. You can manage this easily by laying a 
great lump of ice between two folds of coarse sacking 
or an old carpet, tucking it snugly, and battering it, 
through the cloth, with a sledge-hammer or mallet 
until fine enough. Use an ordinary old-fashioned up¬ 
right freezer, set in a deep pail. Pack around it closely, 
first, a layer of pounded ice, then one of rock salt,— 
common salt will not do. In this order fill the pail; 
but before covering the freezer lid, remove it carefully 
that none of the salt may get in; and, with a long 
wooden ladle, or flat stick, beat the custard as you 
would batter, for five minutes, without stay or stint. 
Replace the lid, pack the ice and salt upon it, patting 





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ICE-HOUSE. 


861 


gravel or sand. There should be a drain beneath, by 
digging or boring a hole down to the ground, unless 
you have a milk-house attachment. This hole should 
be filled with gravel. The flcx)r should incline slightly 
toward the drain, so that the water from the melting 
ice may be readily carried away, while at the same 
time no air is admitted to the ice through the drain. 
The several designs and estimates given will ser\ e as 
a guide to the builder. Still cheaper plans might be 
used if the directions as to the double walls, drainage, 
etc., are followed. 

The principle of preserving ice is to prevent the 
heat from reaching it, and whatever will accomplish 
this end is to be adopted. This is the object of the 
filling between the wall and the packing about the 
ice. ^^^latever is a non-conductor of heat, therefore, 
is to be selected for this puqxjse. Keeping this prin¬ 
ciple in view, almost any man’s ingenuity can de\'ise an 
ice-honsewhich.though it maybe unlike an^Uhingelse 


that was ever built, and very rude in construction, 
will preseiwe the ice, and that is all that is wanted. 

Ice should be cut with a saw, not with an axe, into 
blocks of regular size, so that they will pack into the 
ice-house soUdly and wthout lea\'ing spaces between 
them. If cut in this manner, ice will keep perfectly 
well, if not more than three inches in thickness; but 
a thickness of six inches at least is preferable. It 
should be cut and packed in cold, freezing weather, 
and if, as it is packed, a pailful of water is thrown 
over each layer to fill the spaces between the blocks, 
and excludethe air, it will keep very much better than 
otherwise. For a day or two before the house is fill¬ 
ed, it is well to throw it open in order that the ground 
beneath it may freeze, and it may be left open a few 
days after it is filled if the weather continues cold. 


The ice-house should be finally closed during cold, 
diy- weather, and it should be opened but once in each 
day during the summer season, and then a competent 
man should remove the necessary amount of cover¬ 
ing, and take out a full supply for all purposes; then 
restore the covering, carefully packing it about the 
opening, and close the house for the day. Much 
waste follows frequent visits to the ice-house, espe¬ 
cially by unskilled persons, who dig down to the ice 
and," by much tugging, perhaps succeed in getting 
some irregular fragments, and then throw into the 
place from w’hich they took them some lose sawdust, 
throush which the air penetrates, and melts perhaps 
ten times as much ice as has been taken aw’ay in this 
veiw irregular manner of proceeding. In cold regions, 
where w'ater-courses from which ice may be cut are 
scarce, ice-houses may be filled by making large wa¬ 
ter-tight bo.xes or troughs, w'hich are filled with water 
and pennitted to treeze. As soon as the water is 

frozen solid the ice is removed, 
stored in the ice-house and the 
boxes re-filled. In this man¬ 
ner an ice-house may easily be 
filled with pure ice. A huge 
cake of ice may be fomied by 
throwing on water and allowing 
it to freeze. When sufficiently 
large it may be sawed into 
blocks and stored in the ice¬ 
house. The blocks in the ice¬ 
house may be all frozen to¬ 
gether, if the weather is cold, 
by throwing water over them, 
and leaving the doors open 
nights. 

The following are some gen¬ 
eral principles to be observed 
in the proper construction of 
any kind of an ice-house, and 
all else is of secondary im¬ 
portance. There must be per¬ 
fect drainage, and no admission 
of air beneath, ample ventila¬ 
tion and perfect diymess above, 
and sufficiently non-conduct¬ 
ing material for packing below, above and around 
the ice, by which its low temperature may be pre- 
sen'ed. The best packing consists of sawdust, either 
of piqe or hard-w-o^, spent tan, charcoal powder, oat, 
wheat or buckwheat chaff, or marsh hay. 

In Fig. I w’e give the design of an excellent ice¬ 
house with cool chambers below. The building is so 
designed that it not only affords excellent facilities for 
keeping the products of the dairy during the summer 
months, but also during winter. Attention has also 
been given to the exterior beauty, and a building of 
this nature will add greatly to the surroundings of the 
fann home besides affording the luxurj^ of ice in sum¬ 
mer and being able to preserve milk, butter, fruit, 
meats, etc., during the hot seasons. 

The principal requisites for such an ice-house as 






















































862 


ICE-HO USE. 


represented in Fig. i are: A locality where the ice can 
be expeditiously placed in the upper part, and provis¬ 
ion for drainage to carry off the waste from the ice. 
A hillside is the most convenient {xtsition for such a 
house. The method of construction is the same as 
for any other ice-house, excepting in the floor. The 
walls are double, and are filled in between with saw¬ 
dust or other non-conducting material. The roof 
should be wide in the eaves so as to shade the walls 
as much as possible, and it will be found convenient 
to have a porch around the building, on a level with 
the floor of the ice-house. The floor of the ice-house 
must be made not only water-tight, but air-tight. If 
a current of air can be established by any means 
through the floor of the house, the ice will melt away 
in a very short time. A double floor of matched 
boards should be laid, tarred at the joints, and be¬ 
tween the floors. The joists are placed so that the 
floor slopes from both sides to the center, to collect 
all waste water from the ice. A channel is made 
along the center to carry the water to the side of the 
building, where it passes off by means of a pipe, with 
an cc curve in it, to prevent access of air. Or the 

pipe may be brought 
down through the 
lower chamber, and 
made to discharge 
into a cistern, where 
the water is kept al¬ 
ways above the level 
at which it is dis¬ 
charged from the 
pipe. The method 
of this arrangement 
of the floor is shown 
in Figure 2, which 
represents a section 
Yio. ^.-Interior Vie^uo/ Cool Cha,nber. through the floOr 

and lower chamber. The shelves are seen in place 
upon the sides. Fig. 2. 

The items of material for the construction of such 
an ice-house, if on a foundation of brick or stone, may 
be estimated as follows : 

4 pieces 2 x 8 (laid on the wall in the place of sills), i6 feet long 88^ 

12 joints forlower floor, 2 x 8, i6 ft. long 
12 “ “ second “ 2 .x 12, “ “ 

7 “ “ ceiling, 2x6, “ " 

42 pieces “ studding and plates, 2 x 6, 16 ft. long 
40 “ “ rafters and sundries, 2 X 4, “ “ 

Sheeting for roof 
4 M shingles 

75 pieces i x 12, 16 ft. long, surfaced for siding and cornice 1,200 
^ harn battens for same 

Flooring for floors, ceiling and lining 2 000 

The third item in the above bill provides pieces for 
tagging on the top so as to make the floor lower in 
the center, as shown in Fig. 2. The number of win¬ 
dows and doors may be made to suit location and 
taste. 

Ice-House and Refrigerator. Fig. 3 represents 
an inexpensive contrivance for keeping milk, butter, 
and other perishable articles in hot weather. Its size 
may vary with the wants of the owner, but the larger 
the ice-chamber is, the less frequently it would require 


268 

400 

1X2 

672 

320 

400 



filling. 


if sufficienth 



Fig. 3. Elevation and Section 
Ice-house and Refrigerator. 


large, it would keep ice all 
summer. The walls (Fig. 
3) are double, and filled 
with sawdust, as common 
in ice-houses. The door, 
tz, is double, with a space 
of three or four inches in 
it, filled with sawdust to 
exclude the heat. Two 
doors, one opening out¬ 
ward, and one opening 
inward, would be more 
perfect. Whether one or 
two, they should be made 
to fit very closely. These 
doors open into the re¬ 
frigerator, which is kept 
of cool by the ice above, 
and it ma^y be lined with 
shelves. The joists, b, must be stout, so as to hold 
several tons of ice above, provided a large-sized build¬ 
ing is erected. They are cut down towards the cen¬ 
ter, so as to form a trough for the discharge of the 
water from_the melting ice. On these joists galvanized 
sheet-iron is laid. On this the ice is deposited, and 
the iron being thus kept constantly cold, cools the air 
in the apartment below, by the natural descent of the 
cold air. By sprinkling sawdust over the iron floor, 
the thawing of the ice will be retarded, and thus its 
melting and duration may be entirely controlled, ac¬ 
cording to the d^pth of this layer of sawdust. The 
door, c, receives the ice, and the 
window, tb, kept always open, is 
for ventilation. There should be 
one in each end. The freer this 
ventilation, the better the ice will 
keep—being covered with eight or 
ten inches of sawdust. It is better to line it with a 
few inches of sawdust at the sides, in addition to the 
sawdust walls. There is no use in a double roof. 

The water from the melting ice runs down into the 
trough, and thence into a lead pipe, which, being bent, 
as shown enlarged in Fig. 4, allows the water to 
escape freely, but excludes the warm air from with¬ 
out. 

Bill of Material for Above, the building being 
10x12 feet and 12 feet high, the first story 7 feet, and 
the second 4: 



Fig. 4. Section of Dis¬ 
charge Pipe. 


I'wo sills 6x8, 12 feet long, ) 

Two sills 6x8, 10 feet long, ) . 

Eight sleepers 2x8, lo feet long. 

Nine joists 2x12, 10 feet long.!!!.'!. 

Seven joists 2x6, 10 feet long, for ceiling. 

Forty-four studding 2x4, 12 feet long. 

Sixteen pieces 2x4,14 feet long, for rafters and sundries!!! 

Sheeting. 

Two and one-half M shingles. 

Siding. 

Cornice .!!!!!! 

F looring, for floors, ceiling and lining. 

One double batten door. 


Feet. 

176 

104 

180 

70 

352 

160 

250 

650 

too 

1,200 


An Ice and Fruit House Combined. The prin¬ 
cipal requisites for an ice-house with a cool chamber 
below for fruit, are: A location in which the ice can 
be handily placed in the upper part of the building. 









































































ICELAND MOSS—IMPLEMENTS. 


and facilities for drainage. A hillside naturally sug¬ 
gests itself, and will, of course, be used for the pur- 
jxDse, when it can be. However, the house can be 
built upon the level, and the ice hoisted to its place. 
The method of construction does not differ from that 
of other ice-houses, except that the floor on which the 
ice rests must be water tight as well as air tight. 
'Phis can be accomplished by laying a double floor of 
matched boards, tarred at the joints and between the 
floors. The floor should be made sloping toward the 
center, in order that the waste water may collect, 
which is carried along the channel to the side of the 
building, and is thence carried off by means of a pipe, 
which should have an xsi curve in it to prevent access 
of air; or what is still better, we think, the water can 
be discharged through a pipe leading from the center 
through the lower room, into a cistern below, in which 
the water is kept above the level at which the dis¬ 
charge is made. 

The walls should be made double, and filled in be¬ 
tween with sawdust or other non-conducting material. 
In order to provide for the weight of the ice above, 
the building must be much stronger than the ordinary 
ice-house. It is advisable to have the eaves of the 
roof pretty wide in order to shade the walls as much 
as ix)ssible. It is preferable, when at all convenient, 
to build the lower part of brick or stone. The upper 
part may be constructed of wood, or of any material. 
Ventilation in the cool chamber must be provided, 
else the fruit or vegetables will mould. This room 
can also be used as a milk room, but should not be 
used for both fruit and milk. 

Iceland Moss, a kind of lichen (li'ken or lich'en, a 
vegetable growth somewhat between a moss and 
mushroom) from the mountainous districts of Europe. 
It has a slightly bitter taste, and is used both as a 
tonic and as an article of food. As prepared for the 
table, however, its bitterness is scarcely, if at all, per¬ 
ceptible ; it has a grayish color, and the flavor of new 
rye. It is generally served up in the form of a pud¬ 
ding, blanc mange or jelly, as follows: To make one 
pint of the pudding, steep 2 ounces of the moss in 3 
pints of water for an hour or two, then simmer down 
to about I pint; add fine sugar and a little lemon 
juice. It may be improved with Yq, ounce of isinglass. 
Some prefer to have the fibrous ix>rtion separated from 
it by a sieve. 

Idiosyncrasy (id-i-o-sinTra-sy), a constitutional 
peculiarity. This term is the best and most common 
name of certain singular and unaccountable features 
in the taste and susceptibility of most people,—pecu¬ 
liarities which are really morbid. We will illustrate: 
One person cannot l)ear the taste of a tomato; an¬ 
other cannot bear the smell of cheese without be¬ 
coming sick at the’ stomach; another cannot eat 
at a table where there is a dish of any kind of 
fish prepared; another cannot bear the sight of 
an oyster, either at the table or anywhere else; 
another cannot take this medicine, another cannot 
take that; one has a partiality for dark color in all 


863 


the ornaments of a parlor, another is partial to green, 
another to blue, etc.; one has a singular passion for 
singing only sad songs, or for doleful music; another 
for copper ware for all her kitchen utensils; another 
for some other unreasonable thing. Most persons are 
more or less affected with abnormal intensity of some 
passion, taste, like or dislike, which must be regarded 
with indulgence for their comfort, but which are to be 
deprecated and worked against in the science of stir- 
piculture and rearing of children. From the above 
examples it will be seen that idiosyncrasies are the first 
step in the line of insanity—the latter term denoting 
the extreme. An idiosyncrasy in the development of 
a single faculty is called “genius.” 

Impact, or Percussion ; the force with which one 
body strikes another. The center of impact, or of 
percussion, is that point of a moving body at which 
its impetus is supposed to be concentrated. 

Imphee (ini'fee), African sugar cane. See Cane. 

Implements, tools, including the larger apparatus 
in farming, as plows, harrows, scythes, cradles, etc. 

Progress. The civilized world is a constant sur¬ 
prise to itself in respect to inventions. In the line of 
agricultural implements, it is wonderful to contem¬ 
plate the strides we have made within the present 
century, especially the last forty years. We have 
passed from the wooden-moldboard plow, of clumsy 
make, to polished steel, of the neatest fonn, some¬ 
times operated by steam; from single-plow and hoe 
cultivation to fine-toothed buggy cultivators; from 
sickles, cradles and scythes to self-binding harvesters 
and mowers drawn by horses; from flails and tread¬ 
ing by oxen and horses to steam threshers and sepa¬ 
rators ; from shelling corn an ear at a time by hand 
to large machines, run by horse or steam power, doing 
the work of many men ; from pitching hay by hand, 
an hour or two of the severest labor to each load, to 
hoisting half a load at a time by horse power, etc., etc. 
In short, farming has changed from a life of the most 
monotonous drudgery to one comparatively of play 
and romance. 

The business of manufacturing farming tools and 
machinery has become one of the great interests in 
this country, and during the last twenty-five years the 
increase has been over ten-fold. According to the 
census figures of 1880, there were 1,942 establish¬ 
ments in the United States engaged in the manufac¬ 
ture of these implements. Of these, 265 are in New 
York, 22 1 in Illinois, 220 in Pennsylvania, 158 in 
Ohio, and 143 in Michigan. The aggregate capital 
invested in the industry is $62,315,968, and the 
highest number of hands employed during the cen¬ 
sus year was 49,180, to whom $15,496,114 were paid 
in wages, while $5,791,916 were expended for lumber, 
$18,424,052 for iron and steel, and $7,878,202 for 
other material, making the total value of all materials 
used, $32,094,107. During 1880 the value of all 
agricultural implements manufactured amounted to 
$69,374,088. Of this vast sum the manufactures of 
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, 


55 






864 


INAJ^CH—INDIAN HEMP. 


and Wisconsin aggregated $45,000,000,or 64 per cent 
of the whole. In 1850, New York and Pennsylvania 
made most of the implements, but to-day the prairie 
States of Ohio and Illinois have taken their place, the 
value of the implements made in Ohio in 1880 being 
^^5)473>825,and in Illinois,$14,249,175; while those 
made in New York were worth $10,7 47,7 66, and those 
in Pennsylvania, 271,212. Altogether there were 
made of lighter implements 1,361,443 plows, 1,244,- 
264 scythes, 437,178 scythe snaths, 308,732 dozen 
hand-rakes, 211,738 dozen hay forks, and 325,057 
cultivators; while of heavier implements there were 
manufactured 72,000 mowers, 25,537 harvesters, 35,- 
337 reapers, 54,884 reapers and mowers combined, 
10,387 threshers, 10,202 cider and wine mills, 2,356 
cane-mills, 1,460 sirup-evaporators, 11,161 horse-jxjw- 
ers, 1,412 clover-hullers, 33,453 potato-diggers, 44,370 
corn-huskers, 59,157 corn-shellers, and 45,412 fan- 
ning-mills. 

The description and care of all farm implements 
are given in this volume, in alphabetical order, but 
we wish to make a few observations on the general 
care of farm implements and machinery. Every im¬ 
plement of a farm, especially every one of the more 
complicated and valuable class, ought from time to 
time be minutely inspected, in order that any part of 
it which has received damage or undergone derange¬ 
ment may be immediately repaired; for when even a 
very small or very limited injury has been sustained, 
a large portion of the implement may soon become 
seriously and extensively affected, or absolutely the 
whole be rendered unfit for use. All movable im¬ 
plements also ought, whenever they are not wanted, 
to be thoroughly cleaned, and carefull}- stored, the 
larger ones in sheds, cart-houses and plow-houses, 
and the smaller ones in the implement house. Ma¬ 
chines and implements, likewise, which are much ex- 
ixjsed to the weather, ought, every two years or so, to 
receive a new coat of paint, as a means of protecting 
them from the effects of both drouth and rain. We 
suggest to farmers generally that a little instruction 
given to the \yorkmen in the use of machines, and 
care in preserving them, would add to their efficiency 
and durability. Attention to washing implements and 
machines before laying them by, a little oil on such 
as have revolving wearing parts, and a coat of paint 
occasionally to each, will cost but little, and make the 
difference between having a machine ready for use and 
one covered with rust and wanting repair, just as the 
season for its use commences. Contrive by care and 
good management to make the implements as dura¬ 
ble as jxissible. The cost of this will be trifling com¬ 
pared with the advantage. In order to effect it, select 
the most likely agricultural laborer rpx)!! a farm, put 
the implements under his care; make it a strict rule 
with all the men that each implement done with for 
the season shall be brought to one particular place, 
say near the pond or pump; the man having charge 
of the implements must then wash and clean them 
well before putting them into the shed, and at a con¬ 
venient time, when not otherwise engaged, or during 


weather when out-door work cannot be performed, get 
them repaired and painted, if needed. At the end 
of this shed or implement house, there might be a 
lock-up workshop, with door to open into the place, 
with a few tools, paint pots, etc., the expense of which 
would be nominal in comparison with the benefit de¬ 
rived. The man should be encouraged to make his 
duty a pleasure, and to leel a pride in showing his 
employers, implements in good order. 

In-and-in Breeding. Seepage 115. 

Inarch, to unite by grafting, as a cion, to a stock, 
without separating it from its parent tree; to graft by 
’‘approach. After the union is well cemented by 
natural growth, the cion is separated from its parent 
stock. This process is of no general utility, being 
called into requisition only for a curiosity, or to save 
a rare and valuable tree. 

Incisor, one of the front teeth. (See pages 181 
and 681. 

Inclined Plane, one which has one side higher 
than the other, at least relatively. 

Incubation, sitting over, as eggs, to keep them 
warm until hatching; period of apparent repose of a 
virus in the system, between the time of catching the 
infection and the breaking out of the disease; as, for 
example, the period of incubation for the small-ix)x 
virus averages g to 14 days. For incubation of fowls, 
see page 532. 

Indian Corn. See Corn. 

Indian Mallow. This is that velvety weed, grow¬ 
ing five to six feet high, 50 rank and so common in 
the rich and neglected corners of our fields, called in 
some places, “stamp-weed,” “butter-stamp,” “button- 
weed,” “velvet-leaf,” etc. Its tough, fibrous bark is 
found to be nearly equal to hemp for rope-making. 

process for its manufacture has been invented, and 
the experiments give promise of profitable results. 
The plant will yield nearly twice as much as hemp 
to the acre, and its vigor is such that its cultivation is 
of the easiest kind. Plow the land deeply in the fall, 
and lightly in the spring; sow the seed at the rate of 
12 to 16 quarts to the acre, in the spring, in good corn 
planting time, in the same manner as hemp. In July 
it can be cut with a common reaper, shocked in the 
field the same as hemp, until cured, and the first crop 
water-rotted also like hemp. After this a second crop 
will spring up the last of July, which may be cut and 
dew-rotted in October. In cultivation the mallow will 
grow nine to fourteen feet high. The seed is separated 
from it the same as hemp. The total cost of raising 
and rotting is $20 to $30 per ton, while hemp brings 
$250 to $400 per ton. The crop is said not to exhaust 
the land, if the refuse is restored to it. The fiber is 
said to receive and retain colors well, and is good for 
carpets, rugs, etc. 

Indian Hemp, a jxiisonous East-Indian plant, 
from which hashish and some medicines are made; 
also, the name of a semi-poisonous plant growing in 
















INDIA N PON } —IND US TRIAL ED UCA TION. 


865 


the woods of the United States, and sometimes used 
in medicine. 

Indian Pony ; see page 699. 

Indian Tobacco, lobelia, the celebrated Thomp¬ 
sonian emetic. Grows sparingly in waste places 
throughout the United States. See Lobelia. 

India Rubber, gum elastic, caoutchouc, etc. To 
cement rubber which has not been vulcanized (hard¬ 
ened by compounding with sulphur), melt together 16 
parts gutta-percha, 4 parts India rubber, 2 parts com¬ 
mon calkers’pitch and i part linseed, oil, and apply 
while hot. Also good for leather. To fasten rubber 
to wood or metal, soak pulverized gum shellac in ten 
times its weight of strong ammonia, and let it stand 
3 or 4 weeks, when it will become liquid without the 
use of hot water. This will soften India rubber and, 
after volatilization of the ammonia, become hard and 
impermeable to gases and fluids. There are other 
compounds to be had through the drug stores, more 
complicated in their manufacture, which are good 
cements for India rubber. 

Indigenous Plants, plants in a wild or native 
state. The indigenous plants of the United Sta*^^es, 
for example, are such as grow naturally in the United 
States, or are not known to have been artificially in¬ 
troduced from other lands. 

Indigestion, if not merely the effect of another 
disease, is best overcome by fasting and out-door life. 
Almost any one of the ten thousand bitters and tonics 
and stimulants and sedatives and alteratives and other 
medicines will give temporary relief; but this immedi¬ 
ate effect is nearly always followed by more troubles 
in the same line or some other. 

Indigo, Several varieties of this plant are indig¬ 
enous to the Southern States, and one or more in the 
Northern, which yield inferior dye. Its cultivation in 
the South is sometimes remunerative, but never in the 
North. The Indigo plants of the East and the West 
Indies are not cultivated in this country. 

Indorser, in commerce, one who guaranties the 
payment of a note or bill by writing his name on the 
l)ack of it; also, one who recommends a thing as true 
or good. 

Industrial Education, training in the industrial 
arts, as agriculture, horticulture, gardening, carpentry, 
blacksmithing, civil engineering, and mechanics gen¬ 
erally. The giving of this kind of training at public 
schools, called colleges and universities, peculiar to 
the present century, is an outgrowth of the utilitarian 
character of the age in Christian countries, intensified 
by reaction against the time-killing studies of the dead 
languages and metaphysics of the dark ages. During 
this transitional period, when so much is said on both 
sides of this great question, we cannot give in an en¬ 
cyclopedia article even an outline of the controversy; 
but we feel abundantly warranted to state that the 
almost universal sentiment of the farming community 
and of other laboring classes is in favor of substitut¬ 


ing manual training for the old-time Greek and Latin, 
in all our public schools; and accordingly an advance 
is made in the establishment of agricultural and in¬ 
dustrial schools, almost every State having a college 
of the kind under its fostering care, as follows : 

State. Place. Name of Institution. 

Alabama.Auburn..\gricultural & Mechanical Col. of Ala. 

-Arkansas.Fayetteville.-Arkansas Industrial University. 

California.Berkeley.University of California. 

Connecticut.New Haven.Sheffield Scientific School. 

Delaware.Newark.Delaware College. 

Florida.EauGallie.Florida State Agricultural College. 

Georgia.Athens.University of Georgia. 

“ .Dahlonega. “ “ 

Illinois.Urbana.... .Illinois Industrial University. 

Indiana.La Fayette.Indiana Agricultural College. 

Iowa. Ames.Iowa State Agricultural College. 

Kansas.Manhattan.Kansas State Agricultural College. 

Kentucky.Lexington.Agricultural & Mechanical College. 

Louisiana.New Orleans-Louisiana State Agr’l & Mech. Col. 

Maine.Orono.Maine State College of 

Agriculture and the Mechanical -Arts. 

Maryland.College Station . .Maryland Agricultural College. 

Massachusetts... Boston.Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

“ ...Amherst . “ Agricultural College. 

Michigan.Lansing.Michigan State Agricultural College. 

Minnesota.Minneapolis.University of Minnesota. 

Mississippi.Oxford.University of Mississippi. 

“ .Rodney.-Alcorn University. 

Missouri.Columbia.University of Missouri. 

“ .Rolla. “ “ 

Nebraska.Lincoln.University of Nebraska 

New Hampshire.Hanover.Dartmouth College. 

New Jersey.New Brunswick.. Rutger's College. 

New York.Ithaca.Cornell University. 

North Carolina. .Chapel Hill.Universitv of North Carolina. 

Ohio.Columbus.Ohio Agriculturaland Mech. Col. 

Oregon.Corvallis.Corvallis College. 

Pennsylvania,...Centre County.. .Pennsylvania State College. 

Rhode Island .. .Providence.Brown University. 

South Carolina. .Orangeburgh.Claflin University. 

Tennessee.Knoxville.East Tennessee University. 

Texas.Bryan,.Texas Agricultural and Mech. Col. 

Vermont.Burlington.University of Vermont and State 

Agricultural College. 

Virginia.Blacksburg.Virginia Agricultural and Mech. Col. 

“ .........Hampton.Hampton Normal and Agricult. Inst. 

West Virginia... Morgantown.West Virginia LTniversity. 

Wisconsin.Madison.University of Wisconsin. 

It will be observed from the foregoing table that 
many of the industrial schools are departments of the 
old institutions, 'I'he Sheffield Scientific School at 
New Haven is under the supervision of Yale College, 
the Indiana Agricultural College is a department of 
the Purdue University, etc. In the Congressional 
land grant made about 30 years ago to the several 
States for the founding and sustaining of agricultural 
and mechanical schools, it seems to have been the 
design of the movement to exclude the most useless 
parts of the old curriculum, in order to give room for 
the more modern and practical studies; but the con¬ 
servative element was still formidable enough to 
wedge in the proviso, “and not excluding other scien¬ 
tific and classical studies,” and thus practically com¬ 
pel the progressive masses to walk somewhat in the 
old grooves. The work of modernizing, however, 
still goes on, despite the whines and growls of the old- 
school educators. In the article Education, pages 
374-381 of this work, we have spoken at length on 
some features of a practical education. 

Complaint is sometimes made by farmers that a 
large proportion of the graduates of the agricultural 
colleges do not return to the farm, but go into some 
profession or fancy business not at all akin to farming. 
The fact tliey complain of most surely exists; but 
what shall we do? Compel the boys to return to 


















































































866 


INE.R TIA—INHALE. 


farming ? or abolish the schools ? On the other hand, 
we may console ourselves that the practical education 
received by these young men at the agricultural col¬ 
leges is infinitely better for them than the Greek, 
Latin and higher mathematical education of the 
classical school is for the farmer, or, possibly, even 
for the professional man himself. 

We are aware, also, of the justness of the com¬ 
plaint against taxing the people for the support of 
schools of “ higher education ” (Greek, Latin, higher 
mathematics, etc.) and of specialties in any art. We 
know that oft the majority transgress constitutional 
or fundamental rights, oppress the minority and make 
unbelievers in a given measure sacrifice their purse 
for its support. The best we can hope for is to con¬ 
tinue to complain and instruct in first principles of 
right until there is a proper adjustment. Taking the 
history of older nations, however, as a guide to 
prophecy, the outlook for a perfect adjustment of 
rights seems gloomy; for it seems to be characteristic 
of human nature to get into the mire on one side as 
fast as it is pulled out on the other. 

We will not discuss here the value of “ book learn¬ 
ing ” in agricultural science (see page loo), further 
than to observe that very few persons are willing to con¬ 
fine all their school training and self-education to mere 
money-making art. There are pleasures in scientific 
study and mental discipline which are far superior to 
money-making or anything that money can buy. After 
you have made your money, then what } After you 
have learned farming, followed farming and made a 
fortune, what ? Very few, indeed, know how to spend 
their money, or dispose of their property after they 
have made it; and it really becomes a matter of con¬ 
sideration whether we should not spend more time in 
learning what to do with our money or property than in 
learning how to accumulate. It is all of no use to us 
except so far as we expend it for virtuous pleasure. 
Do not forget the object of life amid the turmoil of 
using the means to obtain that object. 

Inertia, the property or force of matter by which it 
retains its state of rest or motion,—requiring force to 
be started or to be stopped. 

Infant, a child too young to know right from 
wrong; in law, any person not old enough to vote for 
or hold any civil office, or hold property in his own 
trust, etc.; a minor. 

Infection, the matter of disease, whether “ conta¬ 
gious ” or not. 

Inflammation, excessive vital action, attended 
with swelling, redness and pain. This is particularly 
a local inflammation, being limited to some part of 
the body: a general inflammation is mostly in the 
skin and mucous membranes, and is called a fever. 
As a general rule, all local inflammations should be 
soothed down by fomentations or compresses (wet 
clothes or poultices) of such temperature as is most 
comfortable to the patient. Among the most efficient 
drugs for allaying inflammation are sugar of lead and 


iodine. Tincture of iodine will scatter most of them ; 
put a drop, more or less, on the place once or twice a 
day and they will gradually disappear. Even a schir- 
rous tumor may be scattered with it. It will some¬ 
times arrest what would have been a cancer, and 
ought to be kept in every house. The bottle must 
have a glass stopper, for it very soon eats up the cork. 
Sugar of lead will act in many cases, but iodine is 
both safer and better. People who are liable to these 
thingsoLight to eat but little grease or sugar in any form, 
and no buckwheat or spices or stimulating food of any 
kind. Of course, it is understood in all the above 
that so long as the cause of the inflammation exists 
there will be trouble. See also part affected. 

Influenza (in-flu-en'za), a violent form of catarrh, 
which occurs with great suddenness, and is accom¬ 
panied with debilitating fever. It often occurs in the 
manner of an epidemic, affecting many persons or 
animals in a community at once. 'Phe term is very 
loosely applied to several forms of disease attended 
with catarrhal discharges, especially among horses. 
See Catarrh, page i68. For influenza in the horse, 
see page 8oi. 

Infusion, the medicated liquid obtained by soak¬ 
ing or steeping in it some organic substance. No 
particular rules can be laid down as to the quantity 
of each article required. It will, however, serve as 
some sort of guide, that we generally use from one to 
two ounces of aromatic herbs and roots to every 
quart of fluid. A bitter infusion, such as wormwood 
or camomile, requires less of the herb. All kinds 
of infusions can be rendered palatable by the addi¬ 
tion of a small quantity of honey or molasses. As a 
general rule, the human palate is a good criterion; 
for if an infusion be too strong or unpalatable for a 
man, it is unfit for cattle or sheep. 

An infusion of either of the following articles is 
valuable in colic, both flatulent and spasmodic, in all 
classes of animals; caraway, peppermint, spearmint, 
fennel seed, angelica, bergamot, snakeroot of several 
kinds, anise seed, ginseng, etc. 

Inhale, to draw into the lungs, by the breath. 
Medicated vajxir of many kinds are invented for in¬ 
halation, in the treatment of throat and lung com¬ 
plaints, but very few of them are either safe or efficient. 
The substances generally used for this purpose are 
vinegar, camphor, benzoin, ether and chloroform, the 
two last being used as anaesthetic agents to induce in¬ 
sensibility, and are inhaled by an apparatus specially 
adapted_ fox the purpose; the others are generally 
thrown into boiling water, and the watery fumes, 
charged with the medicament employed, are inhaled 
through a tube. Great relief is often found in con¬ 
gestive asthma from inhalation of steam or smoke; for 
this purix)se an inhaler should be half filled with 
boiling water mixed with about a dessert-spoonful of 
strong acetic acid or half a drachm of sulphuric ether 
or a few drops of creosote, which being jxiured on the 
hot water and the lid firmly secured, the patient is to 
adjust the mouthpiece to his lips, and slowly inhale 












IN/ECT—INSANIT Y. 


867 


the impregnated vapor that rises through the tube, 
retaining the steam as long as convenient in the 
mouth. Whatever article is used for the inhalation, 
the quantity employed should be steadily increased, 
and the operation always commenced with a small 
dose. Inhalation of the steam of plain warm water, 
sage or balm tea, or a decoction of camomile and 
ixtppy-heads, poured into the inhaler, will often afford 
very great relief, and more particularly when used al¬ 
ternately with any of the above articles—acetic acid, 
ether, etc. See also the respective diseases, either of 
man or beast, where inhalation may be practicable. 

Inject, to throw in; in medical treatment, to force 
medicated fluid under the skin (see Hypodermic Syr¬ 
inge) or throw water or other fluid into the bowels 
(rectum) by a syringe. 

Injection, a throwing in, as fluid into the bowels 
or under the skin; a clyster; an enema. A common 
enema is an injection of tepid water, to relieve consti¬ 
pation or diarrhoea. 

Ink, To Make. Although at the present day it is 
generally cheaper to buy ink at the book or drug¬ 
stores, a ten-cent bottle at a time, than to make ink 
at home, we give two or three of the best recipes for 
making ink. 

Recipe for black ink that»will not freeze: Five 
ounces extract logwood, ounce bichromate of potash, 
kt ounce prussiate of potash, 2 gals, alcohol. Put the 
logwood in the alcohol cold, bring to a boil, then put 
in the bichromate and prussiate of potash, and boil 
five minutes. 

Or, mix with a gallon of pure soft water, and stir in 
well, 12 ounces of coarsely powdered Aleppo galls; 6 
of chipped logwood; 5 of protosulphate of iron; 5 of 
gum Arabic ; and two of dry sugar. 

Indelible Ink. Six cents’ worth of lumar caustic; 
I drachm of salt of tartar, one quarter ol an ounce of 
gum Arabic. 

Sympathetic or Invisible Ink. Onion juice, or 
lemon juice, or sulphuric acid and sugar, or blue vi¬ 
triol and sal ammoniac, etc., will be invisible until 
heated. Other substances, when used in writing, are 
invisible until moistened with water or some chemi¬ 
cal solution. 

Ink Stains, To Eradicate; see Stains. 

Inoculate, to insert eyes, or buds ; to bud. See 
Budding. In medical language, it is to propagate a 
disease by the transfer of its virus to another individ¬ 
ual,—also called “vaccination.” 

Insanity, literally, want of mental soundness. 
We have a number of terms in the English language 
denoting various degrees of insanity; as genius, idio¬ 
syncrasy, eccentricity, peculiarity, simple-mindedness, 
imbecility, mental aberration, derangement, unsound¬ 
ness of mind, craziness, frenzy, foolishness, doltish¬ 
ness (dunce, blockhead, etc.), folly, want of balance, 
furor, stupidity, melancholy, mania or madness (see 
Monomonia), idiocy, etc., besides several terms from 


other languages, as non compos mentis, insipientia, 
dementia, etc. There are also numerous slang phrases, 
as “ kink in the head,” “ bee in the bonnet,” “cracked 
brain,” “off his balance or pegs,” “cranky,” beside 
himself,” “out of his mind,” etc., etc. Most of these 
terms are too much used in scoffing, being applied to 
sound men and women who simply differ from us in 
opinion. The more ignorant and uncultured one is, 
the more he is given to applying these epithets to 
men of wisdom. 

Idiocy applies to one who is born with so little in¬ 
tellect as to be irresponsible for his acts, and insanity 
to one upon whom mental unsoundness has been in¬ 
duced some time after birth. The latter is sometimes 
curable, the former never. A person, moreover, may 
be physiologically insane and not legally so; that is, 
he may be partially insane, but not so much so as to 
be irresponsible for his actions; he may still know right 
from wrong; and so far as he does know right from 
wrong, he is not “insane” in the sense of the law. 

Practically, the most important things for us all to 
know are the signs of in-coming insanity; for it gener¬ 
ally creeps on so slyly that the family or inmates of 
the house where the patient resides have a deal of 
trouble, explaining and quarreling, etc., before it is 
fully determined what is the difficulty. Difference of 
opinion, accompanied with ugliness of temper or un¬ 
willingness to compromise, is not evidence of real in¬ 
sanity, although it is of wickedness; but, as medical 
jurists have already agreed, the first reliable evidence 
of real insanity is the commission of acts (or omission) 
which are clearly aimless and cannot be regarded by 
any one as effecting any good whatever for the subject 
himself; as, eating clay or sand, pricking the skin in 
various places as if only to see it bleed, unnecessarily 
freezing or burning one’s self, standing with arms ex¬ 
tended, beatingthe ground, making constantly an un¬ 
musical noise, saying things that have no sense, 
remaining disagreeably silent and sullen, persisting in 
ridiculous postures, etc. Of course the acts of those 
who are near the dividing line between sanity and in¬ 
sanity will be confusing, and there are indeed many 
people at that point. It is difficult to distinguish their 
acts from those of a dunce or an unusually depraved 
person. In nature there is no more definite line be¬ 
tween sanity and insanity than there is between heat 
and cold, although the terms in both instances are 
of opposite meaning. No person becoming insane 
will ever acknowledge himself becoming so, but 
rather regard most, if not all, other peoples a insane. 
This conduct may in fact be regarded as a second 
evidence of approaching insanity. 

As insanity is nearly always due to the action of 
physical causes since the birth and childhood of 
the patient, the treatment consists mainly in ferret¬ 
ing out the causes and removing them; and the 
treatment is therefore physical rather them men¬ 
tal. The most common causes are dyspepsia, dis¬ 
ordered viscera,uterine diseases, nervous diseases, brain 
diseases, mental troubles coming in heaps, etc. 1 he 
last mentioned class comprise love affairs, deaths of 






868 


INSECTS. 


I 


friends or relatives, loss of property, disapix)inted 
ambition, etc. 

Bromide of potassium, 5 to lo grains three times 
daily, is the most common medicine given at insane 
asylums where a disordered brain is supposed to be 
the primary trouble; but tlie various schools of medi¬ 
cine differ, of course, very widely as to any prescribed 
course of medical treatment. We all know we are 
right, however, in endeavoring to remove the sup¬ 
posed cause of the malady and in administering the 
usual laws of health, as taught and agreed upon by all 
the schools. These are given under the head of 
Hygiene in this volume. Excursions and cheerful 
company are very important where mental troubles 
have been the cause of the disorder. 

In this country all the States and Territories pro¬ 
vide by statute for the care of the insane, at the ex¬ 
pense of their relatives wherever practicable. If the 
patient is not dangerous to other people, and his rel¬ 
atives prefer to keep him at home, of course they are 
allowed to do so. Whenever a case is developed in a 
family, let them report the matter to the overseer of 
poor, or a similar officer appointed for the purpose, 
and they will be advised what to do. Generally a 
jury will be called to investigate and decide the case. 

Our older States have one, two or three immense 
institutions for the care of the insane, at the expense 
mainly of the public; and they are generally full of 
patients. It seems to be settled that insanity is on 
the increase in the United States, due to disapiXDinted 
ambitions, loss of property, hurried living, foolish med¬ 
ication and intemperance of all kinds. Consider¬ 
ing the nature of the causes, it seems a hopeless task 
for a few men to undertake to arrest the tide, and 
philanthropists have to patiently work and wait in the 
field of physical education and mental discipline. 
While “the wise man foreseeth the evil and hideth 
himself, the simple pass on and are punished.” 

Insects, animals having a jointed body, composed 
of three distinct parts,—the head, the thorax and the 
abdomen,—the thorax furnished with six legs, and 
usually a pair or two of wings, and the abdomen with 
small holes, called “ spiracles,”along the sides, through 
which the creatures breathe. Formerly spiders, 
“sow bugs,” shrimps and other Crustacea, and even 
worms, etc., were loosely referred to as insects; but 
at the present day the term “insect ” comprises only 
that class of animal forms as described above and ex¬ 
emplified by beetles, bugs, flies, bees, gnats, mosqui¬ 
toes, grasshoppers, locusts, fleas, lice, bed-bugs, etc. 

Insect life is generally divided into four very marked 
stages,—the egg, the larva, the pupa and the perfect 
state. The egg is also called ozmm, plural the 
larva (plural larvd) is Englished into larve, plural 
larves, —sometimes called the “worm form;” the pupa 
(plural piipcB) is sometimes called chrysalis or chrysa¬ 
lid, plural chrysalids; and the “ perfect,” “developed ” 
or “winged” state, the iznago, plural iniagos. The 
changes which insects undergo from the egg to the 
imago are called “transformations,” or “metamor¬ 


phoses. ” Some insects undergo only a partial 
transformation. 

A very few insects do not lay their eggs, but retain 
them in the body till they are hatched, and thus they 
are called “ ovoviviparous.” Most insects layeggs, and 
lay them where the young as soon as hatched will 
find a plentiful supply of food. 

Insects proper are divided into seven sub-orders, 
as follows: 

1. HYMENOPTERA,or Membraiious-winged Insects, as 
bees, wasps, ichneumon flies, saw-flies, ants and their 
allies. The hinder pair of wings are smaller, and all 
the wings are traversed by a few irregularly branching 
veins. These insects have four jaws, the upper pair 
hard and fitted for biting, the lower pair softer, adapt¬ 
ed for collecting honey. The females have stings. 

2. Lepidoptera, or Scaly-winged Insects, as but¬ 
terflies and moths. The “ scales ” are a fine dust, 
which readily comes off upon the fingers when one 
handles them. These insects have two pairs of wings, 
a long sucking tongue which rolls up like a watch- 
spring when not in use, and five-jointed feet. Their 
larves are called “caterpillars,” and have 10 to 16 
legs. The wings of the butterflies are erect when 
at rest while those of the moths lie flat. Butterflies 
are diurnal in their habits, moths mainly nocturnal. 

3. Diptera, or Two-winged Insects, as flies, mos¬ 
quitoes and their allies. These insects have sucking 
tubes as mouths, accompanied with sharp bristles for 
cutting into or piercing objects upon which they feed. 
The larves of the flies are called maggots. They are 
footless, and many of them are noted for subsisting 
upon carrion. 

4. Coleoptera, or Sheath-winged Insects, as bee¬ 
tles. Beetles are so well known and so distinctly 
marked that no particular description is necessary for 
their identification. The number of species is count¬ 
ed by thousands. 

5. Hemiptera, or bugs, cicadas or harvest-flies, 
plant-lice, parasitic lice on man and animals, bed¬ 
bugs, etc. The principle upon which these are class¬ 
ed together is this : They have the mouth parts in the 

• form of a slender horny beak, consisting of a horny 
sheath, containing three stiff and intensely sharp 
bristles. When not in use, this beak is bent under 
the body and lies upon the breast. 

6. Orthoptera, or Straight-winged Insects, as 
grasshoppers, katydids, cockroaches, crickets and 
their allies. Their wings lie straight along the top. or 
sides of the back, the upper ones being somewhat 
thick and opaque, and sometimes slightly overlap¬ 
ping, and the under ones larger, thin, and in plaits. 

7. Neuroptera, or Nerve-winged Insects, as drag¬ 
on-flies and kindred insects. Dragon-flies are also 
called “devils darning-needles,” “snake doctors,” etc. 
These insects have four membranous net-veined 
wings, the hinder ones largest, the mouth furnished 
with jaws and the abdomen destitute of sting and 
piercer. In some the transformation is complete, in 
others only partial. 
















INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


869 


Insects, Injurious. Were we to state the annual 
loss to our country caused by insect depredations, very 
few would believe us. In Illinois alone, by one in¬ 
sect, on one crop in one season, the loss was over 
$32,000,000. Some of our productions, for instance 
our plum crop, have been generally given entirely 
over to our enemies, and hence are little thought of. 
Other of our crops are so constantly raised on thirds, 
the insects taking one or two-thirds, that we have ceased 
to possess any idea of a full yield, and so take no heed 
of our loss. Still other of our products are cut off, 
withered or dwarfed, and the cause is like the wind; 
we see the effects thereof, but know not whither it 
cometh. Hence it is that nearly all, even those most 
closely interested, have no conception of the magni¬ 
tude of their losses from these causes. Take the 
apple-tree and its product, for example; there are no 
less than six insects which seriously affect its vigor by 
despoiling it of foliage; four are engaged with too 
good success in hastening death by mining the trunk; 
at least two are sucking the vital fluid from the roots, 
while no less than five are demonstrating, by actual 
works, that they appreciate good apples, and mean to 
gratify their appetites, man’s interest notwithstanding. 
Seventeen on one! Isn’t it time to demand fair play? 
We have no doubt that could we rescue the spoils 
from all our insect banditti for three successive years, 
they would more than cancel our national debt. 
Surely such a statement ought not to be received with 
indifference, nor will it be by the thoughtful and enter¬ 
prising. The best success with all our fruits, even 
apples, demands the planting of a succession of 
orchards; but proper attention to this insect question 
would greatly broaden the intervals of planting. Many 
orchards have gone on giving ever-increasing returns 
for 50 years, and single trees for more than 100 years. 
Nor need we doubt but that with wise precaution 
such experience may be oft repeated. 

But it is often asked, “ What does this important 
question demand for its solution, and has past ex¬ 
perience given us any hope that it may be solved?” 
We briefly answer : Earnest, persistent study and re¬ 
search by the most capable men; and secondly, that 
our practical men, those directly interested, should all 
take “the bull by the horns,”—in other words, that, 
there should be such interest elicited, through 
grange and club, that every man in every neighbor¬ 
hood of our country should give battle in lines already 
marked out, and adopt new ones and better ones as 
soon as they were suggested by the investigators. As 
well say that all the children of a neighborhood would 
be gentle, courteous and beautiful in heart and soul 
because one man gave good and wholesome training, 
as to say that insects could be kept at bay without 
concert of action. Suppose one farmer in a com¬ 
munity instils into the lives of his children correct 
moral principles, will that insure the safety of his 
apples and melons ? To be sure, his property will be 
saf^er for this wisdom. No more can the codling moth 
or curculio be exterminated by one man, though his 
persistent action would benefit himself and even his 


neighbors. No ; the means must be generally made 
known to all farmers and fruit-growers, and then all 
must be fired with such zeal that practice may keep 
pace with knowledge. 

But have we results that show that such a course 
will bring us respite from these thousand ills which 
waylay us on every hand? Yes. It was found by 
the fruit men of the peach-belt of Michigan that, un¬ 
less the peach-borer was fought to the knife, this im¬ 
portant interest would prove a failure. The trees 
would all be speedily killed. It was a case of life 
and death. Sluggish humanity woke up. Every¬ 
body rushed to the fight, and the beautiful peach 
orchards flourished. Now for the sequel: The 
peach men now tell us that that this enemy gives very 
little trouble. In the same region the curculio, which 
had utterly whipped us out of the plum culture, 
driving us from the field and taking undisturbed pos¬ 
session, came all undaunted, flushed with success, 
and cried surrender to the peach men. The latter, 
armed with chips, mallets, one and two-wheeled artil¬ 
lery, soon brought the little Turks down. “That 
bright dream was their last;” and now the fruit men 
tell us they have no fears of the curculio, and more, 
that these little snout-beetles are yearly growing less. 
Dr. Trimble and a live farmer’s club so aroused the 
people of Vineland, New Jersey, to action that the 
fruit and region have gained a high reputation as 
being void of insects. The people at Old Mission, 
Mich., enforce their edict that all shall enlist in the 
insect battle. If such action does not attract a society 
worthy their climate, soil and position, then the future 
cannot be judged by the past. Had we space, we 
would give many other examples, both from home and 
abroad, that fully sustain the position that real, ear¬ 
nest, persistent effort, and that, too, right in the line 
of the fullest pocket,—the best financial prosperity,— 
is all that is required to rid us of those foes that re¬ 
quire so large a share of our gains, and often make us 
look sad and discouraged in view of our prospects. 

Our insect enemies are counted by the thousands, 
and that practical knowledge requisite to successfully 
combat their noxious work demands large libraries, 
costly apparatus and prolonged study. In view of 
the extent and intricacy of this subject, no less than 
its practical importance, we have planned to formulate 
in this article that part of our practical knowledge 
which bears directly on the remedy and cure for insect 
depredations, in the hope that it might assist the 
farmer and fruit-grower to work intelligently and 
efficiently, even though they possess but a limited 
knowledge of the insects themselves. , 

Insect Transformations. Most if not all persons 
know that insects are wondrously different in success¬ 
ive stages of their development from the egg to the 
mature state. How seemingly wide apart are the 
maggot or larva of the meat-fly, which so vexes the 
good housewife, the motionless, apjrarently lifeless, 
seed-like pupa, and the buzzing fly; yet all are but 
different stages of the self-same insect. Our cabbage 
butterflies experience equally striking transformations. 







870 


INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


'I'he caterpillar is green, worm-like and disgusting to 
the cook who attempts to prepare the savory vegetable 
for the noon-tide meal. The chrysalis is gray, in¬ 
active, and, as it swings from its silken cord, would 
seem void of all possibility of future mischief. The 
butterfly is white, dotted with black, graceful of 
motion as it slowly wings its flight from garden to 
garden, and, with its short sucking tube and frail body, 
would seem little capable of the serious mischief which 
it scatters with its tiny green eggs that it glues thick 
and wide to the cabbage plants. 




Fig. 2.— Apple-- 
Lea/ Grumpier, 


Fig. I, —Adelges of the Spruce, (Chermes abietzcolens ?) 

Chrysalis on the left, imago on the right. 

Most insects, like the one just referred to, are only 
destructive while in the worm-like or larval stage. 
Thus the maggot of the Hessian fly or wheat midge is 
what robs the farmer’s pockets often to the tune of 
millions. It is the caterpillars, not the moths, which, 
as cut-worms, sometimes destroy whole fields of grow¬ 
ing corn. It is the white grub, not the May beetle, 
that causes the corn and grass to 
wither often for acres in extent. The 
wire worm or grub, not the parent snap¬ 
ping beetle, is what blights the grain 
fields. The caterpillars known as 
army worms, not the graceful moths 
which only lay the eggs, are what 
.. . devastate the oatfields, sometimes 

( ycita ebuio.) throughout entire neighborhoods, couii- 
ties, or even States. The same truth is illustrated in 
the orchard. The canker-worm, the tent caterpillar, 
die apple worm, the borers, the slugs are all larvae of 
insects which in maturity would be entirely harmless, 
except that they laid the eggs which hatched and thus 
gave rise to the terribly destructive larvje. 

On the other hand, a few insects like the destruct¬ 
ive rose-chafer, and the small but ravenous striped 
cucumber-beetle are most 
troublesome, often only 
destructive, when in the 
mature state. Other in¬ 
sects, like the Colorado 
jxitato beetle, which has 
worked such ruin in its de¬ 
vastating march across our 
country, and the bugs and 
locusts, are not content to 
feast and destroy only while 
in the larval stage, but con¬ 
tinue their voracious habits 
even to their death. Some of these insects, as illus¬ 
trated in the Western locust or grasshopper, do 
their very worst damage when in the mature state. 



Fig. 3. —Army 
mancus.) 


Worm. (.Agriotes 


Species. We give illustrations of most of the in¬ 
jurious insects, in alphabetic order as nearly as we 
can. Some of them have no common names. 



Fl .. —Dynastes Tityus, 


Adelges of the Spruce. Found in abundance 
on the spruce in Maine, where it produces swellings 
at the ends of the twigs, in size and form resembling 
the cones of the same tree. The true length of this 
insect is imdicated by a hair line in the cut. Fig. i. 

Apple-leaf Crumpler: see page 19. The lower 
part of the cut represents a horn-like case webbed to 
a dead leaf and enclosing the worm form of the moth. 

Army Worm ; see Wheat. 

Bark Lice: see Lice, in this article, and respect¬ 
ive trees which they infest. 

Beetles. These are characterized by crust-like 
wing-covers, and are often called “bugs” by the un¬ 
scientific. Fig. 4 gives a fine 
view of a magnificent beetle, 
found toward the South. It 
has no common name, and 
we give the engraving here to 
illustrate the beetle form, al¬ 
though this species is not 
known to be injurious. It 
burrows in old wood. 

Bacon Beetle: see page 43. 

Bliste 7 ' Beetle (Lytta cine- 
rea and atrata). These soft- 
shell, long-necked, trim beetles 
are frequently injurious to 
various vegetables and flow¬ 
ers. They are half an inch long, narrow oblong 
square, and one is ash-colored and the other coal 
black. They sometimes attack beans and asters, and 
make quick work with whatever falls a prey to their 
voracious habits. It is supposed the larvse feed on 
the roots of grass and other plants. The beetles ap¬ 
pear in early summer and autumn. The best 



Fig. 5. — Bacon Bet He. (Der- 
mestes lardarius.) 
a,larva ; antenna ; c, beetle. 




























INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


way to manage them is to jar them ofif upon a sheet, 
and scald or crush them. 


T 


Cucumber Beetle, Striped. This species is very 
destructive to tire cucumber, melon and squash, at¬ 
tacking the roots and boring into the lower part of 

the stem in the larval 
or grub state, while the 
perfect beetle feeds on the 
tender leaves when the 
plants are young, and on 
the buds and young shoots 
of the older plants. It is 
very common and often 
I inflicts heavy damage on 
the vegetable gardener by 
its depredations. It is 
nearly one quarter of an 
inch long and half as 
wide, of a bright or pale 
yellow ground color, the 
head is usually black, but 

¥10.6.—Striked Cucumber Beetle. UOt alwayS, aS it is SOmC- 

back^vtT'c^fllrTaf;, side view VSlloW; the thoraX 

of same. yellow, with two black dots 

near the middle; wing-cases with a rather broad 
black stripe along the middle of each, and a narrow 
black border entirely around each. The beetles make 
their appearance in the spring from the 
middle of April to early in June, ac¬ 
cording to latitude, feeding for a short 
time on the tender leaves of various 
plants until the cucumber plants begin 
Fi. j.— Beetle to develop, wlieu they turn their atten- 
■ /or Ft/. 6 , these. After they have paired, 

the female deposits her eggs near the roots of these 




Fig.8 .— Death Watches, (a, Anobium paniceum; Ptinus brunneus.) 

vines; the grub which hatches from these is very 
slender, and when full-grown is about one-third of an 
inch long and not thicker than an ordinary knitting- 
needle. As soon as hatched, the worm commences 
to work upon the stem, eating the bark and perfora¬ 
ting and hollowing out the lower portion of the stem 
which is in the ground, sometimes* even working up 
above the surface. In about a month, according to 
Dr. Shinier, from the time the egg is laid the larvae 
complete their growth; they then enter the earth and 
form little cells, where they enter upon the pupa state, 
which lasts about a fortnight before they are trans- 


87 r 


formed into beetles. There are about three broods 
each year, the last of which passes the winter in the 
pupa state in the ground. 



Fig. g.— Grape.Vi)ie Flea Beetle. (Haltica chalybea.) a. grape leaf 
eaten by young larvae; b. larva magnified ; c. earthen cell in which the 
insect transforms; beetle. 

“Death Watch.” There are two species of beetle, 
insects, too, of two entirely different sub-orders, which 
make ticking sounds like a watch. The two illus¬ 
trated in Fig. 8 infest books. See page 100. 

Grape-Vine Flea Beetle. This is a well-known 
little, blue flea beetle, which infests the grape-vines, 
feeding on the buds in the earlier part of the season, 
and when the leaves have expanded, transferring its 
attacks to them. It measures a little over one-eignth 
of an inch in length, the width being just half the 
length. The thorax is but little narrower than the 
wing-cases, being fully three-fourths as broad as the 



Fig. 10.— Beetle. (Phyllophaga fiisca.) r, pup.a in its earthen 
cell; 0, 4, beetle, side and back view. 

latter; it is marked with a cross furrow. It is usually 
steel-blue, but the color varies considerably, the shade 
of blue varying from violet to deep blue and even to 
green; the antennae and feet being black or blackish. 





























INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


87 2 





Fio. II .—Striped Potato 
Beetle. (Epicauta vit- 
tata.) 


They pass the winter in the beetle state wherever 
they can find shelter in the vineyard or in the vicinity 
of grape-vines. As soon as the warmth of spring 
arouses them to activity they commence operations 
on the buds, and as soon as the leaves expand they 
deposit their minute orange-col¬ 
ored eggs upon them. From these 
are hatched dark brown larvte, 
usually in the latter part of May 
or early part of June. These 
usually feed on the upper side of 
the leaves, which they eat into 
holes, completely riddling them 
when numerous. When full grown they descend into 
the ground in order to undergo their transformations, 
the second brood of beetles appearing in the latter 
part of June or first part of July. They feed on 
wild and cultivated grape-vines .and the alder. 

Lady Bug, or Lady Bird. Not injurious. See 
further on, under head of Insects, Friendly. 

May Bug. The insects of this family have the 
attennae short, with a distinct club at the end com- 
[X)sed of three plates or leaves, opening like the leaves 
of a book; the tip of the abdomen is always exposed, 
the extremity of the wing-cases not curving down be¬ 
hind to cover it. As a general rule the species are 

o b lo n g, more or 
less cylindrical in 
fomi and fleshy, so 
that they fly heav¬ 
ily, the abdomen 
hanging down. 
They are generally 
of a uniform chest¬ 
nut brown color. 
The claws of their 
feet' are notched 
or split at the tip 
like the point of a 
pen. In the per¬ 
fect or beetle state 

Vio. xi.-Stag Beetle. (Lucanus dam.-i.) they feed UpOn the 

leaves of fruit and other trees, often doing serious dam¬ 
age, their split claws admirably adapting them to this 
mode of life. As evening and night is their usual 
time of flying and feeding, the cause of the injury 
they do is often overlooked by those unacquainted 
with their habits. The lai^'^se or worms from which 
they are produced are thick, fleshy, white grubs, with 
dark or l)rown heads ; 
they are generally en¬ 
larged more or less to¬ 
ward the posterior end, 
the last segment being 
the largest, and mark¬ 
ed with an indentation 
across the tip; they have 
the usual six thoracic 
legs; the usual j)osition 
is on the side and coiled 
into a semi-circle; the back is transversely wrinkled. 


Fig. 13. — Two-Siripcd Tortoise Beetle. 
(Cassida bivittata.) 2, larva; 3, pupa; 
4, beetle. 



These have generally received the name “white 
grubs.” Some of the species remain in this state for 
three years, feeding upon the roots of grasses and 
other plants, such as strawberries, corn, vegetables 
and even nqrsery stock. 

May Beetle. This species is of an almost chestnut- 
brown color, though the head and thorax are some¬ 
times darker brown or almost black, 
the breast is almost covered with pale, 
silken hairs. The wing cases, though 
bearing two or three very slightly ele¬ 
vated flattened ridges, are not grooved. 
It varies in length from three-fourths 
inch to one inch, the width across 

lined Potato Bie'J^'^^ "'’dest part being about one-half 
He. Crioceris tri- the length. It is iiot hair}' above, as 
is the case with another very similar 
species which is quite common in some parts of the 
country. The beetles generally make their appear¬ 
ance in the latter part of May or June, according to 
the season or latitude; in the Southern and Central 
portiojis of Illinois they sometimes appear in the 
early part of May. In April, when the ground is be¬ 
ing plowed or spaded, often hundreds of them are cast 
out already in the perfect state; but then they are of 
a pale, creamy color. They usually emerge from the 
ground about dusk in the evening, and as soon as 
their wings are sufficiently dried, take flight, which 
often continues until late in the night, and if caught 

at this time and exam- 


Fig. 14. — Three- 


Fig. 15. —Larva ogSpring Beetle. 
Elater. 


ined they will be found 
paler than we have de¬ 
scribed them. Some¬ 
times they move in 
large swarms or bodies, making a buzzing noise as 
they pass along just overhead. Their term of life in 
the perfect state is short, not extending more than 
two or three weeks; having paired they deposit their 
eggs in or near the ground and die. Yet when they 
appear in large numbers, as is sometimes the case, 
they prove quite destructive to fruit and ornamental 
trees by denuding them of their leaves, and as they 
hide during the day and feed at night, the agricultur¬ 
ist is often at a loss to divine the 
cause of the injury. The eggs of 
this species are globular in form; a 
little less than one tenth of an inch in 
diameter, of a clear, watery color, and 
according to Riley, are deposited be¬ 
tween the roots of grass enclosed in a 
ball of earth ; others contend that the 
beetle deposits them in the ground. 

I 1 , xt.—Spr 3 ng 

it IS in the grub state that they Beetle. Eiater. 
prove most injurious to vegetation, attacking the roots 
of various useful plants, especially grass, which is 
often severed beneath the surface to such an extent 
that the sward may be turned up like a carpet. 
Wheat, corn, strawberry plants, nurser>' stock, and 
even young trees also, suffer from their attacks. As a 
usual thing they appear in considerable numbers in a 
locality for a year or two, but when they arrive at the 
































INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


^73 









perfect state disappear, and are not troublesome 
for several years. As a general rule they trouble corn, 


wider as they diverge from the line where the eggs are deposited; 2, 
another view of the same, showing the hole made by the exit of the 
beetle; 3, beetle, both magnified and natural size; 4,larva, the same; 5, 
pupa magnified. 

a short time, is developed a larva that attaches 
itself to the white-grub, and finally destroys it. 


b c 

Fig. 17.— Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. Saperda Candida, n, larva; 

b, pupa; c, beetle. 

wheat and nurseries most where these are put in 
ground which for some time previous was in grass. 

Neither this nor any of the 
allied species appear to be 
subject to the attacks of any 
true parasites; but they are 
eaten by certain carnivorous 
animals, as the skunk, rac¬ 
coon, etc.; domestic fowls 
greedily devour them, as also 
do certain birds; the preda¬ 
cious ground-beetles also 
prey upon them,—each in 
this way aiding in keeping 
them in check. Prof. Riley 

Fig. zS.-R/a/-headed Apple- IS inclined to believe that a 

tree Borer. Chrysobothris certain digger-wasp (Tiphia 
femorata. a. larva; pupa; . . v . ” 

c, under side of head; bee- inomata) IS a genuine para- 

site on these insects, which 
he thinks attaches an egg to ths grub, from which, in 


Fig. ig.— Hickory Bark Borer. Scolytus quadrispinosus. i, show; 
the burrows of the larvae between the bark and the wood, growing 


C' 

21.— 'Bosieichus lasillare; 

pupa; c, beetle. 


r 

larva; 6 


Fig. 20. —Imported Currant Borer. zEgeria tipuliformis. a, larva; 

by eggs. 

The larva of this wasp forms a small egg-shaped 
cocoon, which varies in length from half to three- 
quarters of an inch, and is pale brownish or buff 

y, j, color. This wasp 
varies in length 
from a little less 
than half to three- 
fifths of an inch, 
and is. of jet black 
color; the wings 
smoky or dusky. 

The grubs of 
May beetles are 
also sometimes destroyed by a parasitic cryptogamic 
plant or fungus which grows out from one or both 
corners of the mouth, in the fonn of an elongate, nar¬ 
row and somewhat flattened woody stem, which occa¬ 
sionally attai ns ^ 

several inches in 
length. This 
growth some¬ 
times greatly as¬ 
tonishes persons 
unacquai nted 
with its history, 
who suppose it 

is a plant spring- •ii.—Cabbage Butterfly. Pieris rapse. 

ing from seed taken into the body. 

To destroy the beetles, it has been recommended 
that they be shaken from the trees every evening into 
sheets, or something that will secure them. Dr. Har¬ 
ris says the best time for shaking the trees on which 
they are lodged is in the mprning, as then they do 
not attempt to fly. But this remedy is practicable 
only in a few cases where but few trees are to be ob¬ 
served, and are of sufficient value to justify a careful 


























































































874 


INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 



watch and its thorough use. In order to destroy or 
drive away the grubs from meadows and field crops, 
applications of salt have been 
recommended, and in some cases 
have been at least apparently ben¬ 
eficial. Alkalies are very obnox¬ 
ious to the grubs, and speedily 
destroy them when applied 
directly to them; but they reside 
so deeply in the soil that it is im¬ 
possible to reach them with any 
reasonable surface application. If 
repeatedly made, a n d to the 
\ Canker utmost exteut, the vegetation will 
bear until the roots and surrounding soil is perceptibly 
impregnated; it is possible that it may be rendered so 
obnoxious to them as to cause them to leave. It is 




|V\vV\' 

W 

Mm 


Fig. r/,. —Tent Caierpitjar. (Clisiocampii Americana.) 

<j, Caterpillars and their “tent.” f/, Cocoon, r. Eggs in a mass and 
protected by a natural varnish deposited by the female. 

more than probable that in the majority of cases 
reported where such applications are supposed to 
have been beneficial, they have been made the season 



Fig. 25. — Pear-Tre: Slug. Selandria cerasi. 

in which the larvje completed their growth, and that 
this was the real reason for their ceasing operations, 
and not the application. . Such applications, to be 
beneficial, should be made annuallv earlv in the 
spring. Hogs and domestic fowls are fond of the 


grubs, and as far as we will give them an opportunity 
will assist in destroying them, and in corn fields which 




Fig. 26.— Chinch Bng. Blissus leucopterus. 

a and e'ggs; r, yottng larva; tarsus; t*, larva after first-moult; 
larva after second moult; g. pnpa; It. leg; r, the beak, of tubular mouth. 

are infested it is well to turn in the former as soon as 
the corn is gathered. Late fall plowing has been 
recommended, and is doubtless beneficial to a certain 
extent; but to reach them it must 
be deep, as they retire to a con¬ 
siderable depth in order to jiass 
the winter. 

The best and perhaps the most 
effectual remedy is to starve them 
out. If the field is in meadow or 
grass, as soon as it is ascertained* 
that they are present in destruct¬ 
ive numbers, plow it up thoroughly jJ 
and give it repeated stirrings, and -f 
leave it fallow or sow it in buck- -j" 

wheat; plow late and as often as -‘- 

possible, and in the following Fig. iT.—Chinck Bug, 
spring plant it in some crop not 
allied to the grass ; that is, not ^ line below, 

wheat, corn or oats. After this it may be put in grass, 
or cereals may be cultivated, with a fair prospect of 
being free from these pests for several seasons. This 
method, although somewhat troublesome, is the only 
one that gives sure hope of success, and it possesses 
the advantage 
of being at the 
same time an 
efficient means 
of counteracting 
the wire worm 
and, to a certain 
extent, the 
chinch-bug and 
some other in¬ 
jurious species. 

'I'his species 
appears to be 
confined more 
especially to 
certain sections, 
as it seems that 
other species 

take their place bic. 28.— Codling Motk. Carpocapsa pomonella. 
in the other apple ; l>. place of entrance; d, pupa; 

sections of the c;or“’^ 
country. 









































INSEC TS^ IN/URIO US. 


^75 


Potato Beetle. The annexed engraving will look 
familiar enough to everyone. The insect comes forth 
as a beetle just as the potato plants begin to appear 
above ground. With the coming of the warm days 



Fig. 29. —Colorado Potato Beetle. (Chrysomelis lo-lineata.) 

rt, eggs; young larva; c, pupa; d, beetle; wing cover, magnified; 

the female (^/, Fig. 29) lays her cluster of orange eggs 
[a), sometimes to the number of a thousand. These 
soon hatch and the young larvae are as voracious as 
any insect in the world. For remedies, see article 
Potato. 

The beetle of Fig. 14 is about a quarter of an inch in 
length and half as wide across the wing cases; the 
sides are parallel; the thorax, which is of a shining 
orange-yellow color, is narrower than the elytra; the 
antennae are slightly enlarged toward the extremity, 
dull black; the wing cases are lemon-yellow, with a 
broad, shining black stripe on each near the outer 
margin; the inner margins black, so that when closed 
they form a central black stripe, thus showing three 
black stripes, from which the species derives its name 
trilineata, or three-lined. There are other beetles 
which, at a hasty glance, may readily be taken for 
this species, but a careful comparison with the full 
specific characters' 
givenbelow will enable 
any one to distinguish 
it. The larva may be 
distinguished from all 
other insects that feed 
upon the potato by its 
habit of covering itself 
with its own excrement, 
w h i c h, remaining 
attached to the pro¬ 
longations of the last 

segment in a mass, is jp.—pium CurcuUo. (^Conotrach- 
thrown forward over elus nenuphar.) 

hnrk Thpv a rp pupa; r, beetle; f/, crescent- 

tne OaC . y shaped wound on the fruit made 

short, thick, slug-hke by the beetle, 

worms, enlarged and arched in the middle, the thick¬ 
est jxirtion being behind the middle. When young 
they are of a dull yellow color, growing brighter as 



they increase in age; a faint stripe is visible along 
the sides, low down, and a dark line along the back; 
head and legs black. They are usually more or less 
moistened with a viscid fluid secreted from the skin. 

'I'he eggs are of a golden-yellow color, oval in 
form and about 4-iooths of an inch long, 
placed in clusters of from half a dozen to a 
dozen, usually on the underside of the leaf, 
though occasionally they are placed on the 
upper side. The eggs hatch in about two 
weeks after being deposited, and the larvae 
complete their growth in about two weeks 
more. Having completed their growth they 
descend into the ground, where they form a 
small oval cell and remain during the pupa 
state, which lasts about two weeks, when they 
emerge as perfect beetles. The species appears 
to be two-brooded during the season, the first 
beetles appearing, as a general rule, in the 
latter part of May and early in June, and again 
in the latter part of July or first of August; but 
there appears to be much irregularity in this 
y, leg. respect, as they can be found in all sizes during 
the season after they have appeared. They pass the 
winter in the perfect state, hiding beneath rubbish, 
leaves, bark, etc., and remaining torpid during the 
cold weather. ' They 
feed upon the leaves 
of the potato plant, 
both in the perfect and 
larval state, but they 
are not limited to this 
plant alone, as they 
flourish on other 
species of the same 
order. These beetles 
seldom occur in such 
numbers as to excite 
any great fear for the 
potato crop, but if they 
should at any time prove seriously injurious, it is 
probable the same remedies recommended for the 
Colorado potato beetle will be equally efficacious with 
this. 

Spring Beetle. Figs. 15 and 16 represent the worm 
and beetle forms of a large family. See page 269. 
More abundant in low, black soils and heavy clays. 
This well known species, which varies in length from 
a half to two-thirds of an inch, is elongate and slender 
in form and sub-cylindrical, differing very materially 
in this respect from the Colorado potato beetle. The 
thorax is narrower than the wing cases or abdomen; 
it tapers forward so that it is distinctly narrower in 
front than the head; it is rather longer than wide. 
The elytra are about twice as wide at the shoulders 
as the thorax—round at the tips. Length of the 
insect about three times its greatest width. It is of a 
dull orange or reddish yellow color above, with two 
black spots on the head, two black stripes on the 
thorax and two black stripes on each wing case. The 



Fic 


I. —Apple CurcuUo. (.A.nthonomus 
quadrigibbiis.) 
natural size; 6 and r, side and back 
views magnified. 









876 


INSECTS, INfURIO US. 


outer stripe on the wing cases is broader than the 
inner one, extends further back and is frequently 
divided into two strips by a narrow yellow or orange 

line. The an¬ 
tennae, legs and 
under side of 
the body are 
black, but more 
or less covered 
with grayish 
down. 

Stag Beetle. 

Kiki. ^2,^Oak Tree CucuTo. (^Magdalis ol^’ra.) Imagine Fig. 

«, larva; b. pupa. I 2 a COal-black, 

and you have a perfect idea of this common beetle. It is 
a slow-moving creature, generally found in old wood. 
The larvae live in the trunks and roots of various 
kinds of trees, particularly those of old apple trees, 
and in willows and oaks. 

Striped Cucumber Beetle: see Fig. i, page 292. 

Striped Flea Beetle (Haltica striolata). This in¬ 
sect is of a shining black color, with two waving lines 
of buff along the back and one on each side. It is 
less than one-tenth of an inch in length, but is very 
active and quick to get away. Sometimes they fairly 
swarm on young plants, as cabbages, radishes, turnips, 
etc., doing considerable damage. 

Tortoise Beetle, Two-Striped. This insect is nearly 
round, yellowisli, and has two black stripes on each 
wing case : outer stripes longer and wavy. Larva 
dull yellovyish white, one-fifth of an inch in length. 
All species of this sub-family feed upon sweet-]X)tato 
vines and the morning-glory. They continue in the 
larval state about three weeks, and when fully grown 
attach themselves by the posterior end of the body to 
the under side of a leaf, change to the pupa state, 
and in about a week come forth in the beetle state. 

True beetles, by other names, appear further on. 

Borers. The round-headed apple-tree borer. Fig. 
17, and the flat-headed apple-tree borer. Fig. 18, are 
great pests,—especially the latter. See page r8. 

Twig-Borer. The larvse of 
this little beetle bore into the 
twigs of fruit trees, especially 
the apple and the pear. The 
“ twig primer ” has a similar 
habit, causing the twigs of all 
such trees to wither and die. 

Their color is a dark-brown. 

The borers enter the twig just 
above a bud and work down 
through the pith for two inches, 
making a tunnel about the size F IG. 33.— Cut-Worm. 

of a large knitting needle. The only remedy consists 
in destroying the infested twigs. 

Peach-Borer. Two or three species of these are 
common. They are the larves of beautiful, active 
moths, and they may be prevented from climbing the 
tree by mounding the base,—that is, piling up earth 
about the base of the trees during the summer, which 
collects them *, and in the fall these can be pulled 





down, the larves discovered and destroyed. Or, one 
can readily find them by the gum oozing out where 
they work, and with a sharp-pointed instrument kill 
them, as he would the flat-headed apple-tree borer. 

The Imported Currant Borer, Fig. 20,011 a previous 
page. The moth, or winged state of this insect, is a little 
less than one-half an inch long and expands three- 
fourths of an inch. The color is deep blife and with 
three yellow bands across the abdomen, a yellow collar 
and yellow mixed with blue marking the legs. The 
body, therefore, has somewhat the appearance of a 
wasp. The moths appear in June and July. The 
eggs are deposited near a bud, and as soon as hatched 
the tiny caterpillars bore to the center of the stem. 
They attack the red currant more generally, but some¬ 
times also the black currant and the gooseberry. For 
remedies, see page 295. 

Hickory-Bark Borer. Length one-fifth of an inch, 
or little less. Color entirely black, or black with 
brown wing-cases. The female beetle, selecting the 
trunk or larger limb of a hickory tree, bores through 
the bark and forms a vertical chamber next to the 
wood from half an inch to an 
inch in length, on each side of 
which she deposits her eggs, 
from the number of 20 to 50. 

The larvae, when hatched, feed 
on the inner bark, each one 
forming a track of its own, thus 
forming the radiating burrow's so 
common on the under side of 
bark of hickory trees. The larva 
is a soft, yellowish, footless grub, 
much like the larva of some of 
the curculios, and from which it Fly. 

cannot easily be distinguished, Cecidomyia destructor. 

except by its habits; it is very small, not exceeding 
the fifth of an inch in length when fully grown. The 
eggs are deposited during the months of August and 
September, and the beetle issues about the latter 
part of June or first of July. It attacks the bitter- 
nut, shell-blirk and pig-nut hickories, and probably 
the pecan. No practical remedy is known, nor is 
there much probability of any extensive experiments 
being made until forest timber becomes more valu¬ 
able than it is now. 

Bosteichus (or Sinoxylon) basillare. Fig. 21, 
bores into the heart of grape stems, the trunk of shag- 
bark hickory and in the trunk and limbs of apple and 
peach trees. No remedy, except to burn the infested 
wood. The body of the beetle is black, feelers red 
and the wing-cases are marked with large, dense 
punctures, which are more dilated toward the tip, 
where there are three spines; and there is a red spot 
at the base of the wing-cases. The insect is about 
one-fifth of an inch in length. The larvae are smooth, 
yellow’ish, and arched and wrinkled transversely. 

Cabbage Butterfly; see page 139. 

Cabbage-leaf Roller. This is a small, green 
“worm,” which produces a gray moth, haYing a white 
stripe along the back. This insect is not common. 























INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


877 


'— 1 


' -1 1 




l_3 

1 ) ^ 

c/ 




Canker-Worm: see page 19. 

Caterpillar. Fig. 24 represents the tent cater¬ 
pillar, which is the most common kind throughout the 
country, being particularly conspicuous upon fruit trees 
and wild cherry trees. After pairing in the spring, 
the female moths lay their eggs in 
a compact cluster about the small 
, , twigs, covering them with a glisten- 
^ ing glue, so that they are impervious 
to water. These eggs, 300 or 400 
in number, hatch just as the leaves 
of the apple and cherry are putting 
forth, on both of which trees they 
Fig. 35. ips/aciatus. are woiit to engage in their ruinous 
a, larva; beetle, work, seemiug rather to prefer the 
wild cherry. They immediately weave their tents, 
and become conspicuous objects in the orchard. They 
remain huddled in these tents except when going 
forth to feed. They are quite regular in taking their 
meals, and usually all go forth at once. These larvae 
or caterpillars, variously striped with white, yellow, 
black, and blue, are very handsome, feed voraciously, 
so that by the middle of June they are not only ma¬ 
tured in size,—being now two inches in length,—but 
have managed to strip the trees pretty thoroughly of 
their leaves. They then disperse, seeking in all direc¬ 
tions for some crevice in which they may form their 
closely woven cocoons undisturbed and unseen. They 
separate almost immediately. In about two weeks 
they come forth beautiful brown moths, the female a 
little lighter in color than the male. Two light bands 
run obliquely across the fore wings. For remedies, 
see page 168. 

Cherry and Pear Slugs. A shining black fly, 
less than one-fourth of an inch long, appears in early 
and late summer, deixjsits its eggs on the under side 


CuRCULio. For the plum curculio. Fig. 30, see 
Plum. This insect also attacks cherries and peaches. 
Apple Curculio: see page 20. 

Oak Tree Curculio. This species, which is of a 
reddish or rusty color, is about one-fifth of an inch 




Fig. 37. Apple-Root Louse. (Schizoneura lanigera.) 
ii, the infested rootlet; b, a woolly larva; c. the winged insect, with the 
woolly matter all removed; d. leg of the perfect insect; the beak; /, 
antenna of the winged insect; antenna of the larva. 

long, and is distinguished chiefly by having small 
spines at the front angles of the thorax. The larvae 
inhabit the oak, burrowing beneath the bark. Another 
species inhabits the elm. In May, one can find these 
insects in all their stages. 

Currant Wor.m: see article Currant, page 295,, 
and Gooseberry Saw-fly, below. 

Cut-Worms. Fig. 35 illustrates the larve and 
moth which infest beans, referred to more at length 
on page 60. There are several other species, of dif¬ 
ferent genera and families, that also are cut-worms, 
injuring cabbage, corn, tomatoes, and even fruit trees 
and grape-vines. The latter kind climb the trees 
during the night, and eat out the tender buds. 
These can be caught in the evening with a mallet 
and sheet, as in catching the plum curculio; and 
they can even be prevented from gaining access to 
the tree or vines at all, by winding around the 
trunk or stem stiff, smooth paper about four inches 
wide, gathering it in tightly at the top with a cord 
and allowing the lower portion to stand out a little 
from the tree in the 


Fig. 36. June Bug^. (Gymnetis nitida.) 
rt, larva; b, piipu; c, male beetle; d. mandible; e. antenna; leg; g;, maxillary 
palpus; all the latter belong to the larva. 

of the leaves, which produce the slimy slugs so injuri¬ 
ous to cherry and pear trees. These are brown, have 
20 feet, and are covered with a viscid, olive-colored 
slime. They eat only the cuticle of the leaf, thus 
causing it to turn brown and sere. They mature in 
three or four weeks, pass down the tree and enter the 
earth, where they pupate, the flies of the first brood 
appearing late in August, those of the second, late in 
i\Iay or early in June. These insects are true saw- 
flies. As the slugs are slimy, it is easy to “doctor ” 
them, to death, with road dust or lime. 

Chinch-bug: see article Wheat. 

Codling Moth: see page 18. 


an inverted 
For larger 
boards may 


form of 
funnel, 
trees tin 
be better. 

FallWeb-Worm. This 
is someting like the tent 
caterpillar, differing main¬ 
ly from it, in its general 
appearance, in being short¬ 
er and more hairy. It is 
not so destructive, and 



Fig. 38. Apple-ireeAphis, (Aphis 
mail.) 

Wing magnified. 


the ravages they do commit are too late in the season 
to be very serious in its results. They work upon all 
sorts of trees. 

Gooseberry Saw-fly. This is a destructive 


in¬ 


sect, imported from the Old World, the larve of which 





































INSECTS, INJURIOUS, 


S78 


is a slug, eating off the leaves of gooseberry and cur¬ 
rant bushes in May and June. The larvje either go 
into the earth, in July, or become attached to the 


bushes and spin a cocoon of brownish silk. They re¬ 
main as pupae until the following spring. In procur- 
ing plants for setting out, examine the roots carefully 
or wasli them thoroughly, so that no cocoons of this 
insect be imjxuted to your plantation. During the 
first part of their breeding season, first of May, their 
eggs can be gathered,with the few leaves that receive 
them, and destroyed; but later in the sea¬ 
son, when the “worms” become numerous, 
white hellebore or Paris green, as elsewhere 
recommended, can be used with good effect. 

Grape-Vine Leaf-Hopper. This spright¬ 
ly little insect is common some seasons. It 
is gaily robed in yellow, black and scarlet, 
hybernates in the mature state, and may be 
found in fall and winter just under the vines. 

I he young look just like the parents, except 
in size and absence of wings. Remedy: As 
soon as they have become dormant in winter, 
rake over the leaves, and thus expose them 
to damp weather. The best time would 
probably be at the conclusion of a rainy spell 
in November, just as it begins to freeze up. 

June Bug. This is a true beetle, of a 
beautiful, velvety green color, with a broad 
margin of orange yellow around the wing- 
cases. The damage done by this “bug” is 
comparatively unimportant. 

Lady-Birds. These are all “friendly” in¬ 
sects. See under the next general head. 

Lice on Plants ; Plant Lice. 

Apple-tree Bark Louse. This old enemy 
is not so destructive as formerly, owing prob¬ 
ably to parasites or predatory mites; yet we 
must fight it some. It is "sometimes called the scale 
louse, on account of the resemblance of its egg covers 
to scales, which are of the color of the bark, and are 
thus protected from birds. From August to May 


these innocent-looking scales cover 60 to 70 small 
eggs each, and in June the young lice appear, yellow 
in color, and so small they are scarcely visible. Rem¬ 
edy: Soft soap or strong soap¬ 
suds the last of May and first 
of June. 

Coni Aphis. This species 
works not only upon corn, but 
also upon the apple-tree and 
other plants (Figs. I, III and 
IV in Fig. 39). 

Elm Tree Gall Louse. 
This is the insect that causes 
most of the galls on elm leaves, 
which are of the form of a 
cock’s comb, and hence the 
insect is also called “cock’s 
comb gall louse.” Fig.41 shows 
the habits of a very different 
gall fly which worlcs upon the 
elm. The seven generations 
of this peculiar insect consti¬ 
tute an interesting study. Fig. 
43 is the wing of still another parasite of the elm tree 
whose larval home is a gall. 

Larch Louse. This insect, which has no English 
name, works only on the cone-bearing trees, as larch, 
pine, juniper, etc. Fig. 44 gives a magnified view of 
the wing. 

Maple Aphis. Fig. 42 is a magnified view of an 


aphis or louse which works u|X)n the leaves of soft 
maple. The general color is light gray, varied w'hite 
and ash brown; the insect is very active in its mo¬ 
tions, often taking quite distinct leaps; slightly above 


Fig.I Fig. nr 



Fig. 39* Plant Lice. 

I, corn aphis; II, head and antennae of apple-tree aphis; III, wingless female of corn aphis; IV, portion 
of a corn root infected by the aphis; V, elm tree gall louse; VI, poplar gall louse; VII, wings of 
phylloxera. 



/I, leaf showing galls from above and beneath, natural size; impregnated egg, sur¬ 
rounded by skin of true female; newly born young of second generation, ventral 
view; /r, Its antenna; rf, pupa of sa me, dorsal view; winged female; y*, her an¬ 
tenna; antenna of stem-mother—all enlarged. 


























INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


879 






of tobacco, or white hellebore, i jxjund to 20 gallons 
of water. Their natural enemy is the Chalcis para¬ 
site, described a few pages further on. 

Rear- Tree Louse, Ju 7 nping. This 
infests pear trees from May to October 
in the Northern States, and from April 
to November in the Southern. After 
pairing in early spring, the female lays 
her eggs in great numbers, near each 
other, on young leaves and blossoms, 
or on the newly formed shoots. They 
are oblong, yellowish, and look some¬ 
what like grains of pollen. The young 
insects are dark yellow, change their 
skins and color repeatedly, acquire 
wing scales or rudimentary wings, fix 
themselves to the bark in rows, suck 
the juice until they are full grown, 
then disappear among the leaves until 
they appear in the winged form. They 
do not belong to the numerous aphis 
family, but have the appearance of 
true aphides. 

Poplar Leaf Gall Lice. \Ve give 
cuts of four species of these. Fig. 48 
represents a kind that forms swellings or galls about 
the size of a bullet, so often seen on the leaves of the 
cottonwood at the ix)int where the blade joins its stem. 
The wing venation is shown by Fig. VI, in Fig. 39, 
page 878. 

Fig. 49 represents a speci'es which works upon cot¬ 
tonwood and balm-of-Gilead throughout the West and 
Southwest. While the gall nor¬ 
mally occurs in the position 
and of the form here repre¬ 
sented, it may occur on any 
part of the leaf-stem, and the 
opening may be more or 
less oblique, or be a mere 
circular hole. Sometimes 

two and even three CO- ^.0.43. Wingo/Tetraneura 
alesce; but the lip-like ttimi. 

bulging is constant. The species represented 
by Fig. 50 prevails throughout Colorado and 
Southern Kansas. The interesting gall which 
it forms might be called 
“bead-like cottonwood 
gall.'" The particular 
kind of cottonwood it 
is partial to is the nar¬ 
row-leaved variety of 
Populus balsamifera. 

The galls constitute a 
series of pale yellow 

oval swellings each side pic. 44. wing 0/chermes 
of the mid-rib, in the larids. 

distance appearing like unripe cherries. They 
are sometimes tinted with red, and sometimes there 
are three rows of them. They are formed by the 
folding under of the sides of the leaf, and the bulg¬ 
ing of the same around the insect, which is always 


Fig. 42. Maple Aphis. (Siphonophora acerifoliae.) 

tures made in the bark of the tree, the sap coming out 
at these points, or, as is more natural, issuing from 
the insects themselves. The best way to kill these 
insects is to apply either soap and water, or a solution 


effect of their operations is often very apparent, giv¬ 
ing the leaves a shriveled or sickly appearance. It is 
possible, therefore, that this species may, under favor¬ 
able circumstances, develop to such an extent as to 
seriously injure the soft maples. 

Maple-Tree Bark Louse. Early in May the side¬ 
walks of a village or the ground underneath soft ma¬ 
ples will be found covered with spots similar to honey- 
dew, the lower limbs and opening leaves presenting a 
sticky sensation to the touch, which continues to be 
noticeable more than a week before the deposit of eggs 
commences. This is caused either by the many punc¬ 


medium size. Although these insects are not numer¬ 
ous on any one leaf—the young sometimes forming 
small colonies, but adults always scattered—yet the 


Fig. 41. Schizoneura Americana. 


S6 



























88 o 


INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


found solitary. The Pemphigus of Fig. 51 produces 
the gall of Fig. 52, on the tips of the twigs of certain 
cottonwoods, and occasionally on balsam poplars, 
which somewhat resembles the flower of the double 



Fig. 45. Maple-Tree Bark Louse. (Lecanium acericola.) 
a, appearance of their work; back view of female; c, ventral view; 

ei, beak. 


cock’s-comb of our gardens. It turns black in win¬ 
ter, giving the tree a singular and rather unsightly 
appearance after the leaves have fallen off. The 
winged insect generally makes its appearance in Sep¬ 
tember; the body is black, and about one-tenth of an 
inch long; the expanded wings measure rather more 
than one-third of an inch from tip to tip. 

53, 54 and 55 are illustrations of an “aphis,” 
which as yet has been found only on the Spanish 
needle, and as such cannot be strictly classed among 


galls is very thin, and the winged lice are found in¬ 
side, in September, in large numbers. 

Willow Aphis, Spotted. This insect is found in 
October and No¬ 
vember, in colo¬ 
nies, on the un¬ 
der side of the 
I branches of the 
gray willow; and 
occasionally, but 
I apparently by ac¬ 
cident, on the 

trunks of small jumping Plant Louse of the Pear 

nursery apple- Tree. (Psylla pin.) 

trees. The winged individuals measure about one- 
sixth of an inch to the tip of the abdomen, the wings 
expanding about half an inch. The insect is black. 
The curved line to the right in the cut is a crude rei> 



Fig, 48. Poplar-Leaf Gall Louse. (Pemphigus populi-caulis.) 

<2, the incipient gall on the under side of the leaf; b, the corresponding 
bulge on the upper side; r, the fully formed gall, showing the lips 
slightly separated, so as to permit the escape of the mature insects; 
d and e. incipient double galls, one being located on each side of the 
mid-rib;y, tne wingless female, with the cottony secretion attached; 
gy the winged insect. The marks at the sides of ^andy indicate the 
natural size. 




Fig. 46 Maple-Tree Bark Louse. Male. 


injurious insects; but it belongs to a family which is 
noted for its sap-sucking abilities. The figures here 
given will aid the beginner in the study of this class 
of insects. Species of Siphonophora are found on 
almost all classes of plants. 

Siitnac Gall Plant Louse. This species of Pem¬ 
phigus forms tomato-shaped galls on the leaves of 
different kinds of sumac, which usually arise from the 
mid-vein at or near the base. The shell of these 



Fig. 49. A Poplar Gall Louse. (Pemphigus populi-transversus.) 
a, gall; b, under side of same; c, winged female; d, antenna. 

resentation of an enlarged antenna; the hairlines 
above indicate the exact dimensions of the insect. 

Fig. 59 well outlines the veins of the Mung of a 
plant louse of the genus Schizoneura. These wing 
markings are the most obvious ix)ints of distinction 
between the numerous genera and species of plant 
















































INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


88 i 


lice. Owing to the many enemies which [)lant-lice 
have, they rarely do great damage. Sometimes they 



Fic:. so.— A Poplar Gall Louse. Pemphigus populi-monilis. 
rt, winged female; antenna; r, antenna of the young louse; d, 
antenna of young after the first moult; young from winged female ;y, 
leg of winged feraa-le ; g, galls. 


come out in great number upon a few plants or a tree 
or two one season, and the next season not one can be 
found in that locality. 


Whale-oil soap, soft soap, strong soap-suds or other 
alkaline washes constitute the universal remedies for 


plant lice. 



The Honnaphis 
spinosus forms a 
gall on the stems 
of the witch-hazel, 
which gall is ade- 


I—f—, formation of the 

Fig. 51. —A Poplar Gall Louse, svinged flowet-bud, the 
female. Pemphigus vagabundus. punCtUre of the 

architect causing premature development, by which 
the calyx, bractlets and petals are all changed 
into elongate bracts, more or less pointed terminally, 
and more or less completely soldered together at 
bases, so as to form a thin wall. In August the gall 



Fig. 52. —Gall ef Preceding, 

is green and crowded inside with lice in all stages of 


growth, from the newly-born to the pupa and winged 
female, intermixed with flocculent matter and watery 
globules, the insects themselves being rather evenly 
covered with a fine white powder. Later in the sea¬ 
son, the tips of the l)racts become blunter, and the 



Fig. 53.— Spanish Needle Louse. Siphonophora coreopsidis. 




gall becomes browner, and recalls externally the fruit- 
pod which would have developed the ensuing year, 
it is now per¬ 
forated at some 
point, generally 
near either the 
top or base, and 
through the ap¬ 
erture the in¬ 
sect makes its 
exit or may be 
noticed doingso. 

The young from 
the winged fe¬ 
male are quite 
characteristic, 
being strongly 
granulated, and, 
as they are 
found as late as 
hibernate on the 
sexed individu¬ 
al s and the 
stem-mother are 
yet unknown. 

The species 
was first de¬ 
scribed in 1867 
by Dr. H. Shiner, 
of Mt. Carrol, 

Ill., who erected 
a new genus for 
it and another 
well-known 
s p e c i e s on the 
same plant, not 
aware that the 
genus had been 


Fig. ^s-~Npet-nish Needle Louse. Siphono¬ 
phora coreopsidis. 

the end of October, they probably 
permanent parts of the tree. The 




Fig. 55. —Spanish Needle Louse. 

phora coreopsidis. 


Siphono- 


previously characterized by Baron Osten Saken, in 
1861. 


in 








































882 


INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 


Locusts, or Grasshoppers. What have gener¬ 
ally been hitherto called “ grasshoppers,” scientists 
insist shall be called “ locustsand the most famous 
of these is the Rocky Mountain (Fig. 6o), which does 
so much damage west of the Missouri river, some¬ 
times darkening the air with their great numbers 
and destroying vast areas of herbage. They eat 
everything green, from the leaves of the trees down 
to the smallest spear of grass. 

The red-legged locust (Fig. 62) is next in abund¬ 
ance. By closely comparing Figs. 61 and 63, one 
can notice the specific difference between the two 
locusts. Fig. 64 represents the largest species of 
locust throughout the older States, which is known 
not to be very numerous. Probably his large size 
attracts the attention of poultry and wild birds, which 
combine to keep that species of “grasshopper” limited 
in numbers. 

Fig. 65 is an engraving of a large species, of a 
reddish brown color, with a slight vermilion tint, and 
sundry stripes. 

Fig. 66 represents a common species throughout 
the country, although never appearing in such num¬ 
bers as some species of Caloptenus. The larvae and 
pupae, and even the perfect insects, are occasionally 
observed during warm days in winter. This species 
appears early in spring and continues throughout the 
summer. There are three varieties. 

Remedial Agencies. Fortunately, there are several 
natural agencies which have a tendency to prevent 
their increase. Dampness is undoubtedly the most 
potent natural agent in keeping them in check. 
Although they may have hatched out in excessive 
numbers, yet if a rainy season follows soon afterward, 
they will to a very large extent be destroyed, and the 
invigorated vegetation will bid defiance to the feeble 
attacks of those that remain alive. lake other insects, 
their breathing apparatus consists of a series of tubes 
that permeate the body, connecting with opening or 
breathing pores along the sides of the body one on 
each side of a segment; the moisture taken in by 
inspiration produces disease, or at least in some way 
prevents the free passage of the air and thus lessens 
the vitality. 

'fhe locust mite (page 888), the blister beetle (page 
870) and some other insects pray upon locusts. 

Moth, or Clothes Moth. This little moth ex¬ 
pands (from tip to tip of wing) about half an inch, 
but in length of head and body is less than one-fourth 
of an inch. Its color is a light buff, with a satin-like 
luster. The wings are long, narrow, pointed and 
beautifully fringed. The larva (“ worm”) is white, 
with a yellow head, has, like nearly all caterpillars, 
sixteen legs, and is always surrounded by a flattened, 
cylindrical case, usually gray or whitish in color; 
though this depends on their food. The ends are 
open, that the larvae may reach forth to feed, or peer 
forth, which they are free to do when disturbed. The 
pupa, or chrysalis, is somewhat curved, and has a 
rounded head. The antennas, wings and legs are 
folded beneath the body, and reach nearly to the end 


of the body. The pupa case or cocoon is similar to 
the larva case. The moth comes forth as early as the 
last of May, and may be seen from that time till the 
close of summer. The tiny, lustrous, buff-colored 
bodies are easily detected, as they rest with wings 
folded close about their bodies-in the deep crevices of 
our parlor furniture, or among the folds of our gar¬ 
ments, or even more plainly as they flit across our 
rooms, 'rhese moths pair, after which the female 
seeks out our furs and woolen or silk apparel, her 
minute size enabling her to enter drawers, closets and 
trunks, where she distributes her eggs with an eye to 
the good of her prospective young, if not to our good. 
The larvae soon appear, and may be found at home 
the summer through, comfortably fixed up in their 
little tents and working their miserable mischief, all 
unsuspected by the unwary housewife, who learns too 
late of their previous presence, by discovering that 
her most choice possessions are totally ruined. In 
spring and summer the chrysalids will appear, soon 
to be followed by a new return of the pretty moths. 

Remedies. Woolen garments and furs should be 
put away in trunks, with several pieces of camphor 
gum as large as hickory-nuts packed in with them, or 
they may be put into closed paper bags and pasted 
up so that no holes, ever so small, will remain open. 
Even in this case a little camphor gum will render 
assurance doubly sure. Infested garments or fins 
should be closed as nearly air-tight as possible. The 
vapor will kill the insects. Then prepare as given 
above. For furniture and carpets heavy paper, wet 
with carbolic' acid or spirits of turpentine, will kill 
larvae already at work. This should be placed under 
the edge of the carpet, where the mischief is generally 
done, and in furniture, crowded back in deep folds\ 

_ It would be well to saturate the interior of the fur¬ 
niture with a strong solution of carbolic acid. Our 
best furniture and furs have a good quantity of this 
substance in the undissolved state fastened inside 
them when made. Russian leather, cedar bark or 
boughs, tobacco leaves, and even red pepper are said 
to prevent the moths from laying eggs. It will be 
well, then, to place these in exposed situations. 
Manufacturers of carriages wash the woolen linings 
of their carriages with a weak solution of corrosive 
sublimate, which is very sure destruction to all in¬ 
sects. Some persons, with some success, take a wet 
sheet or other cloth, lay it uix»n the carpet, and then 
run a hot flat-iron over it, so as to convert, the water 
into steam, which permeates the carpet beneath, and 
destroys the life of the inchoate moth. They have 
found this very successful, and as it can be done 
without taking up the carpet, and the whole surface 
gone over in a comparatively short time, it is regarded 
as one of the most efficient means of protection thev 
have. 

Every careful housekeeper will certainly examine 
her carpets and furniture each fall and spring, brush 
out all the creases, give all a good airing, and if there 
is any trace of these evil-doers, will practice the above 
remedies. 











883 


INSECTS, INJURIOUS. 







Fig. 56. —Sumac Gall Plant Louse. Pemphigus rhois. 

to oak. It deserves no further mention, except for 
scientific purposes. 

Pear 7 'ree Slugs ; see Cherry Slugs, p. 874,877. 
Pea Weevil. This little insect, though doing 
_ little damage to garden 


peas, for in green peas 
it is not only too small 
to essentially change 
the flavor, but even to 
attract the eye, but in 
field crops, where peas 
are raised to feed after 
they are fully matured, 
there is very serious in¬ 
jury”, for this little weevil, 
so generally distributed, 
and so persistent in its yearly attacks, consumes, while 
yet a larva, all the nutritious material of the pea, 
leaving only the germ and a mere shell outside. 


Fig. 57. —Spotted Willow Aphis. 
Lachnus dentatus. 


Fig. 58 .—Witch Hazel Plant Louse. Hormaphis spinosus. 
winged female magnified ; foot; </, antenna ; young from winged female; 
fy magnified section of same; terminal joints of antenna ; /f, frontal tubercle on larva. 

Hence, affected peas will grow, but, of course, with 
bated vigor, as the needed starch pabulum is wanting 
in those early days, the precarious time with all life; 
but to feed, they are almost entirely useless. 

The little brown weevil, with the wing-covers so 
short that some light markings, somewhat resembling 


a letter T, are seen just back of them, comes through 
the winter in the peas, having a little opening, a door 
of exit, already prepared, where they not infrequently 
remain even to the day 
of sowing. They are 
seen thick as bees 
above the ground 
where peas are being 
sowed. Just as soon 
as the ix)ds are formed 
and the seeds set 
within them, the weevil, 
big with eggs, if not 

with mischievous in- Vic,.^<j.— lViH^o/Shizoneuravagans. 

tent, pierces the pod opposite each pea, and inserts 
an egg within each puncture, so that every pea may 


Fig. 60 .—Rocky Mountain Locust. Caloptenus spretus. 
a, a, a, females in the act of depositing their eggs; i, an egg pod with 
one end open showing the eggs ; c, eggs separated from the pod ; ti and e 
show the egg-pods in their usual position in the earth ;y shows where a 
pod has been deposited and the hole closed. 

contain within the seed of its own destruction. The 
larvae, which soon hatch from these eggs, 
though grubs, being the young of 
beetles, are legless, and hence resemble 
maggots,—the larvae of two-winged flies, 
which name is frequently applied to 
them. These larvae find the young, 
tender peas rich feeding, and by the 
time the peas are large enough for table 
use, are sleek and 
plump, and can 
easily be seen 
with the naked 
eye; and with a 
glass, their good 

feeding qualities Fig. 61.—Rocky Mountain 
are quickly dis- ^Momer 


cerned, as their 


abdomen. 

a, lateral view of the ter- 

tender <;kins seem segments; k, under 

iciiuci sKiiis SGCiii of terminal segment; e^ 

ready to burst. By upper side of same. 

the time the peas are hard, having already eaten 

a hole through the shell, thus showing a foresight 

not rare among insects, they assume the pupa state, 

and change to imagoes before the time for sowing or 

planting the next spring. 

Remedies. As these pestiferous insects are in the 


Parallel Longhorn. This a species of twig- 
pruner, doing a little damage to apple-trees, but more 





































884 


INSE Cl'S, IN/URIO US. 








peas in the winter and in the spring, if the same be 
kept over one year, in perfectly close barrels, bags, 

cans, or bottles, of 
course the insects 
thus confined will all 
die. Hence, if these 
pea weevils are suffi- 

Fig. 62.— Red-Legged Locust. Calop- cieiltly annoyillg tO 
tenus femur-rubrum. cause disturbance, 

there can be a most effectual estoppel put upon their 
mischief by thus putting all our peas in close vessels, 
any time in the winter, and keeping them thus close 
for one season. If all would do this,—and we must 
have concerted action in this 
insect warfare,—we should soon 
be rid of this enemy. But the 
evil will be mitigated if we 
practice the above simply as in¬ 
dividuals ; for if the insects do . (>Z;—J^ed-Legged 

n Li • z' 1 1 r Locust, lip of male ab- 

nna their way to our fields from domen. Letters have same 

those of our careless neighbors, as m Fig. 61. 

they will doubtless come in far less numbers, and 

those that do come will very likely be too late to do 

damage, while we may escape entirely. 


Fig. 65 .—Acridiutn Atnericanutn. 

the leaf; in these galls the eggs are laid to the num¬ 
ber of 300 or 400, which soon hatch, and the young 
lice (true aphides) go merrily forth in their bright 
yellow garb, and repeat the work of their parents. 
For four or five generations the lice are wingless, and 
all females ! 'Fhey attack but a few varieties of the 
grape, especially the Clinton. As fall approaches the 
the galls become deserted and the young descend to 


For p r e- 
vention of the 
ravages of this 
insect, grafting 
susceptible varieties 
on such stocks as (><)■—Clothes Mcth. Tinea, 

the Clinton, Concord or Israella is recommended. In 
procuring vines, it would be a safe precaution to dip 
the roots in some insecticide, as a strong solution of 
whale-oil_ soap, before setting them. It would be well, 
too, to iiiix soot in the soil, as that is obnoxious to the 
the lice. 


Fig. 64 .—Caloptenus differentialis. 

Phylloxera. This little insect, hardly large enough 
to attract the attention of any but the cautious ob¬ 
server, is a native of America, and has, within a few 
years entered Europe, where it does immensely more 
damage than in this country. The louse is of a dull 
orange color; it punctures the leaves on the under 
side, causing the surface to be covered with excres¬ 
cences, or small galls (Fig. 72), which greatly deform 


Fig, t^.'—f/ippiscus phcenicopterus. 

pupa, and then cast their skin for the last time. They 
are ’stilly yellow, but have lost their tubercles. The 
\yinged forms are most abundant in August and 
September, though they may be seen from July 
till October. The longer ones lay eggs from 
which come the true male and female: the 
latter lays One egg, and these all die off in the 
fall, so that the insects pass the winter either 
as eggs or as 
larvae. 


the roots, where they hibernate. As these gall lice 
will readily take to the roots and flourish if removed 
to those vines where the galls are never found, it is 


Fig. 66.— I'ragocephela viridi/aciata. 
a, pupa ; b, perfect insect. 

probable that some lice pass from leaves to roots 
during the summer. It is the root form of this louse 
that does the most 
injury to the vine. The 
young of this form are 
not distinguishable from 
those of the galls, but 
the mature forms are 
covered with warts. 

Some of these assume a 
greenish cast, become 
larger at the head end 
of the body and are with- ^ ^7.—-'>^ertobothrus macuHpennis. 
out wings. The others />, pupa; c, larva, 

are always bright yellow, always of the oval form of 
the young, and finally develop stubs of wings, which 
grow to full size. They come forth from the earth as 


























/JVSEC 7 'S, INJURIOUS. 







Fig. 72.— Work oj" the Grape Phylloxera. Phylloxera vastatrix. 

beetles, and may be readily distinguished by the fol¬ 
lowing characteristics; It is of a long oval shape, 
varying in length from a little over one inch to nearly 


one inch and three fourths; the width across the 
wing-cases is nearly one-half the length. The body 
is considerably flattened, and the thorax, which is 

about twice as wide as it is 
long, has three teeth on 
each lateral margin, the 
middle tooth being the 
most prominent. The an¬ 
tennae, which are about 
half as long as the body, 
are serrate, but these ser- 
ratures are not extended 
into long sharp teeth, as in 
the other species. They 
are about twelve-jointed. 
The color is almost uniform 
mahogany-brown ; s om e- 
times quite black. The 
larva, or grub, is of a 
Fig. ji.—Prionus laticoiiis., creaiiiy whitc color, with a 

pale bluish line along the 
back; the first segment is large, being as long or 
longer than the next three combined; it decreases 
gradually in size from the third seg¬ 
ment backward to the end ; under side 
somewhat flattened; head brown; legs 
minute. When fully grown it is nearly 
three inches long, and as large as a 
man’s thumb. Dr. Harris says they 
live in the roots of the Balm of Gilead, 

Lombardy poplar, and probably in 
those of other kinds of poplar also. It 
has been observed by various persons, 
boring into and hollowing out the roots 
of grape-vines. It also occasionally attacks the roots 
of apple and pear trees, either boring into or gnawing 
them so as to seriously injure the trees. 

Radish Fdy. (Anthomyia raphani). It is the 
maggot of this fly that early in the spring eats all 
varieties of greens of the mustard family. The flies 
look like the onion flies, are small, ash-colored, and 
lay their eggs on the stem close to the ground. On 
hatching, the young larvre descend and feed on the 
roots, forming grooves all over the surface, which in¬ 
duce decay. In June they are grown, developed and 
lay eggs again. Remedies: Water of the tempera¬ 
ture of 180°; 
late planting; 
planting on 
clayey soil; 

CO nsiderable 
distance be¬ 
tween success¬ 
ive radish beds, 
etc. None of 
these, however, 
are as success¬ 
ful as desirable. 

Rose-Chafer 
(Macrodactylis spinosa.) This pesky old beetle is in¬ 
jurious to the interests of man more on account of his 


74.— Squash 
tristis. 


Fig. 75. —Tomato Worm. 

maculata 


Macrosila quinque- 


20 or 30 days has been 
killing the root forms. 


The leaves affected with galls should be collected 
and destroyed early in the season. Submersion for 

found effectual in France in 
Wherever this can be done it 
should be brought 
into requisition in 
autumn, immedi¬ 
ately after the sea¬ 
son’s growth is 
complete. It is said 
that at this season 
the vines will not 
suffer, even if sub- 

Fig. 70. — Parallel Longhorn. Elaphidion. merged for a time 
a, larva ; i. twig split open, showing the Sufficient tO dcstrOy 
enclosed pupa; k. the se/ered end of the .v i- ('"orhnliV 

twig; c, beetle; /, basal joints of the antennse, 

showing the characteristic spines at the tip acid pOwder and 
of the third and fourth joints ; y, tip of ely- ^ 1 • 1 1 

tron ; d.e.J'. g-. head, maxilla, labium, SOOt are highly re- 
mandible, and antenna of larva. commended By 

mixing these with the soil the lice are said to be 
destroyed. Bisulphite of carbon; which we use so 
successfully in destroying museum pests, and which 
recently gave so much 
hope in France, is now 
given up as too ex¬ 
pensive, too laborious 
of application, and not 
thorough in its effects, 
owing, doubtless, to in¬ 
ability to reach the 
lice in making the ap¬ 
plication. Potassic 
sulpho-carbonate, to be 
had only from the 
chemist's laboratory, is 
a late-discovered remedy against Phylloxera. It is 
placed on the earth beneath the vines and carried to 
the roots by the rain. 

Prionus. Fig. 73 represents one of our largest 


71.— Pea Weevil, Bruchus pisi, 
bug magnified ; pea infested; 
natural size. 


















886 


INSECTS, FRIENDLY. 


depredations upon the rose. Its history and habits 
closely resemble the May beetle, already described. 
The chafer appears in June and July, eats most 



yTXr 


, Fig. 76. Spotted Vine-ChaJ'er, Pelidnota punctata. 

I' > i'’ pupa; c, beetle; d, tip of abdomen of larva; r, antenna 

ot same ; /, leg. 


cherry 



Fig. 77. —Aut 
IVeevii. 


ravenously, especially of rose, grape 
leaves. After this wedding feast is 
over, the females lay their eggs in the 
ground. The grubs feed on the roots 
of the plants, but are not sufficiently 
destructive to attract attention. Reme¬ 
dies : Jarring them down as curculios, 
white hellebore, or Paris green. 

Squash Bug and Squash-Vine 
Borer : see article Squash. 

Tettix. This is another “ grass¬ 
hopper, or locust, with no common 
name. It is generally of small size, 
many being less than half an inch in 

length, and few, if any, exceed¬ 
ing an inch. 

Tomato Worm : called also 
“tobacco worm,” “five-spotted 
sphinx,” etc. This is the largest 
green worm seen in the garden, 
and is familiar to every one. 
The cut (Fig. 75) represents 
also the pupa and the moth. 
^ The latter is often taken, at a 
little distance, for a humming¬ 
bird, as it sucks the sweets of 
flowers with its long, watch¬ 
spring-like proboscis. The only 
remedy for these comparatively 
few and innocent worms con- 
_ sists in crushing them to death 
'FiG.-jz.—NewVork Weevil. One by oiie by the hand. 

Twig Pruner: see Parallel 

larva; r, perfect insect. LongllOm, On page 883. 

Vine-Chafer, Spotted. This is a large, oval¬ 
shaped beetle, about one inch long and half an inch 
or a little more in width; of a shining brownish yellow 





Fig. 79. — White Pine 
Weevil. Pissodes strobi. 
a, larva ; pupa. 

a dark brown color, 



Fig. 80.— 
Calosoma 
calidum. 


or clay color above, with a small black spot on each 
side of the thorax. Fig. 76, at b, are shown the walls 
around the pupa, composed of 
wood and excrement. The larva 
is a large, clumsy grub, bearing 
a close resemblance to the com¬ 
mon white grub of our meadows. 

It appears to feed chiefly on the 
decaying roots of different herbs 
and trees. 

Weevils. The weevil of Fig. 

77 attacks the hazel-nut, and in 
its larval state is often found in¬ 
side the nut. The beetle is of 

but has a dense covering of yellow hair on 
the wing covers, and a sparse covering of 
such hair on the thorax, so that the insect 
has a rusty-yellow appearance. 

The New I ^ork Weevil is injurious to the 
apple-tree. It should be jarred off the tree 
as curculios are and destroyed. The in¬ 
fested twigs have to be cut off and burned. 
See page 20. 

The White Pine Weevil is of a rusty 
brown color, the thorax being darker than 
the wing-cases, with a minute white dot 
usually present on each side. It often proves very 
destructive to several species of pine. The eggs 
are deposited on the leading shoots of the nine, 
probably immediately underneath the outer bark. 
The larves hatched there bore into the wood, where 
they finally pupate, having taken care previously to 
gnaw a passage to the outer bark to allow an escape 
for the beetle, which emerges in early fall. The 
best remedy is to cut off the infested shoots in sum¬ 
mer and burn them. 

Wheat Midge: see Wheat. 

Insects, Friendly. These are such insects as 
prey mostly or exclusively upon other insects which 
are injurious to cultivated plants. 

We cannot propagate and rear them, 
but when we find a nest, cluster or 
swarm of them anywhere, we can forbear 
to destroy , them. The beautiful beetle 
in Fig. 82 preys 
upon the c a n k er 
wonn, the Colorado 
potato beetle and 
the May beetle. It fig. St.-white 
IS about an inch long. WeevU. 

The Chalcis parasite is a 
lately-discovered insect which 
preys upon the maple-tree bark 
louse. The natural size is in¬ 
dicated by short hair lines in the 
cut (Fig. 83). By the use of a 
little pocket lens, costing only |!i. 

It can be readily distinguished. 

Fig. 84 represents a genus of which there are sev¬ 
eral species in this country. 




Fig. 82, —Calosoma 
calidum. 





































INSECTS, REMEDIES FOR. 


887 


The Harp ALUS of Fig. 85 is a very common beetle, 
often found under stones, logs, etc., and frequently 

enters the house 
at night when 
there is a light. 
The larves feed 
upon the plum 
c u r c u 1 i o and 
other insects. 

Lady Bird, or 
Lady Bug. The 
cuts below (Figs. 
86 to 93) illus- 

Fig. 83.— Chaccis Parasite. Platygaster trate Several 
lecanii? a, larva; b. winged insect. SpecieS of the 

most useful insect to man. Almost every person is 
familiar with the little beauties. While they do no 
harm anywhere, they eat the eggs and young of 
almost all injurious insects. Fig. 87 is a larva of one 
species, which like some others as they develop, have 
rows of tubercles or spines. In growing up they 




Fig. 84. — Golden Eye. Chrysopa. rt, eggs; b. larva; f, cocoons; 

perfect insect. 


gradually assume the colors indicative of their spe¬ 
cific differences. When they have completed their 
growth they shorten their length, the back becomes 
more convex, and they fix themselves by the tail to 
the bark, twig, or leaf, enter the pupa, or chrysalis 
state, from which in a short time they emerge as fully 
developed lady-birds. These little bugs are very 
voracious in both the larval and developed form. 
Half a dozen of them will clean a currant or rose¬ 
bush of lice in three or four days, or less time. 

Locust Mite. This is one of the most efficient 
aids in keeping the locusts in check. When first 
hatched it is of an orange, or pale reddish color, ovoid 
in form, with six comparatively long and apparently 

cumbersome legs; it is 
then very minute. When 
it reaches in the process 
of growth what may be 
called the full-grown larval 
state, it is very different in 
form; it is now more 
elongated and cylindrical, 
with two transverse con¬ 
strictions; to use a rather 
ludicrous comparison, it 
resembles a microscopic 
potato. When it has reached the perfect state, it is 
of a deeper red, varying from orange red to scarlet. 
It is somewhat triangular in form with the angles 
rounded, being broadest in front and narrowing to 



Fig. 85. —Harpalus Pennsyl- 
vantcus. 



the rounded posterior extremity, thickly covered with 
short hairs; has eight legs. The male differs from 
the female in being shorter, and comparatively broader 
in front. 

Syrphus Flies. For the root-louse Syrphus fly of 
Fig. 94, see page 19. The species somewhat resembles 
the common house-fly in size and shajie, 
but are much handsomer, being usually 
of a bright yellow color, with bands and 
spots of black; the abdomen is flat- 
Fig 86 —spotted ffined, and usually marked with bands 
La'dy-dird. or partial bands of black. They are 
known in some sections as “ corn flies,” in others as 
“ sweat flies,” etc., as they are more numerous on hot 
days, and are often seen in great abundance when 
corn is in bloom, hovering around the stalks, poised 
in the air apparently motionless. They drop their 
eggs one in a place, upon the leaves and twigs which 
are infested with plant lice, led by instinct to know 
that these will form appropriate food for their young, 
although they as perfect insects feed on the sweets of 
flowers and other similar food. The larvae are usually 
of a transparent greenish color, and sometimes more 
or less clouded or spotted with other colors. They 
have no distinct head, not even 
eyes, and are of a long wedge 
shape, blunt and broadest be¬ 
hind. In feeding it elongates 
the front part of the body, feels 
around until it finds an aphis, 
grasps it by its mouth, raises it in 
the air and sucks all the juice 
out of it. 



Fig. 87.— Convergent 
Lady-Bird. 

Larva and pupa enlarged. 


Insects, Classified Remedies for. i. Give poison 
with their food. 2. Kill by applying irritants or 
poisons to the body. 3. Kill by mechanical means. 

4. Prevent the insects from reaching the food-plants. 

5. Prevent egg laying. 6. Capture and destroy. 7. 
Vary time of planting, 8. Practice thorough culture. 
Let us now consider these several methods more in 
detail. 

Use of Poisons. It will be remembered that 
most of our insect pests are mandibulate; and as all 
such crop and eat their food, we at once see that to 
exterminate the pests we have only to scatter some 
insect ]X)ison upon the food plants. Hence all in¬ 
sects that eat the foliage from our trees or vines, or 
even eat the cuticle of the leaves as do many slugs 
and caterpillars, may be killed by this first method. 

We have only to name the best poison, 
and the most practicable means to make 
the application. Paris green takes first 
rank as an insecticide. From its viru- 
lency as a poison its use cannot be made 
F1G88—universal. On vines and fruit trees, it 
ted Lady.Bird, should not be used if the tree and the 
^trideldm-* shrubs are in fruit, except very early in 
punctata, the season. The color of Paris green, 
as also its insolubility, are greatly in its favor. From 
the first it is not liable to be mistaken for some harm- 
























888 


INSECTS, REMEDIES FOR. 



Fig. i<^.-<i-Spotted 


less substance, and accidentally taken in medicine or 
used in cooking; and from the second it is power¬ 
less to poison the soil. 

Another arsenical poison, arsenite of lime, received 
from Hemingway & Co., London, and called by them 
London Purple, ’has been tried with 
good results. This substance is much 
cheaper than Paris green, has a some¬ 
what less favorable color, as it would 
be easily mistaken for some of the 
spices; but as it is readily soluble in Ladylsird-^ Coc- 
cold water, its use cannot be recom- g-notata. 
mended in the place of the very insoluble Paris 
green, except, perhaps, in some very rare instances. 
Paris green is specially desirable in ridding our shade 
trees and shrubbery of caterpillars and slugs which 
may threaten their destruction, in exterminating in¬ 
sects like the jxitato beetle, which feed upon such 
parts of the plants as are not used for food, in fight¬ 
ing canker worms and other similar insects which 
attack our orchards before the fruit is much grown, 
and always in preserving trees and vines not in 
bearing. 

These substances may be applied in the dry form, 
^ or mixed with water. In the dry form 
they may be mixed with flour in the 
rallV ratio of i to 8, or with plaster in the 
ratio of i to 50. If the first mixture is 
Fig —Trim should be applied when the 

Lady-^ird. Coc- viiies are dry, and the least possible 
cineiia munda. aiuount used. The second may be best 
used when the dew is on, and a good quantity will 
not injure the plants. The first mixture is less apt 
to be washed off by heavy rains; the second is safer 
in careless hands. The application is best made when 
there is little or no wind. 

In water about a tablespoonful of the poison may 
be used to two gallons of the liquid. As this is only a 
a mixture, and not a solution, care is requisite that 
this poison may not all settle to the bottom of the 
vessel. Frequent stirring 
will prevent this. We 
would advise the use of 
the above to extirpate the 
potato beetle, the cucum¬ 
ber beetle,—where it must 
be used with the greatest 
care so as not to injure 
the vine,—the canker worm, leaf rollers and the 
slugs and caterpillars that defoliate our evergreens, 
shade trees and shrubbery. On the border of a 
threatened oat field it might bring death to the army 
worm and relief to the crop. 

White hellebore is a less dangerous poison and in 
many cases as efficient as Paris green. This is a 
vegetable poison and is made from the root of the 
Veratrum album, a plant which grows abundantly 
along the slopes of the Alps. The ixjwder is cheap, 
costing only 40 cents per pound, while an ounce to 
two gallons of water will prove a deadly mixture to 
many of our pests. This is specially useful in corn- 



Fig. qi. — Twice-stabbed Lady- 
Bird. Chicolorus bivulnerus. 
Larva and Beetle. 



Fig. 92.— 
Larva of a 
Coccinella. 


bating the various slugs which attack our strawberry 
vines, raspberry, gooseberry and currant bushes, and 
evergreens. We emphasize its desirability in fighting 
the ubiquitous currant slug, which is aiming, with 
some show of success, to rob us of our currants, which 
means our best jelly and jelly cake. These blighting 
slugs do not all hatch at once, but come forth in suc¬ 
cessive broods, from the middle or last of May even 
to July. Hence several applications of the poison 
must be made, as many as the presence of the in¬ 
satiate destroyers demands. Ignorance or neglect of 
this fact has led some to lose faith in this remedy. 

Copperas in strong solution is a less efficient insecti¬ 
cide. Persian insect powder, Persian 
camomile, or pyrethrum, from Persia and 
Caucasian India, is said to be an effici¬ 
ent poison and may well be tried in our 
experiments to rid our plants, our carpets 
and furniture and our domestic animals 
of noxious insects. A teaspoonful of pure 
Persian chamomile heaped in a little cone 
and burned in a medium-sized room that 
is not ventilated during the burning, will kill every fly 
in it. If it fails to do this the powder is not genuine. 
To test its purity, put a little in a bottle with a dozen 
flies; when the bottle is closed they will go into 
spasms and die almost instantly if the drug is what it 
should be. “Persian insect powder,” like other things, 
is sometimes adulterated; it will also lose its strength 
if kept open too long. Druggists mix it with other 
ingredients for various purposes. Borax is a valuable 
addition when cockroaches are to be disposed of, but 
for flies, mosquitoes and bed-bugs the pure powder 
must be used. It costs from 70*to 80 cents a pound, 
has a bright, buff color, is light, burns readily, and 
gives a rather pleasant, tea-like fragrance. It is the 
powdered leaf of a harmless flower growing in Cau¬ 
casian Asia, where for centuries it has been used to 
keep the insect world in subjection. It acts on their 
breathing apparatus, evidently producing vertigo, 
respiratory spasms and paralysis, but is perfectly 
harmless and not particularly disagreeable to human 
beings. Of course, a little curl of blue smoke can’t 
be expected to kill the flies over all creation or even 
in a large airy space. It will weaken the ambition of 
all those which come within its influence, but to pro¬ 
duce death the effect must be concen¬ 
trated. 

In rooms where w'indows and doors 
are opened the burning powder will keep 
out unwelcome insect intruders. In a 
house protected by screens, the flies al¬ 
ready in may be most conveniently dis¬ 
posed of by using the dry powder with 
an insect gun, which costs about 25 cents. J oung . 

Puff the powder into a close, warm room 
until the air is filled with it; then shut 
the door and return in half an hour. If every fly in 
it is not either dead or dying, throw away your 
powder, and send to a reliable dealer for that which 
is good. Pure Persian insect jwwder never fails in 



ir 


Fig. 

\ocusi 
Mite. Trom- 
bidiuni locust- 
arum. 














INSECTS, REMEDIES FOR. 


889 


its effect. For bed-bugs puff the powder with the 
insect gun into all the cracks and crevices where 
such vermin harbor; leave the room undisturbed for 
a few hours, closely shut meanwhile ; they will walk 



Fig. 94. — Root-Louse Syrphus Fly. Pipiza radicum. 
a , larva ; pupa ; c. perfect fly. 


out and surrender at discretion; a semi-annual 
application will prevent all further trouble. Dust 
your house-plants, your pet dog and your- poultry 
with insect powder, but don’t undertake to kill spiders 
or you will be disappointed. 

Tar water is good to destroy and drive away insects 
on plants. So is gas-coal tar. To apply the latter, 
put 4 or 5 gallons gas-coal tar in a barrel; fill up 
half full with water, and stir well, so the water will 
become impregnated with the tar; after the tar has 
separated from the water sprinkle the latter on your 

lX)tatoes, cucumbers, rose bushes, 
cabbages, etc. Care must be 
taken that the water be not too 
strong. 

Though we are ])owerless to 
jxiison the food of sucking insects. 

Fig 9 —'syrphusFly administer 

a, iarva\ T. part oi a seg- death by the application of ex- 
ment highly magnified. temal poisOllS. The beSt SUb- 

stances for such are a weak solution of carbolic acid, 
a Strong suds either of whale-oil or common soft soap 
and tobacco water. The addition of a half teacupful 
of crude petroleum to two gallons 
of either of the above makes them 
the more effective. These sub¬ 
stances are peculiarly efficient in 
fighting slogs, cabbage worms,—in ^ 
which cases they may aUo have larva feeding on a 
acted as internal ]X)isons,—lice on 
house plants,—where much care is required, especially 
with the tenderer plants, or they will be injured by a 
too strong fluid,—plant lice, bark lice,—which latter 
are most susceptible just after hatching,—and the 
many lice and ticks wffiich infest our domestic animals. 
In these last cases carbolic acid solution is very 
valuable, and shoilld be freely sprinkled about the 
kennels, stables, and poultry houses. The tobacco 
water and kerosene are also very excellent. Persian 
insect powder is also recommended highly by many 
dog and chicken fanciers, for the destruction of vermin 
in kennels and poultry houses. 

Lime, ashes, and even road dust are destructive to 
some of the more tender-skinned insects, especially 
to such as secrete a slimy, viscid substance which 


covers their bodies, as do some of the slugs. Such 
treatment is quite satisfactory in case of the pear and 
cherry tree slugs. Dusting the plants with lime and 
ashes is often recommended as preventing the rav¬ 
ages of the various leaf-eating beetles. We have 
found these unsatisfactory. 

'To drive away all sorts of insects about a kitchen 
or cupboard, let two or three bottles of ammonia 
stand unstopped in the place. 

Destruction by .Mechanical Means. Many in¬ 
sects from their large size, like the tomato worm, and 
grape-vine sphinx, and others from their gregarious 
habits, like the tent caterpillar, fall-web worm, and 
red-humped caterpillar, are easily reached and crushed 
with the hand. A glove may make the work more 
pleasant, but no more thorough. All the above except 
the first may be dispatched by use of a musket loaded 
with a light charge of powder, or by a torch at the 
end of a long {X)le, though not without danger to the 
trees attacked. Other insects, like the borers and 
radish and onion maggots, are so out of reach that 
poisoning is impracticable. The first may be dug out 
and crushed, or crushed with a wire, while scalding 
with boiling water has been practiced successfully in 
destroying both the borers and the maggots. 

Many cut-worms, from their habits of climbing 
trees and vines ih search of the tender buds which 
they destroy, or plants to cut them off, are easily 
foiled by the gardener or pomologist. A band of tin 
about vine or tree is an impassable barrier to these 
terrible destroyers, which spend the day in the earth 
and go forth to their evil work when night and dark¬ 
ness serve them as a shield. Sized paper about cab¬ 
bage and tomato plants, held close by a mound of 
earth, are an equally efficient barricade to the gardei* 
cut-worms. 

Preventing Egg-Laying. 'I'o nip evil in the 
bud, has been the study and desire of philanthropists 
ever since the primal temptation. To secure against 
the egg-laying of injurious insects, is one of the ways. 
The best, if not the only, way to accomplish this, is to 
render thb plants obnoxious, so that the female in¬ 
sect shall pass by on the other side. Thus, washing 
the fruit trees, especially young apple-trees, with soft 
soap early in June, and again early in July, keeps the 
borers from egg-laying; and this is most desirable in 
orchard culture. Carbolic acid and kerosene mix¬ 
tures, and even strong soap-suds either of whale-oil 
or common soft soap, are valuable to repel the peach 
and squash-vine borers, the radish, onion and cab¬ 
bage flies, and cabbage butterfly; and we have much 
reason to think that frequent drenchings of an apple- 
tree with strong soap-suds is an absolute protection 
from the codling moth. 

How TO Dust or Syringe Plants. For dusting 
plants with Paris green, hellebore, etc., there are sev¬ 
eral patented machines, though we have yet to see a 
more convenient or easily managed ajipliance than a 
simple bag of muslin tied to the end of a broom-stick. 
To prevent waste while filling, this should be placed 
in the vessel which holds the powder, or in some other 

















890 


IJVSECTS, REjMEDIES FOR. 


vessel, a common milk-pan serves admirably. To 
sift the powder upon the plants we have only to jerk 
the bag containing it, above them, gauging the force 

to the amount of 





according 


Pu;. 97.— Fiea, Pulex irriians. 



I'lG- 98. —Head 
Louse, Pediculus 
capitis. 


the substance which it is de¬ 
sired to apply. On small 
plants, like young potato 
vines, we think this the most 
economical method of apply¬ 
ing the poison. To use the 
liquid mixtures or solutions 
in a small way on low vines 
or shrubs, a common sprink¬ 
ler with a linely-perforated rose serves well, and re¬ 
quires no expense, except, perhaps, for a new nozzle, 
as the usual nozzles are too coarse. For syringing 
trees, shrubs, flower beds, and house plants, we know 
of nothing comparable to Whitman’s fountain pump. 
This little engine is so easily worked that a child can 
use it, and yet will throw a stream 20 
or 30 feet high. The Johnston pump 
throws water faster than Whitman’s, 
though not quite so far. This is a fine 
engine, and sells for ^8. The Whit¬ 
man fountain pump will not work well 
if pointed much below the horizontal, 
lienee is not useful in sprinkling po¬ 
tato vines. It retails at I7.50. Lewis’ 
syringe is an improved squirt-gun of 
the kind made and used by children 
to amuse themselves. Replace the 
small alder tube with one of tin or brass, that holds 
three or four quarts, and the cloth-wound piston by 
one of rubber, and you have it. It costs but $1, and 
works well. In case of field ^wtatoes, Ruggle’s ex¬ 
terminator is probably the best. \Vith 
this machine an acre can be sprinkled 
in an hour. It consists of a large 
tank which holds the liquid. This, 
when in use, is strapped upon the back 
of Jhe person using it. An agitator 
which works inside the can keeps the 
mixture well stirred. This is moved 
by a strap which is fastened to the 
operator’s arm. From either side of 
the bottom of the can, pass two rubber 
hose, each temiinating with a fine rose. These are 
held, one in either hand, so that two rows are sprinkled 
at once. By raising or pressing the hose the flow is 
stopped. The only objection we find to the use of 
this is on the score of economy; though if the vines 
were close together in one direction, this would be 
small. For sprinkling potato vines in a large 
field, this is the best instrument we have seen. It 
retails at $6.50. 

Tr.4pping Noxious Insects. Many insects, if 
disturbed, will fall to the earth. Therefore, if we’ jar 
the trees or bushes which lodge the pests, after 
placing a sheet underneath, we may easily catch and 
destroy them. By this means the plum curculio can 
be cheaply destroyed, and one of our most valued fruits 



Fig. qq. —Body 
Louse. Pediculus 
corpons. 



Fic.. 100 .—Horse Fly. 
I'abanus atratus. 


saved from almost certain destruction. The grape 
curculio, the blister beetles and the rose chafer can 
lie all caught in like way. In large plum orchards it 

pays to have the sheet stretched 
upon a frame in the form of an 
inverted umbrella, and carried 
by a wheelbarrow or cart. A 
slil permits this to pass immedi¬ 
ately under the tree. 'I'he jar 
must be sharp, and to prevent 
injury to the trees or limbs, spikes should be driven 
in, and these, not the trees, should be struck with the 
mallet. Some insects are wont to hide under boards, 
chips or rubbish. The plum curculio, early in the 
season, and the squash bugs and cut-worms are 
examples. Hence, if chips be placed under jflum 
trees in May or June, they will be appropriated for 
shelter and protection during the day, as the insects 
are nocturnal; and when thus hid, the curculio may 
be easily gathered and destroyed. Neglect to gather 
them in before four o’clock in the afternoon makes 
the experiment only partially suc¬ 
cessful, as some may have gone 
to the tree to be on hand for the 
night’s banquet. Squash bugs 
are also nocturnal, and may be 
captured by placing old boards or 
wilted leaves on the ground among 
the vines. The similar habits of 
the cut-worms suggests a similar 
trap. In this case some fresh- 
mown grass is better for a trap. 

This placed in a cleanly kept 
garden a few evenings in succession before setting the 
plants, will attract the marauders in quest of the grow¬ 
ing plants. The next day the grass may be removed 
and the caterpillars crushed. The successful practice 
of any of the above methods makes perfectly clean 
culture imperative in orchard and garden. 

Many insects, when full- 
fed as larvae, seek some 
crevice or other place of 
concealment in which to 
pupate. This habit of the 
apple worm—larva of the 
C O d 1 i n g moth—has fur¬ 
nished us with the only suc¬ 
cessful method yet practiced 
for its overthrow. If cloth 
or thick paper bands be 
placed about the trees; they 
may be fastened with a 
tack or string; these will, 
in the absence of rubbish 
about the trees and rough 
bark scales on the tree- 
trunks, attract nearly every larva that passes from 
the fruit. Some will leave the hanging fruit and 
crawl down to the band; others will escape from the 
fallen apples and pass up the trunk till the band is 
reached, when they will crawl underneath, spin their 



Fig. 101. —Itch Mite. 
Sarcoptes scabiei. 



Fig. 102. —Itch Mite of the 
Horse. Sarcoptes equi. 


















INSECTS, EARASITIC. 


frail cocoons, and become chrysalids. The bands 
should be in place by June 25, should be examined 
by July 10, and thus, on every loth day till August i, 
and again after the fruit is gathered. The best way 
to kill the insects is to loosen the bands and crush with 
the thumb. Four cents a tree would cover all ex¬ 
pense, and by co-operation of all in a neighborhood it 
might be made even less. 

Many insects, like the chinch bug, the squash bug, 
etc., hibernate in winter, crawling for protection under 
or into rubbish heaps, under corn-stalks left in the 
field, etc. Burning up all such heaps in winter will 
not only cremate these pests, but add to the farmer’s 
reputation for neatness. It is well-known that the 
chinch bugs and army worms, after devastating one 
field, march with merciless tread to another. Deep 
furrows or ditches are sometimes made about the 
threatened field, with steep side toward it, and as this 
becomes full of the migratory pests, straw should be 
added, alid all burned together. Trapping the cod¬ 
ling moth in the cellar by having the windows closely 
screened in May and June, and forcing them to tarry 
and die where they are impotent to do harm, is a wise 
precaution which should never be neglected. 

Destruction of Eggs. The eggs of most insects 
are too small and inconspicuous to be easily gathered. 
In a few cases, however, this is a practical method. 
The clustered brown eggs of the squash bug under¬ 
neath the leaves are (piickly seen. The yellow clus¬ 
ters of the potato beetle are conspicuous. The 
concentrated rows of the currant saw-flies’ eggs, 
along the veins of the leaves, are quickly discovered 
by the minute holes cut out by the earliest hatched 
slugs. The little green eggs of the cabbage butterfly, 
though obscure, are quickly seen with a little practice, 
and their riddance from small cabbage plants would 
afford useful employment for children. In some cases 
early sowing of grain will help to avoid insects. This 
is true of the wheat midge. Late sowing or planting 
is sometimes successfully practiced with the Hessian 
fly, the cut-worms, the pea weevil and the radish fly. 

Good Culture. It is almost superfluous to state 
that thorough culture, which means a systematic 
rotation of crops, ample fertilization and deep tillage, 
will do much to insure against calamity from insects. 
Many insects choose the weakest plants, and it is a 
principle broad as nature that the strong will survive 
calamity while fhe weak go to the wall. Grow only 
vigorous varieties, keep much stock, which means 
much manure. Apply this wisely, and then till 
thoroughly, and you will do much to solve this whole 
question. 

Insects, Parasitic. In all the vast realm of insect 
life, there are no species so justly abhorrent and so 
miserably disgusting as the external parasites on man 
and the lower animals. Their very look is repulsive, 
their habits intolerable,—in sooth they are fit com¬ 
panions of the dirt and filth which ever serve as the 
kindly foster mother to these most repellant of ani¬ 
mals. Well may the neat housewife start aghast at 


891 


the sight of the nasty bed-bug, or blush with shame 
and confusion at the news that her own fond kin are 
nourishing those repulsive pygmies, head lice. The 
thrifty farmer also dreads the presence of these ter¬ 
rible, bloodthirsty minions on his kine, for he knows 
that the prosperity of his animals is well nigh impos¬ 
sible if they must give of their substance to nourish 
these noxious pests of the barn and poultry house. 

Fleas. As the immature fleas live upon the 
organic matter of dirt and filth, these animals can 
only thrive as the companions of untidiness and neg¬ 
lect. With filth and neglect, the dog, cat and hen- 
fleas will put in an appearance; and it is an 
unwelcome fact that these latter are nothing loth to 
take a sip from our own precious blood when oppor¬ 
tunity offers. 

The dog-flea is so named as it prefers to satiate its 
bloodthirsty appetite from the dog. If dogs are per¬ 
mitted to harbor these annoying pests, the latter will 
gain admittance to houses, will hide in carpets, mats, 
etc., and anon, as occasion permits, will slake their 
thirst with human blood. “ Biting as they run,” they 
quickly inflict their painful wounds on various parts 
of the body. The color of the dog-flea is dark chest¬ 
nut, darker than the human flea, and unlike the latter, 
it has sharp spines projecting from the lower lateral 
borders of the head and the posterior edge of the 
first thoracic ring. The small, oval white eggs are 
laid on the animal, or in the dust of the kennel. The 
larvae are footless maggots with lateral hairs, and live 
in dust and dirt, where they feed upon the organic 
matter which these contain. They mature in about 
two weeks, when they spin their cocoons, in which 
the inactive pupas may soon be seen. In two weeks 
more the mature fleas hop forth. There are several 
broods in a season. They pass the winter certainly 
as imagos or mature fleas, and perhaps in other 
stages. 

The cat-flea is very similar and perhaps identical 
with the dog-flea. 

The hen-flea infests the poultry house and attacks 
the hens. Other species live on pigeons, bats, etc. 
All of the species will test the quality of human blood, 
if opportunity offers. The fact that larval fleas love 
and only flourish in the dust and dirt accounts for the 
lively appearance of the dust often noticed in poultry 
yards and about gardens, where the dogs, cats and 
poultry lie or roll. From being seen in such locali¬ 
ties, the mature insects are sometimes called sand- 
fleas. 

Itch Mite. Fig. loi gives a magnified view of 
the almost microscopic insect which produces the 
itch on the human being, and Fig. 102 the creature 
that works similarly on the skin of the horse. They 
live, feed and reproduce their kind in small, sub¬ 
cutaneous galleries which their own feasting produces. 
The intolerable itching which they produce causes 
the person or animal to scratch and break the skin, 
producing pustules. The easiest remedy is a solution 
of sulphuret of potassium, 2 to 4 ounces to a gallon of 
water. The same is also the best remedy for the face 











/JVSECTS, FARASITIC. 


892 


mite, much smaller than the preceding, and lives in 
the pimples or diseased follicles about the nose and 
chin. 

Bed-bug. Among “wingless flies” we have, as 
external parasites, the nasty, disgusting and too com¬ 
mon bed-bugs and the even more repulsive lice. As 
we are not treating here of the human parasites, 
we will only say that the bed-bug is exceedingly 
tenacious of life, as it has been kept in a bottle for 
years without food, and through all this long fast 
seemed to lose none of its activity or appetite. The 
best remedy for bed-bugs is a free use of the thor¬ 
oughly rectified benzine. This will not injure bed¬ 
ding, and is quick death to all the bugs that it touches. 
It should be poured into all suspicious crevices. Old 
houses that harbor these obnoxious pests should be 
closely shut up, and then thoroughly fumigated with 
burning sulphur, which becomes a fitting insecticide 
for the bugs. It would be better if the house were 
entirely empty during this operation. Thorough ven¬ 
tilation should succeed the fumigation. 

Lice. The lice of man and other animals are 
wingless bugs. The head and thorax are small and 
narrow, the latter indistinctly segmented, while the 
abdomen is flask-shaped, with nine rings, often plainly 
marked. The eyes are simple and very small, the 
antennjE five-jointed and prominent, while the tarsi 
or feet are two-jointed, the last joint of which is modi¬ 
fied into a hook for grasping the hair. The sucking- 
tube of lice—the cause of the hardest scratching in 
the world—is very complex and curious. The whole 
of this organ, when not in use, is drawn into the head. 
So all lice are criminals in the sight of the law and 
subjects for conviction, on the ground of bearing con¬ 
cealed weapons. The lower lip is thrown out, as we 
would push out the finger of a glove that was drawn 
in upon drawing the glove from the hand. Inside of 
this there are numerous hooks, which, when the tube 
is rolled out to its utmost, attain the outside and 
point back like the barbs of a fish-hook. When these 
barbs are pushed through a sweat-pore, each hooks 
on to the wall. We thus understand the tenacious 
hold which characterizes a louse while at dinner. 
When, preparatory to sucking, the hooks have been 
duly adjusted, two other tubes, one within the other, 
spy-glass-like, are extended, the maxillae forming the 
inner or terminal point of the extension, and the man¬ 
dibles the remainder. The whole proboscis has been 
compared to an elastic probe. This is forced into 
the skin till it pierces the blood vessels, when by the 
forcible action of the strong muscular sucking-stomach, 
these irrepressible blood-suckers are enabled to take a 
quick meal. 

There are three species of lice that disturb the 
peace and quiet of the human family. The head- 
louse is the most common. It is said that in olden 
times it was thought no disgrace, but fashionable and 
desirable, to harbor and nourish these crawling pyg¬ 
mies of the head ; now they are only common among 
such people as neglect personal neatness. The most 
cleanly person may be so unfortunate as to possess 


specimens not pinned in an entomological cabinet, 
but he will soon banish them according to the fashion 
well understood in all civilized society. The gray- 
back, or body-louse (Fig. 99) is not confined to the 
head, and was the irritating pest of our brave soldiers 
in the late war. It is apt to be a source of annoy¬ 
ance in lumber camps and on ship-board. This 
species is so like the head-louse in appearance that, 
were not the habits so different, we might almost 
regard them as identical. The crab-louse receives 
its common name from its close resemblance in form 
to the crab, and its specific name from the region of 
its attacks (Phthirius pubis). 

Both of the last-mentioned may be banished by 
the use of a little mercurial ointment, which is a 
poison and should be used with care, or of kerosene 
and sulphur, which are to be applied to the part of 
the body attacked. As the eggs will continue to 
hatch for a time, the application will need to be re¬ 
peated at intervals of six or seven days for two or 
three weeks. Cleanliness is the great preventive, 
which in this case is certainly better and vastly more 
pleasant than cure. 

Bird Lice. These lice, although the sucking-tube 
is replaced by jaws, are, nevertheless, degraded 
Hemiptera, or bugs. The species are very numerous. 
Nearly all birds have one or more species to annoy 
them, while the hen has five or six. 

Remedies. The washes already described for fleas 
are also efficacious in destroying lice. If the decoc¬ 
tion of tobacco, or the kerosene and water, is to be 
used in cold weather on cattle or calves, especially 
the latter, they should be kept in a warm room, or 
well-blanketed until thoroughly dry. If an ointment, 
made of sulphur, lard and kerosene, be applied to the 
heads and under the wings of fowls that are annoyed 
with lice, the latter will soon disappear. The nests 
should be sprinkled with sulphur, the roosts washed 
with kerosene, the house and yard sprinkled with 
carbolic acid solution, and the poultry house fre¬ 
quently whitewashed. Persian insect powder dusted 
upon or rubbed into the hair and feathers of animals 
attacked by lice, will destroy the pests without harm 
to the animals. Ointments may be easily applied 
with the common brushes used in grooming horses. 
No good farmer or fancier will allow his animals to 
suffer from these enervating parasites if he but knows 
of these cheap and effective remedies. A little 
care will work entire prevention, while but a little 
labor is required to work a radical cure. 

Spider-Ticks and Mites. Many will remember 
an old-time disease, happily very rare in our times, 
which, as surely as the traditional peck of dirt, 
would come to make its seven years’ sojourn, not 
only in the best of families, but even as the guest of the 
fairest. This disease, very appropriately christened 
the itch, of those—ought we say “good old times?”— 
was caused by the irritating presence of a wee animal, 
the itch mite. A near relative causes the mange, or • 
scab, of our domestic animals, which are niore polite 
terms for the same thing, the itch. The “ red spider,” 









INSECTS, TARASITIC. 


or “ red louse,” of our poultry houses, and the large 
ticks, whose bite is so painful to ourselves and the 
lower animals, are also near relatives. 

Spiders. These tormenting pests are not true in¬ 
sects, but are a family of themselves. They have 
only two divisions of the body, head and abdomen. 
Their eyes are simple; they are without antenme, and 
when mature always have eight legs. 

The mites have rounded, non-articulated abdomens, 
can suck as well as bite, while many have at first but 
six legs. The habits of mites are very varied. Some, 
like those in question, are parasitic; others, like the 
wee red spider, are very destructive to plants on 
whose juices they subsist. Still others, like the cheese 
and sugar mites, are destructive to the articles which 
give them their names. They are often met singly 
and as often in great numbers. 

Ticks. The largest of these animals are the ticks 
which are often found on cattle that feed in the 
woods. Nor do the “ wood ticks” confine their blood¬ 
thirsty attacks to our domestic animals, as many of 
us well know by painful experience. Often, as a boy, 
did we have to pay a painful penalty for those delight¬ 
ful strolls in the grand old forests, laid on by one of 
these same ticks. One feels the darting pain, and 
upon immediate examination, finds the cruel tick 
deeply buried and so firmly anchored that the at¬ 
tempted liberation tears the head from the body. 
Both their jaws and their tongue are covered with 
teeth, each of which takes hold to prevent the ex¬ 
traction of its possessor. The ticks at first have but 
six legs. They are not enough of a pest in the North¬ 
ern States to warrant a further consideration at this 
time. 

The red mite which attacks our poultry in such 
alarming numbers, is soft-bodied, oval in form, and, 
though very small, is from its crimson hue easily dis¬ 
cerned without a microscope. The young have only 
six legs. We have found by actual experiment that 
they could inflict quite a painful bite, even upon our 
own persons. They may cause horses much annoy¬ 
ance when the horse stable and hen roost are one 
and the same. The ointment made of sulphur, lard 
and kerosene works a speedy cure of this evil among 
the poultry. We have no doubt but that this same 
ointment or the kerosene wash would rid larger ani¬ 
mals if attacked by these liliputian pests. Other 
species attack turkeys, pigeons and even the cage 
birds of our houses. 

The mange in horses is only another term for itch. 
It is caused by a small but visible mite, which often 
swarms on horses. Other species cause the scab in 
sheep and in cattle. 

Remedies. Tire kerosene wash, made quite weak, 
is effectual. The ointment made of kerosene and 
sulphur is another good remedy. 

Trichina. If any one examines a piece of pork 
containing trichinae, he will notice that the flesh pre¬ 
sents an unusual appearance, as if it contained vast 
numbers of little grains. An examination with a 
magnifier will show numerous little bodies, which 




taper at each end among the fibers of the muscles, 
and within each of these bodies is a small worm 
coiled up in a spiral form, as in Fig. 103. If a piece 
of such flesh be eaten, it is digested and the enclosed 
worms aie set free within the stomach of the person. 



Fig. 103.— Trichina spiralis, in a piece of pork, magnified. 

The worm at once develops to its full size, which is 
about i-28th of an inch in length, and becomes 
sexual. It both produces its young alive and from 
eggs, and is very prolific. The young worms, and 
very minute .they are, pierce and pass through the 
walls of the stomach and intestines, and make their 
way to all parts of the body. When they have located 
themselves in the muscles, they become “ encysted, 
or enclosed by a sort of membrane or sac. In time 
this often becomes hardened by a deposit of lime, 
and being quite white, is quite often conspicuous. 
These minute cysts are about i-2oth of an inch long, 
and i-iooth of an inch broad, and contains the worm 
coiled in a spiral. Being in size hair-like, its name 
Trichina is formed from the Greek word for “ hair,” 
and its specific name spiralis refers to its manner of 
coiling when dormant. It is estimated that a cubic 
inch of flesh may contain over 80,000 of these cysts. 
It may be readily imagined that these myriads of 
minute worms, in piercing the stomach and intestines, 
and making their passage throughout the muscles of 
the body, must cause great pain, and the presence of 
all these foreign bodies in the muscles produce serious 

illness. The disease caused by them is called 

trichinosis, and sometimes trichiniasis, and is most 

frequently fatal. If 
the patient recovers, 
he carries the encysted 
trichinae in his muscles 
through life. This 
parasite is brought 
into the human body 
only by the eating of 
infested pork. The 
animal’s flesh becomes 

Fig. zo^.— Older State of Trichina, filled with encvSted 
Highly magnified. trichinae, which remain 

dormant until they find themselves in the human 
stomach. Practically there is little or no danger from 
trichinae if pork be thoroughly cooked. The cases in 
this country, at least, have all been traced to the 
European custom of eating uncooked ham, sausage, 
etc. In boiling, the pieces should not be large, else 
the trichinae in the middle will not be killed. 



































894 


INSECT BITES—INSURANCE. 


Insect Bites. When a mosquito, flea, gnat or other 
noxious insect punctures the human skin, it de^xisits 
or injects an atom of an acidulous fluid of a ix)isonous 
nature. The results are irritation, a sensation of tick¬ 
ling, itching, or pain. The tickling of flies we are 
comparatively indifferent about; but the itch produced 
by a flea, gnat, or other noisome insects disturbs our 
serenity, and like the pain of a wasp or bee sting, 
excites us to a remedy. The best remedies for the 
sting of insects are those which will instantly neu¬ 
tralize this acidulous ix)ison deposited in the skin. 
'I'hese are either ammonia or borax. The akaline 
reaction of borax is scarcely yet sufficiently apprecia¬ 
ted. However, a time will come when its good qual¬ 
ities will be known and more universally valued than 
ammonia, or as it is commonly termed, “hartshorn.” 
The solution of borax for insect bites is made thus: 
Dissolve one ounce of borax in one pint of water 
that has been boiled and allowed to cool. Instead 
of plain water, distilled rose water, elder, or orange- 
flower water is more pleasant. The bites are to be 
dabbed with the solution so long as there is any irri¬ 
tation. For bees’ or wasps’ stings, the borax solution 
•may be made of twice the above strength. In every 
house this solution should be kept as a household 
remedy. 

Instinct, inward impulse. It is a guide to phys¬ 
ical welfare, propagation of the species, etc. The 
tendency of modern teachings is that we should heed 
our instincts more strictly than we do. We have as 
a race neglected them so long that we scarcely know 
how to obey them; and to learn this simple thing 
requires more unlearning of bad habits of thought 
than positive ideas. Wisdom consists infinitely more 
in the abandonment of wrong ideas than in obtaining 
right ones. Most of what we call common sense are 
simply instinctive or intuitive ideas; and nearly all 
persons imagine that they have learned by experience 
what they really have “evolved from their own inner 
consciousness.” 

Insurance. A contract whereby, for a stipulated 
consideration, called premium, one party undertakes 
to indemnify another in case of certain losses. The 
party undertaking to make the indemnity is called 
the insurer or underwriter, and the one to be indem¬ 
nified, the assured or insured. The instrument by 
which the contract is made is denominated a policy ; 
the events or causes of loss insured against, risk or 
perils, and the thing insured, the subject or insurable 
interest. The fundamental principle of insurance is 
mutual support in case of loss, so that the loser will 
not loose all, but have something with which to con¬ 
tinue successfully the battle of life. The contribu¬ 
tions to the general fund to provide against loss are 
“ premiums.” 

Fire Insurance. The importance of maintaining 
a considerable, if not full, insurance on farm property, 
residences, furniture, barns, stables, produce in store, 
implements and stock, is too much under-rated, even 
by ordinarily prudent farmers. While their property 


is wholly relieved from liability from damage by the 
spread of fire from the houses of others, so common a 
peril in cities, it is subjected to far greater liability to 
complete destruction from the lack of means to ex¬ 
tinguish fire, and from the increased difficulty of col¬ 
lecting help where neighbors are so remote. The 
farmer’s risk in the country may be on the whole less 
than that of a business man in the city, but so Avill 
the insurance be less; and in any case the risk will 
always be sufficient to make insurance, to a consider¬ 
able proixirtion of the total value, a matter of wise 
precaution. He is very unlikely to spend any money 
to a better purpose. Grain, stored in barns or cribs, 
is frequently the heaviest loss in case of fire; for if it 
is not burned it is sure to be too much damaged to 
be marketable. Even when stacked in the field it 
may be prudent to protect it by a"** policy,” for it is by 
no means safe from thieves, or lightning, or, if near a 
railroad, from the sparks of locomotives. The difficulty 
of rescuing live stock of all kinds from burning build¬ 
ings is well known; hence the necessity of insuring 
them also. In taking out a fire policy, see that it in¬ 
sures against lightning, as well as fire. A building 
may be burned at any time, involving the loss of ac¬ 
cumulated propt^ty of many years, and but few farm¬ 
ers can afford to run such a risk. All can afford to, 
and should have, their buildings insured in some good 
company. The person holding a policy is always 
more watchful—observing the wise precautions en¬ 
joined by the insurance company. Explosive oils will 
not be used, or if employed they will be with greater 
care. Smoking will not be indulged in upon the hay 
mow as frequently as when no policy is rendered void 
by such acts. Thus there is a double safety in being 
insured; and it pays, unless the owner is rich and can 
afford to be his own insurance company; and even 
then it may be wise to have one’s property insured. 

Marine Insurance. Farmers sometimes take the 
risk of shipping their own products, especially if they 
are in the vicinity of navigable lakes and rivers, and 
save the profits which “middle-men”, or commission 
merchants, make. Such risks usually cover “perils of 
the sea, fire, barratry, theft, piracy, arrests and deten¬ 
tions.” “Barratry” is a rather obscure risk, but it is 
defined to be any “wrongful act done against the in¬ 
surer by the master, officers or crew.” The modes and 
terms of insurance against marine risks vary with the 
circumstanses of every case. The premium is pro¬ 
portioned to the probable perils of the voyage. 

Life Insurance. This is the simplest of all forms 
of precaution against mischance, and is usually ap¬ 
plied either to the protection of a family against want 
when the father dies, or to the protection of a creditor 
in case the debtor has no available property. The in¬ 
sured cannot, of course, be benefited by a policy 
which becomes payable only when he dies, but some 
companies, organized on the mutual system, allow a 
policy-holder to draw a certain sum, proportioned to 
the amount of his policy, after the regular payment of 
his premiums for a certain time.^ The parties to a life 
policy are usually the same as in fire or marine insur- 








INTEREST. 


895 


ance, the company and the insured; but very fre¬ 
quently a creditor, or any one having a pecuniary 
interest in the life of another, as a sister in that of a 
brother who supports her, will take a policy on the life 
ot the person to whom that interest attaches. This 
third party is the real party in interest, and is called 
the “ life-insured,” while the person upon whom the 
policy is taken is called the “insured.” 

All forms of insurance are essentially alike, and all 
are so completely settled by the rules and conditions 
set forth in the policies that it would be useless to re¬ 
peat or comment upon them here. In what compa¬ 
nies, or upon what terms to obtain insurance, every 
man must judge for himself. Old and well-established 
companies are the safest, and they are generally repre¬ 
sented in a community by solid men. Always read 
your policy carefully over before you take it, to see 
just exactly what it covers, and what precautions 
against fire it may require on your part. You will not 
then be so liable to be beaten out of your insurance 
by some technicality in case of the accident. It is 
obvious that the concealment of any material facts to 
the detriment to property or health in any sort of in¬ 
surance will vitiate the policy, and thus free the com¬ 
pany from any obligations to pay the stipulated amount 
should loss ensue. 

That aninsurance policy in a safe and reliable com¬ 
pany, both on life and property, is an excellent invest¬ 
ment few will deny. Man is very largely a “creature of 
circumstance,” and liable to many misfortunes he 
cannot foresee, and from which he cannot escape. 
Houses and barns may be burned without any fault 
of the owner, and death is sure to come to every one. 
Although one may not be able to prevent either, he 
does have the power, to some extent, of protection 
against many of the evil results of these events, and 
thus lighten the burden. As a remedy for these ills 
the method of insurance was inaugurated. Men who 
have families depending on them for support, may, in 
time of health, make provision to a great extent by 
this means for their wants should death come to 
them, which it is liable to at any time. 

Interest, allowance made for the use of money, or 
for an investment. 

Compound interest is interest upon interest. This 
is scarcely ever allowed. The United States Supreme 
Court rule forbids it in calculating what is due upon 
a note. The rule reads as follows: “Wdren a partial 
payment is made, apply it first to the discharge of the 
interest then due; if the payment exceeds the inter¬ 
est, the surplus goes towards discharging the principal, 
and the subsequent interest is to be computed on the 
balance of principal remaining due. If the payment 
be less than the interest, the surplus of interest must 
not be taken to augment the principal; but interest 
continues on the former principal until the period 
when the payments taken together exceed the interest 
due, and then the surplus is to be applied toward 
discharging the principal, and interest is to be com¬ 
puted on the balance as aforesaid.” 

The foregoing rule is based on the principle that 


neither interest nor payment shall draw interest, the 
aim being, as with legislatures and courts generally, 
to favor the debtor. The above rule, however, in 
some cases, would work against the debtor. For in¬ 
stance, suppose he gives his note for ^2,000 at six per 
cent, interest, and he pays on it $10 a month, which 
just meets “the interest then due;' at the end of the 
year he would still owe the $2,000. But iC he had 
invested the $10 each month at six per cent., he 
would have had at the end of the year $123.30 avail¬ 
able for payment, by which time the interest on his 
note would have reached only $120, being a differ¬ 
ence of $3.30 in his favor, and leaving his debt 
$1,996.70, instead of $2,000. Thus we see that the 
closer the payments are together the greater the loss 
of the debtor, who thus suffers a penalty for his very 
promptness. 

The foregoing defect does not exist in what is call¬ 
ed the Connecticut rule for calculating partial pay¬ 
ments, as that allows interest on payments made 
before they are due. The rule, however, is somewhat 
tediously worded. The simplest rule is that which 
is known as the Vermont, or merchants’rule, and is 
often used throughout the United States when settle¬ 
ment takes place within a year after interest begins. 
Its principle is this: “Subtract the sum of all the 
payments with their respective interest from the 
amount of the principal for the whole time.” But the 
most just rule is this: “Starting at the time interest 
begins, find the present worth by simple interest of 
each payment; deduct the sum of these present 
worths from the principal; the amount of the balance 
by simple interest, to the day of settlement, will be 
the sum then due.” 

“ Present worth ” is the sum which, at the prevail¬ 
ing rate of interest, will amount to the debt when 
due. The principle of this rule is, each payment dis¬ 
charges a part of the principal with its simple interest 
to the day the payment is made, making interest and 
principal due at the same time, instead of the interest 
all due first and the principal afterward. 

To Calculate Interest. To find the interest for 
any number of days, the simplest rule is the follow¬ 
ing: For 6 per cent., multiply the amount by the 
number of days, divide by 60, and |X)int off the two 
right-hand figures; thus, to find the interest on $326.50, 
for 25 days, at 6 per cent : 

326.50 

_ ^ 

163250 

6530 0 

60)816250 
$1.3604 Ans. 

For the interest at 7 per cent., add one-sixth to the 
last result; for 8 per cent., add one-third; for 9 per 
cent., add one-half, and so on. 

While some persons prefer to work‘by rule, others 
prefer to use a table; and we therefore print one of 
the most convenient and comprehensive we have seen: 


57 










TAHLK GIVINCr TMK INTEREST AT 


S96 


INTEREST. 


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for 15 days, 9 cents. To find the interest on sums and times not in the table, add such parts as are given. For example: If you wish 
to find the amount of interest on $17 for six months, at 8 per cent., find what it is for |io for that time, and then for $-j and add these 
amounts together, which gives the desired result. 






























































INTERFERING—IODINE. 


Interfering, in farriery, the striking of one foot 
against another, so as to break the skin or injure the 
flesh. A horse does this by setting the feet too near 
in line. The usual remedy is to throw the feet slightly 
out of line by raising the inside of the shoe, but the 
success is partial and varying. A good plan is to pro¬ 
tect the legs with leather shields or boots. 

Intestate, leaving no will as to the disposition of 
property. When one dies leaving no written directions 
as to the disposition of his property, he is called an 
intestate, and in all the States and Territories are 
laws describing the proceedings to be had in such 
cases, as well as in cases where children are left full 
orphans without any will left by the parents as to 
what should be done with them. The probate judge 
will give advice in these matters. 

Inventory (in ven-to-ry), a list of the goods in 
one’s possession, generally with their values indicated. 

Invoice, a written account of the particulars of 
merchandise shipped or sent to a purchaser, con¬ 
signee, factor, etc., with the value or prices and 
charges annexed. 

Iodine, a chemical preparation manufactured from 
kelp or sea-weed, and extensively used in many dis¬ 
eases. Iodine itself is of little value as a medicine; 
but when united chemically with iron, copper, mer¬ 
cury, lead, arsenic and potassium, it certainly is one 
of the most useful and indispensable of medical agents, 
given internally and applied externally. 

In cases of poisoning by iodine the stomach should 
be evacuated, and afterwards drinks administered 
containing flour, starch, or arrow-root. 

Iodine should seldom be prescribed for internal 
usage except by a competent physician. In the treat¬ 
ment of stock give to the horse and the ox from 20 
to 40 grain doses; for dogs, use from three to six 
grains. An ointment of iodine is made as follows; 
Take one part of iodine to eight parts of lard. This 
is a good ointment to apply to soft swellings on the 
body of the horse, and should be applied by rubbing 
with the hand. 

Iodide of Potassium. This is a chemical union 
of potash with iodine, and is used by most practi¬ 
tioners for producing the constitutional effects of 
iodine. The dose for man is from 2 to 10 grains or 
more, three times a day, given in dilute solution. It 
is used externally in the form of an ointment. This 
is a costly remedy for horse and cattle diseases, and 
in most cases can be done very well without. Its 
action is that of an absorbent, and it is therefore used 
in swellingof the glands, and other parts of the body, 
and it is one of the best drugs for scattering inflam¬ 
mation. To get its full benefit, it should.be given in 
syrup or molasses, so that the iodine will not be lost, 
leaving the water only behind. 

Dose. From twenty to thirty grains for horses and 
cattle, repeated three times in the day. For the dog, 
five grains. 

Iodide of Arsenic. Highly recommended by some 


897 


persons for glanders, farcy and purpura in the horse. 

Dose. Five grains given once a day, in cut or 
mixed feed. 

Iodide of Copper, a valuable remedy, but costly 
for stock. It should be used in cases of debility and 
loss of condition, mingled with cut or mixed feed. 

Dose. From one to two drachms given twice or 
three times in the day. 

Iodide of Iron. This is even more valuable than 
iodide of copper, and is given for the same purpose 
and in the same doses. To use the iodide of iron 
once, will insure its use again. Its high price is the 
only drawback. Iodide of iron enters into the pow¬ 
ders and balls which are given to the English race 
horses whilst in the trainer’s hands; a high recom¬ 
mendation. 

Iodide of Sulphur. A valuable remedy in mange, 
and other skin diseases of stock, which may be given 
internally also, in the same diseases. 

Dose. For horses, give three to four drachms in 
the animal’s feed. For mangy dogs, give ten to fifteen 
grains once a day. Give it at night, as warmth 
assists its action very much. 

• Iodide of Lead. This is too weak for veterinary 
practice, but excellent for swellings on the body of 
man. It is used only externally. Iodide of lead is 
a beautiful yellow color. 

Iodide of Mercury, Biniodide of Mercury, 
Red Iodide of Mercury, etc. This preparation of 
iodine is a medicine that the veterinary surgeon can 
not do without in the practice of his profession; for 
there is nothing that will so well meet his wants. 
Iodide of mercury is not used internally in any 
disease, as calomel contains the same internal action 
as that of the iodide. 

It is used in all cases of induration and swelling of 
the glands of the neck; tumors, whether of bone or 
soft tissue; splints, spavins,ring-bones, wind-galls, 
shoulder-joint lameness, or thorough-pin, and will 
answer well for whatever purpose. The only objec¬ 
tion to it, as a blister over an extensive surface, is its 
painful operation. The iodide of mercury is used as 
an ointment as follows: One part of the red iodide of 
mercury to eight parts of hog’s lard, well mixed to¬ 
gether. This ointment is to be well rubbed into the 
parts to be cured. Swelling will follow its action, 
but will subside in a few days, if one application be 
enough, which will be known if the enlargement has 
been broken or has disappeared. If not, apply in 
from five to six days again, scarcely rubbing so hard 
as at the first application, as the skin is more easily 
acted upon at this time. But whether one, two, or 
half a dozen applications be necessary, let sufficient 
time elapse before each succeeding application, so as 
not to prevent hair growing, thereby blemishing the 
part. Apply lard once a day between the applica¬ 
tions, and occasionally wash the parts with water, not 
too warm, and lard or oil the part when dry. The 
horse’s head should be tied up so that he can not get 
at the parts with his mouth. A few hours will be 





SgS 


IPECAC—IJ^OA^ 


long enough. Place plenty of soft bedding under the 
feet, so that by stamping, the horse will not break or 
hurt his feet. When the tumor, gland or other en¬ 
largement does not disappear or go away at once, 
surprise is sometimes expressed to see it totally go 
away, as if of its own accord. Thus the red iodide 
of mercury exercises a powerful influence, long after 
its use has been dispensed with. Iodide of mercury 
occupies, in external diseases, as prominent a position 
as the preparations of aconite do in internal affections, 
whether in horses or in cattle. 

Several other preparations of iodine are made by 
the manufacturing chemists; such as iodide of gold 
and silver, which are of no use to the farmer or 
veterinarian. 

Ipecac, or Ipecacuanha, a South American plant 
much used in medicine, for various purjxjses, the 
effects varying according to size of dose. About 20 
grains of the powdered root, mixed in water, consti¬ 
tute an emetic—dose repeated at intervals of 20 
minutes until they operate. With some persons, 
much smaller quantities are sufficient. Warm water 
is better than cold, as a means of administering. To 
stimulate insensible perspiration, doses of one grain, 
given every hour or half hour. As an alterative, in 
diseases of the stomach and bowels, it should be 
given in doses of io % grain two or three times a 
day. 

Iron. Cast-iron, zinc or brass surfaces can be 
scoured with great economy of labor, time and mate¬ 
rial, by using either glycerine, stearine, naphthaline 
or creosote, mixed with dilute sulphuric acid. Kero¬ 
sene is good to clean steel; and to clean and polish 
both steel and iron, rub on, with wash leather, a 
paste made of i part of soft soap to 2 of emery, by 
weight. The best way to remove rust from iron is to 
wash it with a solution of i part sulphuric acid to 10 
of water. The iron should afterward be protected by 
dipping it immediately into hot lime-water, and let¬ 
ting it remain there long enough to become pretty 
warm, so that it will immediately dry after it is taken 
out. It is a still further protection to rub it with dry 
bran or saw-dust, or dry oil, if it is not designed to 
weld or cement something to it. For this purpose 
linseed oil is good, or any paint which has no water 
in it. Compositions have been specially invented to 
protect iron from rusting, but they are mostly expens¬ 
ive and to the farmer unnecessary. Or, dissolve 
half an ounce of camphor in one pound of hog’s lard; 
take off the scum; mix as much black lead as will 
give the mixture an iron color. Iron and steel goods, 
rubbed over with this mixture, and left with it on 24 
hours, and then dried with a linen cloth, will keep 
clean for months. Valuable articles of cutlery should 
be wrapped in zinc foil, or be kept in boxes lined 
with zinc. This is at once an easy and most effect¬ 
ive method. 

To distinguish wrought and cast iron from steel, 
file off a little spot bright, drpp on nitric acid, and 
after a minute or two wash it off. If the place has 


then a pale ashy gray color, it is wrought iron; if 
brownish black, it is steel; if deep black, it is cast 
iron. 

Solder for Iron. Melt together 2 parts of 
copper and one of zinc. 

To Weld Iron, dip the ends of the two pieces to 
be joined in a borax comjxjsition, and heat them to a 
white or melting heat, when they can be easily beaten 
together into one piece. Welding powders have been 
invented, which may be had at some drug stores. 
They are supposed to be more effectual than the 
simple borax composition. The latter is made by 
melting together 10 parts borax with i of sal-ammo¬ 
niac, jwuring it upon an iron plate, and when cool, 
pulverizing it and mixing it with an equal weight of 
ix)wdered quick-lime. 

Iron as a Medicine for Man. In this capacity 
iron is nearly always in combination with other sub¬ 
stances, in the form of oxides or salts. The oxides 
are generally known as simple iron rust, which 
readily forms on pure iron in water, and the salts are 
copperas, bromide, carbonate, chloride, citrate, 
tartrate, prussiate, iodide, phosphate, tannate, vale¬ 
rianate, ammoniate, etc. The clear iron is tonic and 
astringent, and the compounds have a great number 
of uses, but they are mostly astringent, or “ styptic.” 
The red color and vitality of the blood are supposed 
to be due to the presence of iron compounds. No 
person, however, but a thoroughly trained physiologist 
should prescribe or tamper with this apparently in¬ 
nocent substance. 

Iron as a Medicine for Stock, is one of the 
most valuable remedies we have to recommend in 
many of the most imjxirtant diseases of all the 
animals. This fact is readily seen when it is stated 
that iron is a constituent of the blood of all warm¬ 
blooded animals; and without iron being in proper 
quantity in the blood of an animal it cannot be 
healthy. In fact, iron is an elementary principle, 
essential to health. Metallic iron is rarely used in 
veterinary practice, except to be in the form of iron 
filings, given by some persons in the case of worms in 
horses. _ The sulphate is just as good for this purpose. 
Iron filings are much used in the weakly and sickly 
female. To prevent the filings from oxidizing, or 
rusting, they are put into a tube similar to a gun- 
barrel, at a strong heat, and are then plunged into 
cold water, which give them a sky-blue color; the 
finer the blue the better the medicine. For the valu¬ 
able dog, the iron filings, in this form, may be given 
in from five to ten grain doses. The following prep- ' 
arations of iron will be used for the horse and ox: 

Carbonate of Iron. This preparation of iron is 
only used in veterinary practice for the dog, on 
account of its mildness. 

Sesquioxide of Iron, Rust of Iron. This form 
of iron is used by veterinary surgeons only in poison¬ 
ing from arsenic, as an antidote by forming in the 
stomach an insoluble arsenite of the protoxide of iron. 

Sulphate of Iron, Green Vitriol, Copperas, 








IRRIGATION. 


is one of the best and cheapest preparations of this 
valuable metal that can be used in diseases of horses 
and cattle. In medicinal doses the sulphate of iron 
IS tonic and astringent; therefore, it is used in cases 
of weakness, want of condition, looseness of bowels, 
swelling of the legs, body, sheath, breast, etc. In 
pieuro-pneumonia in cattle, after the fever has abated, 
nothing will restore and prevent effusions of serum, or 
fluid, in the chest, like sulphate of iron; and effusions 
in the chest of cows, and other neat cattle, is the cause 
of very many deaths. The effusions are from con¬ 
necting links between the lungs and sides, from which 
adhesions take place in that disease and from which 
the animal can never be restored to good health, 
although it may live for a year or two. How import¬ 
ant, then, is a medicine offering so much hope! In 
addition to the diseases just named, sulphate of iron 
is the medicine to be used in all cases where the 
powers of life are low and depressed. In red water 
in cattle, bleeding internally in all animals, dysentery, 
purpura, scarlatina, and in debilitating diseases gen¬ 
erally, no medicine offers so much as the sulphate of 
iron, or copperas. This should not be given while 
inflammation and fever lasts; it is time enough to give 
it after all irritation has subsided. It should always 
be combined with a vegetable tonic, such as gentian or 
ginger. 

Doses. For horses and cattle, the dose is two to 
three drachms, with the same quantity of powdered 
gentian, two or three times in the day, to be given, 
mixed in a quantity of cold water. Drench out of a 
bottle. If the animal does not eat it readily, mix it 
with cut or soft feed. 

Perchloride of Iron. Whether in a fluid or 
solid state, this preparation is valuable for bleeding 
wounds, to stop the flow of blood, which it will readily 
do if properly applied, and the blood vessel that is 
wounded is not too large. It should be applied with 
a soft brush or pledget dipped in it and laid over the 
wound, and kept bandaged. Perchloride of iron 
should be kept on every farm for this purpose. It 
should be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle to keep it 
pure. 

Irrigation. This method for supplying lands with 
the necessary moisture for the growth of crops, where 
rain-falls are deficient, is of very ancient origin. The 
ancient Egyptians, who were perhaps the first to 
practice it, learned it from witnessing the effects of the 
annual overflowings of the Nile, and have practiced it 
iqx)n tracts adjacent to the flooded ones from a very 
remote period to the present day. The ancient 
Romans, though not urged by any neccessity to irrigate 
regularly, well knew the value of irrigation. It also 
seems to have been practiced from an ancient period 
in China, India, Persia and Arabia. Indeed the 
Chinese historians, with the bold mendacity which 
characterizes most of their archaeology, even pretend 
that it was practiced in “the Celestial Empire” at a 
period long prior to the date of the deluge. It 
became important to the Mormons when they first 
settled in Utah, and by its aid they have made Salt 


899 


Lake City, planted in a barren sandy valley, to blos¬ 
som as a garden of flowers. In most parts of this 
country the rain-fall is sufficient to furnish moisture to 
vegetation, and irrigation is not practiced; but in some 
localities it is employed to increase the product of 
meadows. For this purpose it can always be made 
profitable where a sufficient fall and flow of water can 
be obtained. All waters are suitable for this pur^xise 
excepting such as contain an excess of some mineral 
substance that is deleterious to vegetable life, such as 
the drainage from peat swamps, from saline and 
mineral springs, and from ore beds of various kinds. 
Hard spring water is better than soft, and of river 
water that which contains the larger share of sulphate 
and carbonate of lime is the most valuable. Waters 
which are charged with fertilizing substances that have 
been washed out of soils by recent floods are admir¬ 
ably suited to irrigation. Dana estimates the quantity 
of salts (in solution) and geine, or humus, which were 
borne seaward past Lowell, on the Merrimac river, in 
1838, as reaching the enormous amount of 840,000 
tons—enough to have given a good dressing to 
100,000 acres of land. Such waters as have flowed 
out of the sewers of cities, past slaughter-houses and 
certain manufactories, and received the rich vegetable 
food thereby afforded, are the most beneficial when 
applied to vegetation. Meadows thus irrigated in the 
neighborhood of Edinburg, have rented at the large 
sum of ^250 per acre. 

Irrigation is largely practiced in Colorado for the 
purpose of raising grain, grass and vegetables. The 
water is conveyed from streams that flow from the 
Rocky Mountains, and is distributed over the coun¬ 
try by means of capacious ditches, constructed by 
organized companies. It is taken from these large 
conduits and flowed upon the lands of the farmers by 
means of smaller canals, the flow of water being regu¬ 
lated by gates. This system enables the Colorado 
farmer to grow luxurious crops of grain, grass and 
other products, wheat often yielding 35 bushels to the 
acre. 

Water deix)sited on grass land by irrigation should 
not be allowed to remain standing till it becomes 
stagnant, because it kills the grass, and promotes the 
growth of a race of sour and worthless aquatic 
plants; although, in those regions where the winters 
are not severe, water may be kept in the fields during 
the entire season of the frosts. This prevents its ac¬ 
cess to the ground, and on the approach of warm 
weather the grasses at once start into life, and give an 
early and abundant yield. But in general this sys¬ 
tem cannot be successfully practiced. 

The water is admitted at proper intervals, freely 
during the spring and early part of the summer, when 
vegetation is either just beginning or going forward 
rapidly. Let it flood the surface thoroughly, and then 
shut off the water for a time. In very dry weather 
this may be done with advantage every night. Con¬ 
tinued watering under a bright sun is an unnatural 
condition with upland grasses, and could never be 
1 long continued without proving fatal to them. Nei- 







900 


ISnVGLA SS—ITCH. 


ther should the water be applied after the grasses 
have begun to ripen. After the grass is cut the water 
may be again let on to flood the meadows. Pastures 
may be irrigated at proper intervals throughout the 
year. 

How TO Irrigate. Where and how to obtain 
the water for irrigation is the most im^xjrtant question 
connected with this kind of fertilization. A fall from 
the reservoir is necessary, and if the water is not nat¬ 
urally sufficiently elevated for this purpose, it will 
have to be raised by windmill or water-ram. Fortu¬ 
nate is the farmer who has a stream or pond suffi¬ 
ciently above the fields to be irrigated to permit a flow 
of water over and through them. Irrigation may be 
effected by damming any water-break passing through 
a field, and thus causing the water to flow back over 
the land. When water can be dammed until it 
swells high enough to be carried by pipes or other¬ 
wise to the land, irrigation is easy. Hydraulic rams 
and windmills are often used for forcing water to a 
sufficient level for irrigation. 

Water is conveyed from reservoirs or streams to the 
fields by ditches or aqueducts, and throughout the 
field in pipes or ditches. Where the character of the 
surface of the field is such that it has irregular de¬ 
pressions, but a general slope downward from the 
level of the reservoir, the courses of the distributing 
channels may be laid so as to irrigate the whole. In¬ 
experienced irrigators often overdo the thing. A soil 
containing eighty per cent, of sand may be irrigated 
every five days; one containing 20 per cent, once in 
10 or 15 days. Sandy soils are most benefited by ir¬ 
rigation, yet tenacious clay soils are improved by it. 
Irrigation when applied to gardens is particularly ben¬ 
eficial and profitable. 

Isinglass (i'zing-glas), a semi-transparent, whitish 
form of gelatine, chiefly prepared from the sounds or 
air bladders of various species of sturgeon found in 
the rivers of Western Russia. The isinglass of com¬ 
merce, however, is generally some cheaper form of 
gelatine. This article is used in fa-ncy cookery, in 
making glue and in fining liquors,—all treated in their 
proper places in this volume. In cold water it soft¬ 
ens, swells up and becomes lustrous. Boiling water 
entirely dissolves it, with the exception of a minute 
proportion of impurities. On cooling, the solution as¬ 
sumes the form of a jelly, which consists of pure gela¬ 
tine and water. As an article of diet it has no 
advantage over calves’-feet jelly. Three drams to a 
pint of water are the usual proportions for preparing a 
dish. In fancy cookery its principal use is for mak¬ 
ing icings or frostings for cakes, etc. 

Issue, in medicine, an artificial ulcer designed to 
promote the secretion of pus. This ulcer is usually 
made in the fleshy part of the arm or leg, by a slight 
incision, into which a little lint is put till the wound 
suppurates; the lint being then removed, an “issue 
pea” is introduced, and by the irritation it creates 
and promotes the secretion and discharge of pus. An 
“issue pea”is a common pea or any small, round 


body used to maintain irritation in a wound and pro¬ 
mote the secretion of pus. In the treatment of farm 
animals, an issue is kept open by a rowel or seton. 
The practice is going out of use. 

Itch. This disease is known by 
the appearance of pimples and 
vesicles, which by scratching ac¬ 
quire little black heads. The itch¬ 
ing is augmented at night by the 
warmth of the bed. The disease 
may generally be known by the 
peculiarity almost always existing 
between the fingers, and on the 
wrists and elbows, when it affects 
other parts. It never appears on Fig. \ —itchMite. 
the face. It seldom happens in any but those of 
dirty habits or trade; common cleanliness will always 
prevent it. It is contagious or catching, being com¬ 
municated by contact. There is supposed to be a 
kind that last for seven years, and known as seven 
years’ itch; but the ordinary kind will last as long if 
left to their career. The luxury of scratching is 
said to greatly compensate for the filthy disease. Dr. 
Ellitson says a Scotch king—viz., James I.—is al¬ 
leged to have said that no subject deserved to have 
the itch—none but royalty—on account of the great 
pleasure derived from scratching. The king is said 
to have spoken from experience. 

Treatment. Among many sulphur is the grand 
treatment; it does little good taken internally, but 
the ointment should be well rubbed in every night 
and morning. Care should be taken not to catch 
cold while using it. Among the better classes who 
occasionally get this disease by accident, the sulphur 
is usually perfumed. We can recommend another 
powerful remedy, viz., a strong solution of the iodide 
of potassium, which should be put over all the affect¬ 
ed parts every night, and left to diy on. It Jras the 
advantage of having no smell. 

Or, wash the body well in warm water, and rub it 
with the following preparation : Lime, 2 ounces ; sul¬ 
phur-vivum, 2 ounces. Mix in i quart of water. Pour 
off and use it when clear. 

A decoction of white hellebore, with a little laven¬ 
der water, has been recommended. 

Barbers’ Itch. This is a variety of itch which 
usually appears upon the face. It is thought to be 
caught in barber shops while being shaved. It is 
confined almost exclusively to the male sex, and gen¬ 
erally to men and those who shave. A few red pus¬ 
tules first appear, attended with a sense of itching or 
burning. In a few days these dry up and peal off in 
thin scales. Other pustules appear and scale off in 
the same way. If permitted to continue it will become 
chronic, gradually spreading and extending deeper 
into the skin. To treat this, use an ointment made by 
mixing i ounce of lard and 2 drams of sulphate of zinc. 
Or equal parts of tincture of lobelia, blood-root and 
stramonium seeds and oil of cedar, and use two or 
three times a day. Should there be much inflamma¬ 
tion, poultice the part with elm bark at night. 







I^^ACK, a portable apparatus, variously con- 
^ structed, for raising great weights a short dis- 
|£tance, as by means of a pedestal or support, 
'*^in which works a screw lever, rack and pin- 
’ion, or some combination of simple mechanical 
powers; also, an engine to turn a spit, as a kitchen 
jack, or smoke jack; in general, any appendage, 
rendering convenient service; also, a horse or 
wooden frame, on which wood or timber is sawed; a 
wooden wedge used by miners to separate rocks after 
blasting, etc. Also, the male of certain animals, as of 
the ass. “Jack at all trades,” one who can turn his 
hand to any kind of business. “Jack boots,” large 
boots reaching above the knee. “Jack plane,” a plane 
about 18 inches long, used for coarse work. The bit 
has rounder corners than that of a smoothing plane, 
and is adjusted to take a deeper hold. “Jack knife,” 
a heavy and strong pocket knife. “Jack screw,” a 
jxjrtable apparatus, worked by a screw, for raising heavy 
weights a short distance. For Jackass, see page 39. 


Jalap (jabap), a medicinal root from Mexico, named 
after a country there,—Jalapa, or Xalapa, pronounced 
hal'a-pa. It is an active cathartic, producing copious 
watery stools. A dose of jalap in powder is 15 to 30 
grains; for a dog, 20 to 60 grains. 


Jam, same as Marmalade, which see. 


Jamaica Pepper, allspice. See page ii. 

Jamb (jam), the side-piece or post of a door; the 
side-piece of a fire-place or any other aperture in a 
building. 

Jaundice (jan'dis), a disease, whereby the bile is 
thrown into the skin, mucous membranes and even in¬ 
to the eyes, causing a yellowness of the skin and eyes, 
white faeces and high-colored urine. The vision is so 
affected that every object seems to have a yellowish 
color, and there is general fever. It might be described 
as ague or bilious fever turned inside out, as scrofula 
is an eversion of tubercular consumption. This dis¬ 
ease is not dangerous, and as to the treatment no 
medicines are more beneficial than emetics occasion¬ 
ally repeated, followed by gentle purges of rhubarb or 
Epsom salts. Give bitters to regulate the bile and 
restore the digestive powers, and treat the same as for 
ague, page ii. When the system is much dis¬ 
ordered, it will be necessary to go through regular 
courses of medicine. Patients have often been cured 
of jaundice by a long journey, after other means had 
failed. Jaundice in horse, see page 803; in cattle, 
see page 209. 


Jelly, the thickened juice of fruits or meat, boiled 
with sugar. It is therefore a “sweetmeat,” and used 
as a condiment or a dessert. 

Fruit jellies are compounds of the juices of fruits 
combined with sugar, concentrated by boiling to such 
a consistence that the liquid, upon cooling, assumes 
the form of a tremulous jelly. Vegetable jelly is a 
distinct principle existing in fruits, which possesses the 
property of gelatinizing when boiled and cooled; but 
it is a principle entirely different from the gelatin of 
animal bodies, although the name of jelly, common to 
both, sometimes leads to an erroneous idea on that 
subject. Animal jelly, or gelatin, is glue; whereas 
vegetable jelly is rather analogous to gum, though dif¬ 
ferent from it, and not nearly so nutritious as animal 
jelly or gelatin. In preparing vegetable jellies, it is 
necessary to guard against boiling them too long, since 
this destroys their property of gelatinizing, and they 
then assume the appearance of mucilage or gum; and 
this accident is most likely to occur when the quantity 
of sugar is too small to absorb the water of the juice. 
Jellies are most perfect as to beauty and transparency 
when clarified sugar is used; but for ordinary purposes 
refined sugar answers very well. 

Apple Jelly. Almost any apple will make jelly, 
though a hard, sour, juicy apple makes the best, both 
for keeping and flavor. Peel and core your apples, 
boil them in a pint of water to every four pounds of 
apples till the latter are perfectly soft, stirring them 
occasionally to prevent burning. Strain, without squeez¬ 
ing, through a jelly-bag, measure the juice, and put a 
pound of loaf sugar to every pint of juice. Put juice 
and sugar into the preserving-kettle, and boil steadily 
for half an hour, skimming occasionally. Cool a little, 
and if it will not jelly, boil a little longer. Pour into 
glasses before it cools, and when perfectly cold, cover 
each glass with a paper wet with alcohol; tie closely, 
and keep in a cool, dry place. The apple remaining 
in the bag can be stewed with one pound of sugar to 
two of apples. If flavoring is preferred, lemon peel, 
green ginger, or cinnamon can be used. 

ARROw-ROOt Jelly. To a dessert-spoonful of the 
powder, add as much cold water as will make it into a 
paste, then pour on half a pint of boiling water, stir it 
briskly and boil it a few minutes, when it will become 
a clear, smooth jelly; a little sugar and sherry wine 
may be added for debilitated adults; but for infants, 
a drop or two of essence of caraway seeds or cinna¬ 
mon is preferable, wine being very liable to become 
acid in the stomachs of infants and to disorder the 
bowels. Fresh milk may be substituted for the water. 







902 


JENNY—JE WEEK V. 


Currant Jelly. Put the currants, with the stems 
on, in stone jars, and cover them; put no leaves in. 
Set the jars in warm but not hot water, over the 
fire. When the water boils and the fruit is warm 
and somewhat sunken down, strain them through a 
linen or flannel bag. To every pint of juice allow a 
pint of loaf sugar; do not cook the sugar. Put it in a 
clean milk pail; put the juice into a granite kettle, 
boil it about 5 minutes but not longer; pour it boiling 
hot upon the sugar and stir till all the sugar is dis¬ 
solved. Then put it in bowls, glasses or jelly molds. 
Paste on white paper covers; white of egg is often 
used for this purpose. The jelly will be thick in a few 
days. A good squeezer is made by two boards at¬ 
tached at one end with a hinge and the other ends 
shaved down into handles. This is used for the 
straining. 

White currant jelly is made in the same way as red 
currant jelly, only it should have double refined sugar 
and not be boiled above ten minutes. White currant 
jelly should be put through a lawn sieve. 

Currant Jelly. The currants should be ripe and 
freshly picked and the jelly should be made before 
the 20th of July. Pick them from the stems and put 
them into a preserving kettle without any water; let 
them stew gently; remove from the fire when they be¬ 
gin to turn white, and press them through a strainer 
cloth to extract the juice; to each pint of juice take a 
pound of sugar; it is better if it can be put into the 
oven and dried, and put hot into the currant juice. 
Boil it 15 minutes after the sugar is added. Dip it 
slowly into your jelly glasses, having a wet cloth 
wrapped around each to prevent it from cracking when 
the hot jelly is put into it. Some think it an improve¬ 
ment to put a-quart of raspberries to half a peck of 
currants. 

Grape Jelly. Strip from their stalks some fine, 
ripe grapes, and stir them with a wooden spoon over 
a gentle fire until all have burst and the juice flows 
freely from them. Strain it off through a jelly cloth or 
bag. Measure, and to each pint of juice allow four¬ 
teen ounces of sugar. Put the juice on to boil for 20 
minutes; then stir in the sugar and boil 15 minutes 
longer, keeping it constantly stirred and well skimmed. 

Barb erry J elly. Pound the berries in a dish with 
a mortar pestle, or a masher, a few at a time, to ex¬ 
tract the juice; put them into a kettle with just a trifle 
of water; scald them a little to make them press well. 
Measure the juice, and allow to each pint a pound of 
sugar. Boil the juice up once; but just before putting 
it over the fire, put the sugar into the oven to 
dry; add the sugar to the juice and boil seven minutes 
after it commences to boil. Spoon the jelly hot into 
the glasses. 

Crab-Apple Jelly. Put the apples into a kettle 
with just water enough to cover them, and let them 
boil until they are very soft; mash them up, and strain 
them through a very coarse hair sieve. Take a pound 
of apple to a ix)und of sugar, boil it twenty minutes, 
and put it into jars. 

Quince Jelly. Take the skins and cores of quin¬ 


ces, cover them with water, and let them boil about 
two hours; strain them through a fine sieve; measure, 
and to each pint allow a pound of sugar; boil it twen¬ 
ty minutes. 

Strawberry Jelly. Press the juice frogi the ber¬ 
ries; strain it through a jelly bag, measure, and to each 
pint of juice allow a pound of sugar; boil the juice ten 
or fifteen minutes before adding the sugar; then boil 
fifteen minutes. 

Gooseberry or Cranberry Jelly. Boil the ber¬ 
ries in a very little water until they are soft; then 
squeeze them through a cloth or jelly bag; and allow 
to each pint of juice a pound of sugar, and boil it fif¬ 
teen or twenty minutes. 

Jelly Without Fruit. Take water, i pt., and 
add to it pulverized alum, oz., and boil a' minute 
or two; then add 4 lbs. of white crushed or coffee 
sugar, continue the boiling a little^strain while hot; 
and when cold put in half of a two-shilling bottle of 
extract of vanilla, strawberry or lemon, or any other 
flavor you desire for jelly. This will make a jelly so 
much resembling that made from the juice of the fruit 
that any one will be astonished, and when fruit can 
not be got, it will take its place admirably. 

An Excellent Jelly for the Sick-Room. Take 
rice, sago, pearl barley, hartshorn shavings, each i oz.; 
simmer ^yith 3 pints of water to i, and strain it. When 
cold it will be a jelly, of which give, dissolved in wine, 
milk, or broth, in change with the other nourishment. 

Do not buy jellies at the groceries if you can avoid 
it. The basis of nearly all the jellies turned out in 
manufacturing establishments is what is termed “apple 
juice; ” and this is doctored up with various drugs for 
flavoring, and correspondingly labeled “Pure Rasp¬ 
berry Jelly,” “Pure Currant Jelly,” etc. For example, 
their “Pure Raspberry Jelly” will be made as follows ; 

8 gallons apple juice, 16 pounds sugar, 8 pounds 
glucose, I ounce sulphuric acid, pound corn starch, 
and aniline and acetic ether for flavoring. How is 
that for food.? Real, pure fruit jelly cinnot be 
furnished in the market for less than 12 cents a pound; 
and, therefore, when we find it offered for much less 
we may be certain that the article is a base fraud. 

Jenny, a spinning-machine; a female ass. 

Jersey, as a breed of cattle, see page 177; for 
Jersey Red hogs, see article Swine. 

Jerusalem Artichoke, a salad. See page 37. 

Jewelry. As to the quantity, quality and style of 
jewelry to be worn by polite people, see page 394. 
To clean and polish jewelry, see Gold and Silver. 
Precious stones may be cleaned and brightened by 
first washing them with a brush in soap-suds and then 
shaking them violently in a small box of sawdust for 
several minutes The best sawdust is that which is 
furnished at the jewelry stores for the purpose. Great 
care should be taken in the purchase of jewelry. Be 
particular and see that the metal be pure, and if set 
with jewels ascertain that they are genuine or are 
really what they are called. Some precious stones 
are easily known, but others are extremely dififcult to 














JE WELR Y. 


903 


distinguish, and therefore jewelers may very easily 
deceive their customers. The only safe way, where 
one'wishes to purchase really good jewelry, is to buy 
from a well-established and reliable jeweler. 

Diamond. The unrivaled brilliancy of this gem 
has always attracted universal admiration, and among 
ornaments it has ever occupied the highest rank. No 
other substance, natural or artificial, can rival its luster, 
rich with prismatic colors. The beauty of other gems 
is almost lost to the distant beholder; the diamond 
alone diffuses its starry radiance to the most distant 
parts of the assembly, and has acquired, by common 
consent in all ages, a prodigious value that continues 
undiminished. The diamond is the hardest of all 
known substances, and it is supposed by some not to 
be capable of being broken by the blow of a hammer; 
but though the substance is extremely hard, it is not 
difficult to fracture. Diamonds are cut and polished 
in particular shapes, which have received the names 
of brilliant, rose, and table-cut. The brilliant is in the 
highest estimation, as it is in the form which shows to 
the greatest advantage the peculiar luster of the gem. 
The setting of diamonds is of great importance, and 
depends partly upon their quality. The finest brill¬ 
iants are always set open, that is, without a back. 
Diamonds are always equally in fashion, but the mode 
of setting them varies according to the caprice of taste 
or the desire of novelty. 

Gems belonging to the Species Corundum. 
Corundum is the name of an extremely hard mineral 
substance, found chiefly in India, and used there 
extensively for cutting and polishing the hardest 
stones. 

Sapphire is the purest or perfect state of corundum, 
and is the hardest of all earthy minerals, being inferior 
in this respect only to the diamond. What is consid¬ 
ered as the most perfect, or Oriental sapphire, is of a 
clear, bright blue color, with a high degree of trans- 
lucency; but it is also pale blue, and sometimes violet 
blue, or cloudy. Sapphires are also occasionally 
colorless. The finest sapphires come from Pegu and 
Ceylon, where they are found only in the beds of 
rivers, often in rounded fragments, generally small, 
and seldom exceeding the size of a hazelnut. 

Ruby. The ruby is a gem which, when of the kind 
called Oriental, is of great beauty and value. The 
true, or Oriental ruby, when perfect, is the most 
valuable of the gems next to the diamond; the color 
is a fine, deep, cochineal red, having a richness of hue 
unrivaled; occasionally it is rose-red, or has a tinge 
of violet. 

Emerald. The emerald, in value, ranks next to 
the ruby. It is of a pure, beautiful, bright, and 
intensely green color, when the stone is of the most 
perfect kind, called Oriental; hence the name emerald 
green. The color, however, varies a little; sometimes 
it is paler, and the green less lively, or it is a pale blue, 
or yellowish. The form of its natural crystals is a six- 
sided prism. The finest emeralds come from Peru, 
where they have been found occasionally several 


inches in length. They are also found in Ceylon and 
Egypt. 

Beryl., Aquamarine. The primary form of its 
crystals is a six-sided prism, terminated by a six-sided 
pyramid, truncated; and this is its usual form. The 
color of the beryl is various shades of pale yellow, or 
green, or blue. The common beryl is scarcely 
employed in jewelry, on account of its numerous flaws 
and cracks. 

Topaz. The topaz is a particular species of mineral, 
occurring in crystals of the form of a rhombic prism, 
variously terminated. It somewhat resembles quartz, 
but is distinguished by the form of its crystals, by its 
superior hardness, and specific gravity. Both it and 
quartz scratch glass, but topaz scratches quartz. It is 
sometimes colorless and translucent, but usually has 
various pale shades of yellow, green, blue, lilac, or red. 

Ttirquoise. The turquoise is rare and much in 
request. It is destitute of the luster which dis¬ 
tinguishes most of the precious stones; it is opaque, 
and does not admit of a very high polish, but its 
color is a fine celestial blue. It is from the size of a 
pin’s head to that of an almond. Malachite is some¬ 
times sold for turquoise. 

Moonstone. The moonstone is a variety of feldspar 
called adularia, and is beautifully translucent, of a 
milky color, and having a remarkable play of light, 
amounting to a slight pearly luster, and sometimes 
iridescence, which contrasts agreeably with the delicate 
bluish tint of the stone; whence its name. It is used 
for ear drops and rings, and when fine, sells for a high 
price. 

Garfiet. Garnet is a very common mineral, though 
beautiful specimens, called the precious garnet, or 
abnandine, are classed with gems. They are usually 
of a deep red. The finest come from India. Garnets 
are hard enough to scratch quartz, and, of course, 
much harder than glass, by which glass counterfeits 
may be easily distinguished by means of a file. 

Rock Crystal, Transparent Quartz. This stone is 
sometimes quite colorless, and beautifully trans¬ 
parent ; it is also occasionally, though rarely, yellow 
like topaz; but it is softer than topaz, and of a 
different crystalline form in its natural state. This is 
the “Alaska diamond” now so common in this country. 

Amethyst. There is the same confusion respecting 
stones of this name as with others we have mentioned. 
The amethyst of modern mineralogists is merely a 
violet-colored quartz or rock crystal; but what has 
been called Oriental amethyst among jewelers is a 
violet-colored sapphire, which is a stone of great 
beauty and value. The color of the common 
amethyst is purple, of various shades and degrees of 
intensity; those which are of the deepest purple are 
the most precious, but the depth of the tint varies 
much, being in some scarcely perceptible, when the 
stone is of scarcely any more value than rock crystal. 
Amethysts are found in many countries; but of late 
many have been brought from Brazil, and some of 
considerable size. They are much used in bracelets, 
seals, and similar ornaments. 






904 


JIBBER-JUMBLE. 


Opal. This stone is a very pure kind of flint, and 
differs from chalcedony chiefly in its luster and color; 
but the difference cannot easily be expressed in words. 
There is the precious opal and the common opal: the 
former exhibits a remarkable play of prismatic or 
iridescent colors—blue, red, and yellow, green, etc. 
These colors are sometimes, in fine specimens, 
intensely bright and beautiful; sometimes the stones 
exhibit only one color. It is always cut hemispheric- 
ally, and it is often full of flaws, which only adds to 
its beauty from increasing the vivacity of the colors. 
When fine, the precious opal is of great value; it is 
brittle, and softer than rock crystal. 

Chalcedony., Agate, and Carnelian. These stones 
are placed together because they are all varieties of 
the same thing. Chalcedony is/a sort of very pure 
flint; but, instead of being perfectly clear and trans¬ 
parent, it is tinged, more or less, with a milky hue. 
When chalcedony has in it various curved parallel 
bands or stripes of a white or other color, it is called 
agate. Fortification agates are those which have 
zigzag parallel bands, generally of white and gray, 
having a distant resemblance to the plans of a modern 
fortification. In the center of these agates there are 
sometimes rock crystals and amethysts. Sometimes, 
instead of these bands, there are minute metallic 
crystallizations resembling mosses, and which have 
been, though erroneously, supposed to be really 
vegetables; these are termed moss agates. Those 
are most valuable which resemble very closely some 
plant. The onyx is a variety where the bands of 
different colors are perfectly straight, the stone con¬ 
sisting of several flat layers, whereas in agates the 
layers are curved. Onyxes were much used by the 
ancients for making cameos. 

Jet. Jet is well-known to be of a deep black, and 
is used for necklaces, chiefly worn in mourning. It is 
a kind of coal, or, rather, fossil wood, and costs little 
more than the expense of cutting; it is made into 
beads, snuff-boxes, and other trinkets. Cannel coal is 
sometimes substituted for it, but this is very inferior. 

A 7 nber. This is a well-known transparent mineral 
substance, of a yellowish colour, and is supposed to be 
a fossil resin. 

Pearls. Pearls are precious, and form beautiful 
ornaments, highly prized. They are calcareous bodies, 
of the same nature as mother-of-pearl, only purer, 
found in the inside of certain shells, particularly a 
large one called the pearl oyster. The pearl shell is 
found only in warm climates. They are found either 
loose in the body of the animal, or attached to the 
side of the shells. These shells are extremely 
abundant near the shores of some of the East India 
islands, and particularly Ceylon, where the chief 
pearl fisheries have been established. The shells 
are brought up by persons who have learned to dive 
for them to great depths. They descend to the 
bottom of the sea from five to ten fathoms in depth, 
assisted by a large stone, which they carry down with 
them; and, being furnished with a basket, they 
collect, with as much expedition as possible, such 


shells as happen to lie about the spot of their descent, 
continuing their search for about two minutes when, 
according to a signal which they make to the boat to 
to which their cord is attached, they again ascend 
with their treasure. Each diver will bring up as 
many as one hundred shells of various sizes, and 
some, from long habit, acquire the power of remaining 
under water for five or six minutes. It is not every 
shell that affords pearls; some contain only small 
ones of little value. The finest are of a clear white, 
and very translucent: those which have a tinge of 
yellow are less precious. Though pearls are found 
of the largest size, greatest beauty and most abund¬ 
antly in the shell we have mentioned, yet they are 
not confined entirely to these: common oysters and 
muscles occasionally contain small pearls; and a 
fresh-water shell called a unio, or pearl muscle, is 
particularly remarkable for the pearls it contains. 

Coral. This beautiful material, of a fine red 
color, is the production of animals that inhabit 
the sea, and which consist of a fleshy substance, 
surrounding a solid, calcareous body, which is called 
the coral. The species of red coral used for orna¬ 
ments,in form resembles a small, branched shrub, and 
is attached to rocks at the bottom of the sea. 

Jibber, is a poorly broken horse; one that moves 
restively sidewise or backward. 

Jog Trot, a slovenly trot in which an animal 
shakes his body up and down, without getting over 
the ground very fast. 

Joints, Dislocation of: see Dislocation, page 
303 - 

Journal, the portion of a shaft or axle which 
revolves on a support. 

Judas Tree, red-bud; a low, scraggy forest tree, 
with a spreading top, which sends forth a profusion of 
red or purple flowers in early spring before the leaves 
appear. It is somewhat ornamental, and ..as such is 
found on some lawns. Another species grows in the 
Old World, and the name is derived from the legend 
that Judas, the apostate disciple, hanged himself upon 
such a tree. 

Judgment, How Long Collectible: see Limita¬ 
tions. For “judgment note,” see Note. 

Julep, a sweet drink, particularly one which has 
mucilage and vegetable acid mixed with it. A mint 
julep is a drink of spirituous liquor, sweetened, iced 
and flavored with sprigs of mint. 

Jumble, a small sweet-cake, often in shape like a 
ring. Recipe; One cup of butter and 2 of sugar, 
beaten together; i cup of milk, teaspoonful of soda 
stirred into the milk and 4 eggs. Beat well together, 
spice, add 6 cups of flour, roll thin, cut with a jumble 
cutter, brush Avith white of egg, sift on a very little 
fine white sugar, and bake 15 or 20 minutes. 

Lemon Jumbles. One egg, i cup of sugar, L3 cup of 
butter, 3 tablespoonfuls of milk, the juice and grated 
rind of two small lemons, a teaspoonful of condensed 
















JUMF-SEA T—JU TE, 


905 


baking powder, flour enough to roll out, cut with a 
cake cutter, and bake as above. 

Fruit Jumbles. Three-fourths of a pound of 
butter, a pound of sugar, 5 eggs, a teacup of milk, a 
gill of wine, a teaspoonful of soda, i pounds of flour, 
and pound of currants. Drop them on tins with a 
spoon, and bake in rather a quick oven. 

Jump-seat, a carriage constructed with a movable 
seat, so as to be readily changed from the one-seated‘ 
to the two-seated form; a movable carriage seat. 
Hence, any style of carriage with such a seat is called 
“jump-seat;” as, “jump-seat rockaway,” etc. 

Juniper, an evergreen shrub or tree, of the pine 
family. The common juniper has a low, spreading 



Juniperus venusta, 

form; awl-shaped, rigid leaves in whorls of threes; 
and bears small purplish-blue berries, of a "warm. 


pungent taste, yielding by fermentation a kind of 
“gin.” When the bark is wounded a resin exudes 
from it, from which varnish and incense have been 
made,and which,dried and pulverized,is used on paper 
to prevent ink from spreading. The oil of juniper is 
acrid, and is used in varnishes, medicines, etc. In 
horse and cattle diseases, the berries act as a stimu¬ 
lant to the stomach. One to two ounces are given at 
a dose. Dogs are given 20 to 40 grains. 

The wood is of a reddish color, hard and durable, 
and is used in cabinet-work and veneering. Irish 
juniper is a most beautiful variety of this species, 
being erect, dense and compact, and well adapted to 
fancy forms on the lawn. Swedish juniper is more 
hardy, has light yellowish-green foliage, and grows 
upright, 10 to 15 feet high. The weeping juniper is 
a beautiful, but tender tree, from Japan and China. 
The red cedar is a species of juniper. One of its 
forms is the beautiful Juniperus venusta, here illus¬ 
trated. 

Jute, the fiber of the jute plant, and is the material 
from which “gunny-bags” are made. The plant is a 
native of India, where it is largely cultivated by the 
natives, who weave the fiber into sacks, nets, etc. 
The gunny-bag is used in all countries, and is always, 
in demand. The fact that jute is so extensively used 
in this country has inaugurated experiments to as¬ 
certain whether it can be successfully raised here. 
Though these experiments have been made on a small, 
scale, it is proved that jute can be successfully grown 
in California and the Gulf States, and possibly in 
somewhat more northern States. Farmers living in any 
of the above-named States should exiieriment, at 
least to the extent of one or two plantings. If its 
culture prove successful, they have opened a new 
avenue to wealth which only needs working to yield 
immense profits. It is cultivated and cured as follows : 
Sow the seed broadcast, early in the spring, in a moist, 
sandy loam. The plants grow rapidly, and will 
attain a height of 6 or 8 feet in 3 or 4 months. Cut 
the stalks as soon as the blossoms fall, and before 
the seed begins to ripen. Tie them in small bundles 
and throw them into a tank or pond of water, where 
they should remain from 5 to 8 days to rot, when the 
fiber will fall from the stalk. As soon as it is dry it 
is ready for the loom or paper mill. Immense 
quantities of this plant are annually turned into 
paper, and even the root is used for that purpose in 
India. An experiment in the South seems to show 
that a belt of jute around a cotton field protects it 
from the cotton worm. The peculiar odor of the 
flower and the bitter exudation from the leaves seem 
to be strongly repulsive to them. 




























K 


^ ALE or BORECOLE, a plant of the cab- 
j^bage' family and cultivated on the same 
^ principles. Plant the larger sort in hills two 
by three feet apart, and thin to one plant in 
a hill. Being very hardy, it is easy to be 
wintered, and is good for early sprouts in the 
spring, to be used as greens. It is rather too 
rank for use in the fall before it has frozen. 
Some of the varieties are very ornamental, and scat¬ 
tered singly are attractive in the flower garden, being 
finely curled and variegated with green, yellowish 
white, bright red and purple leaves. 

Varieties. Carters Garnishing. Both ornamental 
and useful; the seed will produce many varieties 
of high-colored plants. 

Sea Kale. The young shoots when blanched are 
exceedingly delicate, being much superior to broccoli. 

Dwarf German 
Greens, or Green 
Curled. Very hardy; 
standard market sort. 

Actne. Very tender 
and delicious when 
boiled; very dwarf. 
Field Kale, for cattle; 

Kale, or Dwarf German Greens. Can be CUt Several 

times during the season. 

Green Curled Scotch. A very fine variety. 

Frisbys Crested, Green-Curled Tall Scotch and 
Abergeldie are new and promising varieties. Several 
other varieties are ornamental. 

Kalsomining. See Calcimining, the correct 
spelling. 

Kennel, an establishment for breeding dogs; a 
do'g house; a pack of hounds. See page 344. 

Kerosene, a liquid hydrocarbon or oil extracted 
from bituminous coal or petroleum, used for illumina¬ 
tion and other purposes. The medical and economi¬ 
cal uses of kerosene are so numerous that the reader 
may look for them under almost every heading in 
this volume. 

To Keep Kerosenc Oil in good condition, always 
keep it tightly corked, otherwise it will burn dull and 
cake on the wick, especially if kept in a warm place. 
As this oil precipitates a sediment, it is well to have a 
faucet near the base of the can, through which to 
draw off supplies without disturbing the sediment. 
The oil used will then be clear and bright. 

To Test Kerosene. Kerosene, or coal oil, is often 




adulterated with heavy oil or with benzine. The 
adulteration with the former is shown by dimness of 
the flame after having burned for some time, accom¬ 
panied by a charring of the wick. The latter may be 
readily detected by means of a thermometer, a little 
warm water and a tablespooiiful juf the oil. Fill the 
cup with warm water and a tabIesiX)onful of the oil. 
Fill the cup with warm water of the temperature of 
no'’ Fahr. Pour the oil on the water, apply flame 
to the floating oil by match or otherwise. If the oil 
is unsafe it will take fire, and its use in the lamp is 
dangerous; for it is liable to explode. In some States 
the law requires a higher flash test, but amendments 
are frequently made, varying the standard. No oil 
is explosive in and of itself. It is only when the 
vapor arising therefrom becomes mixed with the air 
in a certain proportion that it explodes. There 
should be no inflammable vapor from any oil used 
for burning in lamps at ordinary temperatures. A 
volatile oil is therefore unfit for the purposes of il¬ 
lumination. See Lamp and Petroleum. 

To remove kerosene odor from the hands, wash in 
sweet milk or with wetted bran. 

Kerf, the face of a cut made by an ax or a saw. 

Kettle. To prevent iron kettles from rusting, rub 
them thoroughly with grease or oil while they are 
hot, envelop them in paper and set them in a 
dry place, the nearer the stove, stove-pipe or chimney 
the better. Boiling up iron rust into one’s victuals is 
not healthful. When alkaline solutions (ashes or lye) 
have been heated in a kettle, all the protective coat¬ 
ing is taken off, and this is the case most necessary 
in which to put on the above coating, which also, 
applied on the outside, will keep it black and shining. 
Wipe with a newspaper. 

To prevent incrustations of lime or furring in a tea¬ 
kettle, keep in it an oyster shell or piece of marble. 

When a kettle is heated dry, water should not be 
poured into it, as it has a tendency to crack the 
metal. 

Key, in mechanics, a wedge of wood or metal 
driven into the end of a piece which is inserted in a 
mortice for holding it securely. 

Kicking, a well-known vice in horses. See pages 
721-2, 732. 

Kid Gloves. To clean, put them into gasoline 
for a day. Or wash by laying the glove on a clean 
cloth, and rub first until drj^ with another white clean 
cloth. Black kids may be renovated by going over 





KIDNEY EEAN—K/NO. 


907 


them with a feather dipped in a little salad oil with 
which a few drops of common black ink have been 
mixed. Rose oil is also good. 

To remove stains from kid gloves, suspend them 
for a day in an atmosphere of ammonia. Provide a 
tall glass cylinder with a little strong ammonia water 
in it; be careful to remove from the sides of the jar 
any ammonia that may have spattered upon them, 
and suspend the gloves to the stopper, not permitting 
them to touch the liquid. 

To prevent injury to kid gloves by perspiration, 
dust the hands with corn starch or pulverized soap¬ 
stone before drawing on the gloves. 

Kidney Bean, the type of all the varieties of 
cultivated bean, so called from its shape resembling 
that of a kidney; called also “haricot bean.” The 
White Kidney bean is an excellent variety for shell¬ 
ing green and cooking with green corn, forming 
succotash. 

Kidneys. These, in the human subject, are two 
dark red bodies, five to six inches long and three to 
four wide, having one side slightly longer than the 
other. They are situated near the back-bone in the 
upper part of the abdominal cavity, their upper half 
stretching across the two lower false ribs and the 
upper extremity in contact with the lower side and 
posterior border of the diaphragm. When they are 
painfully diseased, the pain seems to be about the 
middle of the back. The office of the kidneys is to 
secrete the urine, which passes from them in tubes call¬ 
ed ureters to the bladder, whence it is conveyed by the 
urethra to the external outlet. 

Inflammation. This is characterized by pain in 
the region of the kidneys, shooting downward through 
the bladder. Sometimes it is accompanied by numb¬ 
ness of the thighs, high-colored urine, which is 
frequently discharged, constipation,vomiting,and gen¬ 
eral fever. It is caused by acrid food, irritating con¬ 
diments and diuretic medicines, severe exercise, 
exposure of the back to drafts of air, etc. 

Treatment. Give small doses of lobelia, just suffi¬ 
cient to relax the system and produce perspiration. 
Afterward apply to the region of the kidneys a hot 
fomentation of hops, wormwood and tansy, simmered 
in vinegar and water, with a little bran mixed with 
them. Then give sweet spirits of niter, 2 ounces; 
oil of sweet almonds, 2 ounces, and spirits of turpen¬ 
tine, I ounce, mixed,—a teaspoonful every three or 
four hours during the day, in a cup of warm spear¬ 
mint tea. Let the patient drink also a decoction of 
marsh mallows (leaves or root) and mullein leaves, or 
either of them if both cannot be procured. Horse- 
mint may be added. If the pain is severe or of long 
standing, apply a liniment made of oil of juniper 
ounce, oil of spearmint ^ ounce, spirits of turpentine 
I ounce, tincture of cayenne i ounce, laudanum i 
ounce and alcohol pint. 

Ulceration and other obscure diseases are too 
difficult of diagnosis by the unprofessional, and in 
deed by the profession generally, as a powerful mi¬ 


croscope has to be used and many recondite symp¬ 
toms and conditions taken into account. Almost any 
“ doctor” will pretend to know what is the matter, and 
tinker with the case as long as he is permitted; while 
every time the patient is better the doctor gets the 
credit and every time he is worse the disease gets the 
blame. 

Bright’s Disease. This is a structural degenera¬ 
tion of the kidneys, attended with albuminuria (albu¬ 
men in the blood) and a dropsical condition. The 
tendency of the chronic form is always toward a fatal 
result. About one-third die of uraemic jxiisoning 
(urine in the blood); a considerable number die of 
dropsical effusions (collections of water in some part); 
one-fifth die from secondary pneumonia, inflammation 
of tlie membranes enveloping the heart or pleurisy; 
the rest by exhaustion from loss of blood, indigestion, 
general dropsy, etc. 

Symptoms. The acute form seems to be excited into 
existence by exposure to cold, a drunken spree, an at¬ 
tack of fever or the use of irritating diuretics, and is 
ushered in by chilliness, headache, nausea, vomiting, 
pain in the back and limbs, stoppage of perspiration 
and oppression in breathing. The urine is scanty, 
heavy, and dark in color, from the presence of blood, 
and ropy or cloudy from the presence of albumen. 
Probably two-thirds or more of the acute cases re¬ 
cover. The chronic form is characterized by the per¬ 
sistence of albumen appearing by periods in the urine, 
complicated with dropsical symptoms. 

Treat 7 nent. Foment the region of the kidneys as 
long as the pain is severe; take general hot-air baths; 
keep the bowels open by a proper diet, or take purga¬ 
tives, as cream of tartar and jalap or citrate of magne¬ 
sia or potash, etc. Avoid exposure to cold, wet and 
fatigue ; be totally abstinent from alcoholic and other 
intemperance; bathe frequently, always finishing off 
with a great deal of hand-rubbing of the skin ; pennit 
no acid matter in the diet. Tincture of the chloride 
of iron and (for strong stomachs) cod-liver oil may be 
given for the chronic form. Avoid astringent and 
mercurial medicines. But generally the complica¬ 
tions of chronic Bright’s disease are so obscure and 
threatening that the skill of a physician will be requi¬ 
site. 

Farm animals afflicted with kidney disease show 
the fact by weak hind-quarters, and are past redemp¬ 
tion. See respective animals. 

Killing animals; see Slaughtering. 

King Bolt, of a wagon, is the largest bolt, which holds 
the coupling pole to the fore axletree, and at the same 
time the bolster on the axletree, allowing the latter to 
turn freely and independently. 

Kino (ki'no), an astringent extract of a deep 
brownish red color, obtained from certain tropical 
trees. It is used in medicine, to stop diarrhoea when 
no high fever accompanies, and the powdered root 
stops bleeding at the nose or from wounds. It is 
also used for other purposes, but for all of them more 
common remedies are equally efficient.. 











908 


KITCHEN—KNO TS. 


Kitchen, a cooking room. The culinary art is a 
complicated and responsible one, involving knowl¬ 
edge and skill in various subsidiary, or collateral 
branches; and these are distributed throughout this 
volume under the heads, Cookery, Residence, and all 
the different articles and processes used in or in con¬ 
nection with kitchen work. 

Below we give a list of the articles more or less 
needed in the kitchen and dining-room, omitting laun¬ 
dry furniture, special dairy appliances and most car¬ 
penter tools, some of which are occasionally required 
in culinary work: 


Apple-Corer 
Apple-Parer 
Bath Brick 
Bellows, Hand 
Bone Saw 
Bottles 

Braising Pans 
Bread Board 
Bread Box 
Bread Knife 
Bread Tray- 
Broom 
Butter Ladle 
Butter Plates 
Butter Stamp 
Cake Cutters 
Can Opener 
Call Bells 

Carving Knife and Fork 
Case Knives and Forks 
Casters and Cruets 
Chairs 

Cherry-Pitter 

Coffee Pot 

Colanders 

Cork Screw 

Decanter 

Dippers 

Dust Pan 

Dutch Oven 

Egg Beater 

Faucets " 

Fender 

File 

Flour Dredger 
Flour Sieve 


Fruit Dishes 
Fruit Press 
Frying Pans 
Funnels 
Goblets 

Gridiron, for Broiling 
Hash Knife or Meat 
Chopper 
Heat-Fender 
Jelly Molds 
Knife Box 
Knife Sharpener 
Match Safe 
Meal Sieve 
Meat Dishes 
Mush Paddle 
Napkins, for Washing, 
Wiping and Furnish¬ 
ing Table 
Napkin Rings 
Nutmeg-Grater 
Pails 

Paring Knife 
Patty Pans 
Pie Pans 

Plates, Breakfast and 
Dinner 
Plate Rack 
Poker, for Fire 
Pots 

Rolling Pin 
Salt-cellars 
Sauce Dishes 
Saucers 

Shovel, for Fire 
Silver Polish 


Skillets 
Soap Dish 
Soup Ladle 
Spice Cans 

Spice and Pepper 
Boxes 
Spit 

Spoons, Table, Dessert 
and Tea 
Spoon Case 
Steak-Beater 
Steamer 
Stew Pans 
Stools 

Stove or Range 

Stove-Lid Lifter 

Strainer 

Sugar Dredger 

Tables 

Teacups 

Teapot 

Toast Rack 

Tongs 

Tubs 

T ureen 

Vegetable Dishes 
Vegetable or Root 
Grater 
Vials 

Waiter (Server or Sal¬ 
ver) 

Wash Basins 
Water Filter 
Whetstone 
Whisk 


Knee, a principal joint in the legs of man and the 
fore-legs of quadrupeds. The knee of the horse is a 
very complicated and exceedingly important joint. It 
constitutes the articulation between the horse’s arm 
and his shank, and corresponds anatomically, or in 
relative position, to man’s wrist. It comprises the 
lower end of the bone of the arm, the upper end of 
the three bones of the shank, and six proper or inter¬ 
posed bones, arranged in two rows of three each, with 
a seventh one behind. This important joint and 
integuments are very subject to injury from falls and 
bruises. 

Knee Joint, or Toggle Joint, a joint consisting 
of two pieces butting on each other like the bent knee, 
so as to thrust with increasing power when pressed 
into a straight line. 

Knickk nack, a sweetmeat; a dainty. 

Knife-Sharpener. A small contrivance has been 
invented, consisting of two hardened edges of steel, 
adjusted so as to shave off a knife edge. It is found 
at some hardware stores, and sometimes sold on the 
streets of towns by hawkers. It is seldom substan¬ 
tial, and does not supersede the old-fashioned whet¬ 
stone, grindstone or file. 


Knock Down or Off, at auction, is to declare the 
sale of the article closed to the last bidder. 

Knots. The farmer who knows how to tie the 
right kind of a knot with a rope, cord or strap, with 



Fig. I and 2. 


Fig. 3. 



Fig. 


neatness and dispatch, possesses a useful accomplish¬ 
ment, and will often save time and trouble in the 
numberless cases where this kind of skill is needed. 

For the purpose of assisting the un¬ 
skillful and inexperienced, we give a 
few brief directions, accompanied with 
illustrations, to show how some of the 
more common and useful knots are 
tied, to which many others might be 
added, especially of those known to 
sailors; but these here described em¬ 
brace nearly all that are necessary for 
farmers to know. 

For readily attaching a rope to a 
timber, mast or any part of a building, 
for sustaining a continued force, the 
timber hitch shown Ijy Fig. i answers 
a good purpose. The greater the 
force exerted, the firmer it will hold, in consequence 
of the hard pressure against the timber. A noose or 
running knot with a double rope is represented 
Fig. 2. 

Figs. 3 and 4 repre¬ 
sent the simplest mode 
of forming a running 
knot for a loop, the 
first loose, the last 
drawn tight. 

Loops, Fig. 9 rep¬ 
resents a simple run¬ 
ning loop, tied with a 
loop in the knot, so that 
it may be instantly un¬ 
tied by jerking the end. 

This is a common way 
of tying horses’ halterb, 
being quickly tied and 
quickly loosened. To 
prevent the animal Figs. 5 and 6. 

from working it loose, thrust the end through the loop 


by 































KNUCKLE—KYA NIZE. 



of the knot, as in Fig. 6, which will render it perfect¬ 
ly secure. Every boy should know how to tie this 

very simple knot 
for hitching horses, 
but many boys, as 
well as men, do 
not. 

As it is exceed- 
7- ingly convenient for 

every one who works on a fann to know how to tie 
quickly the various knots described in this short ar¬ 
ticle, it will be an interesting exercise both for boys 
and men, on rainy days and 
long evenings, to procure a 
small rope or cord and acquire 
a ready practice in forming the 
various kinds here figured and 
described. 

The quickest way of tying 
two ends together is shown by 
Figs. 7 and 8. Place the two 
ends parallel together, then tie 
a common single knot near the 
end, as shown in Fig. 7 ; then 
draw the two cords or ropes 
tighten it, as shown in Fig. 
secure connection will be found, which will 
not untie or slip. It is rather rough and awkward in 

appearance, but 



Fig. 8. 


apart so as to 
8, and a very 







is often useful on 
account of the 
quickness with 
which it may be 
formed. 

Fig. 9, known 
as the “reef 
knot” by sailors, 
is the most use- 
, ful knot where 

Figs. 9 and 10. 

two ends are to be fastened together, and represents 
the cords loosely connected ; Fig. lo shows the same 
tightly drawn together. As a general rule, the best 
knot is the one that is neatest in appearance, and 
this combines both qualities. It will be observed 
that the ends and the main cords lie closely parallel 
together, or on the same side of the loops. This knot 
is often spoiled and rendered nearly useless by plac- 


909 


ing the ends and cord on opposite sides of the loops. 

Knuckle (nuk'l), the joint of a finger, particularly 
when made prominent by closing the finger; the 
knee-joint, especially of a calf, as a “ knuckle of 
vealthe joint pieces of a hinge through which the 
pin or rivet passes. 

Kohl Eabi or Turnip Cabbage. The stalk is 
swelled out the shape of a turnip. Prepare the ground 
as for cabbage,'then plant about the first of June in 
rows two feet apart, thinning plants to 12 inches in 
the row. It will stand severe drouth. Preserved over 
winter like turnips. When young their flesh is tender 
and delicious, resembling a fine ruta-baga with less 
of the turnip flavor. When fully matured they are 
excellent for stock. 

V ARIETIES. Large or Late Giant Purple. Best 
for stock. 

Early White Vienna. A standard early kind. 

Early S?nooth Purple. Fine for table use. 

White Giant. Very large and choice. 

Koumiss (koo'mis) or Kumyss (ku'mis), a liquor 
made among the Calmucks of Tartary by fermenting 
mare’s or camel’s milk, from which they obtain by 
distillation an intoxicating spirit. In some parts of 
Western Asia, however, a beverage by this name is 
simply fermented mare’s milk. This beverage is 
manufactured in this country for the use of those who 
have impaired digestion, and is to be had at some 
drug stores. 

Kyanize (ki'an-ize), to preserve timber from decay 
by the following process: Dissolve i pound of cor¬ 
rosive sublimate in 20 gallons of water, in a tight half 
hogshead or rectangular box of the proper height, and 
stand up the posts in the liquid for two weeks. Be 
sure all the necessary parts of the posts to be kyan- ' 
ized are under the liquid during the whole time, then 
take out and dry, and fill up the bath with more 
posts. If the liquid evaporate, add water and more 
of the solution, when necessary. A bath of strong 
lye from potash or wood ashes makes a fair substi¬ 
tute, and it is presumed the cheaper solution made 
from copperas (sulphate of iron) and water would 
form a stypfic equally effective. The corrosive sub¬ 
limate solution will not, however, be very expensive, 
as so large a number can be treated with so small a 
quantity. 




















L 


abel, a small piece of any material, attached 
lit object and designating its name or 

number, etc. The labels in use on a farm, 
and especially in the orchard and garden, 
6j(j many styles, according to taste or con- 

^ venience. Tin labels, when once made, and 
T' with one end long and narrow to be readily 
V wrapped around a twig, can be more rapidly at¬ 
tached to trees and other plants than any other kind. 
They are a great convenience when considerable 
labeling is to be done in haste, as with nurserymen in 
spring time. They may be prepared during the win¬ 
ter, by painting them black and writing on them with 
a blunt stick before the paint is dr}’, and then so classi¬ 
fying them that they can be quickly selected when the 
emergency arises. Or, cut strips of zinc half or three- 
fourths of an inch wide at one end, and half that j 
width at the other, with a length of about five inches; 
and they may be readily attached to a small branch 
by winding the narrow end twice around the branch, I 
and nothing more. As the branch grows, the zinc 
e.xpands by uncoiling, and no harm mil be done by 
cutting into the bark, as is so common with wired 
labels. Pencil marks on these are said to last for 
years. 

« In housekeeping it is very’ important to have ever}’ 
bottle, package, box, etc., labeled, if it contains any¬ 
thing for use and is closed, and thus save time when 
one is in haste, and prevent mistakes. To be obliged 
to uncork a bottle, open a box or undo a package— 
and generally a lot of them—ever}’ time you go to find 
what you want, is a both a needless and vexatious 
waste of time, especially when one is in a hurry. Be¬ 
sides, mistakes in the use of medicines, chemicals and 
culinar}' preparations are often \'ery serious—^which 
would generally be prevented by proper labeling. 

Labium, the lower lip of an insect. It is a veiy’ 
complicated organ, and generally serves to close the 
mouth from beneath. 

Labrum, the upper lip of an insect. In biting in¬ 
sects it is a flattened horny or leathery plate, but in 
many other insects it is quite membranous and com¬ 
pletely concealed. 

Lace, To AVash: see Laundiy. 

Lactic Acid, the acid of sour milk, extracted by 
chemists for medical purjx)ses. It is a limpid, sirupy 
liquid, colorless or of a pale wine color, of a slight but 
not unpleasant odor and a ver}’ sour taste. One to 
three drams a day are recommended for dyspepsia. 


Lactometer, an instrument for ascertaining the 
comparative richness of new milk. 

Ladder, a well-known hand implement for climb- 
j ing. All persons conversant with the routine of farm 
operations know the importance of good strong lad¬ 
ders. In proportion to their cost they are of more 
value than any other farm contrivance. They need 
not be expensive. Even the most bungling user of 
tools may construct one. Yet it is a fact that in al¬ 
most every neighborhood are farmers and owners of 
buildings who, in case of fire, have not at hand a lad¬ 
der of sufficient length to reach the eaves of the barn, 
or even of the dwelling; and how often it occurs that 
when a fire breaks out there is plenty of water, and 
persons at hand to quench the flames if they had a 
ladder to reach the roof, or other point of danger! 
For general farm purixjses it is best to have two lad¬ 
ders, one about 12 feet in length the other from 22 to 
30 feet long, or of a length sufficient to reach the 
roof of the highest building on the premises. The 
side-pieces should be free from knots or decayed por¬ 
tions, and it is best, if possible, to construct them from 
some light wood, such as pine, chestnut or basswood. 
For a rough, cheap job, }X)les may be used, simply 
! splitting them. Or select straight poles of suitable 
I length, and saw them lengthwise, and they will be 
found better and much cheaper than sawed pieces 
obtained at the mill. The connecting rollers or rungs 
should be of the best hard, tough wood, and never 
less than an inch and a quarter in diameter at the 
ends. For long ladders it is best to wedge each one 
in position. A good ladder should decrease three 
inches in wdth to every ten feet in length. Paint, or 
at least apply a good coat of oil. Keep at some con¬ 
venient and readily accessible place under shelter 
when not in use. 

Ladle, an instrument used in lading or dipping; a 
cup Avith a long handle, used for throwing or dip- 
[ ping^out liquids from a vessel. For household pur- 
1 ix)ses good ladles of all kinds, both wooden and 
I metallic, can be had at hardware stores, groceries, 
etc. 

Lady-Bird, Lady-Bug or Lady-Fly: see page 
I 887- 

Lamb, the young of sheep; see Sheep. 

Lambrekin (lam'ber-kin), a kind of pendent scarf 
or covering attached to the helmet, to protect it 
; from wet or heat; also a short, ornamental curtain to 








LAAfB'S-Q UAJ^ TER—LAND. 


911 


be fixed at the top of windows. The latter is made 
of costly material, too fine to be washed; and al¬ 
though it is still to be found in the mansions of the 
wealthy, it casts a somber shade of gloom over the 
parlor scarcely in keeping with the demands of mod¬ 
ern physiology. Neither good taste nor “style” 
absolutely requires the use of such an article. 

Lamb’s-quarterq a common garden weed, called 
also pigweed and goosefoot; the last mentioned name 
is the most appropriate and definite. The weed, 
though common, is not a very disagreeable pest. It 
belongs to the same order as beets and spinach, and 
has been used as “ greens,” mixed with mustard 
leaves or some other species. 

Lamb’s-wool, or Wassail, a beverage made by 
mixing the pulp of roasted apples with ale, with 
sweetening and spicing. 

Lamp, a well-known apparatus for producing arti¬ 
ficial light. For history of, see Light. There are very 
few common plluminating substances that produce a 
light as brilliant and steady as kerosene oil, but its 
full brilliancy is rarely attained, through want of at¬ 
tention to certain requisite points in its manage¬ 
ment. The wick, oil and lamp, and all its appur¬ 
tenances must be perfectly clean. The chimney 
must not only be “clean,” but clear and bright. The 
wick should be trimmed exactly square across the 
wick tube and not over the curved top of the cup¬ 
ola or dome. Cut off the perfectly charred por¬ 
tion. After thus cutting evenly across the top of 
the tube, raise the wick a little and cut off the 
corners slightly. The sharper the scissors, the bet¬ 
ter the cut and the better will be the flame. A 
wick made of felt is superior in all respects to one of 
cotton. The kerosene ought not to be suffered to 
get very low in the lamp, nor should it be filled 
to within an inch of the base of the tube, as in 
such cases it oozes out through the wick and over 
all the lamp. But greasiness of the lamp can be 
urevented by placing a felt ring a half-inch wide 
close around the neck or socket. (See article Kero¬ 
sene, page 906). The wick should not be turned 
down very low, and the lamp left standing very 
long in the absence of all persons from the room, 
or in one’s sleeping-room during the night. Wicks 
are often too narrow or too wide. When too nar¬ 
row they give but little light, the flame burns with 
jets and puffs, and sometimes, by a sudden draft 
caused by opening or shutting a door, the flame 
may be drawn down into the globe and an explosion 
result. 

To clean kerosene lamps, pour out all the oil, 
wash thoroughly with warm water, soap and sal- 
soda, rinse repeatedly until all signs of the suds 
disappear, and then let drain until dry- 

'bo clean kerosene lamp chimneys, rub them out 
with soft newspaper or cotton, by means of a stick. 
Have the chimney cool, and moisten it inside sev¬ 
eral times by breathing into it. Occasionally it may 
be better to wash them as just recommended for 
58 


lamps. To prevent lamp chimneys from cracking, 
put them into a kettle of cold water, gradually bring 
to the boiling point and then as gradually let them 
cool. Some add a little salt to the water. 

A new top may be cemented upon a kerosene 
lamp with the following composition ; 3 parts resin, 

I caustic soda, 3 water, boiled together, and then 
mixed with its own weight of plaster of Paris. This 
will set firmly in half to three-quarters of an hour. 
Zinc white, white lead or precipitated chalk may be 
substituted for plaster, but it hardens more slowly. 
Of course, the neck of the lamp has to be perfectly 
clean from all the oil and other foreign matter be¬ 
fore the process of cementing on another top is 
commenced. Generally it is cheaper and better to 
take the lamp to some place in town where they re¬ 
pair such things. 

In lighting a lamp, it is best to commence with 
a small blaze and heat up the chimney gradually 
to prevent breaking it. Lamps Vvithout chimneys 
are in the market, but they are objectionable in some 
respect. The most serviceable style is a chimney 
which is held on the lamp-top by a small thumb¬ 
screw, and the top so arranged that in lighting you 
can turn the chimney and dome over in one piece, 
which is held to the neck piece by a spring. 

For all table work the lamp should have a shade, 
white inside. Next to white a bluish tint is best; 
but unless the light is pretty strong, a bluish shade 
or chimney makes it too dim for comfortable use. 

Argand burners are those adapted to cylindrical, 
hollow wicks, allowing ventilation through the hol¬ 
low. A slender, cylindrical chimney is used, with a 
constriction or neck near the base. It is slightly 
more economical of the oil than the ordinary appa¬ 
ratus, but the chimneys are apt to break. 

“ Students’ ” lamps are stylish and somewhat cost¬ 
ly, but have the slight advantage of an adjustable 
arm by which the light can be elevated or lowered 
to suit the convenience of the student. 

Lampas, tumefaction of the gum and of the bars 
of the palate of the horse’s mouth; see page807. 

Lampblack, is a fine soot formed by the condensa¬ 
tion of the smoke of burning resinous substances. It 
can be made on a small scale in the following manner: 
Suspend over a lamp a conical funnel of tin plate, 
having above it a pipe, to convey from the apartment 
the smoke which escapes from the lamp. Large 
mushroom-like concretions of a very black carbon¬ 
aceous matter, and exceedingly light, will be formed 
at the summit of the cone, and must be collected from 
time to time. This black may be rendered less oily 
and drier by calcination in close vessels. The 
funnel should be united to the pipe, which conveys off 
the smoke, by means of wire, as solder would be 
melted by the flame of the lamp. For fine painting, 
lampblack must be ground in a paint-mill. 

Land, a tract of territory, referred to as a measured 
piece or with reference to its contour. The nature of 








LAND. 


91 2 


the surface with reference to tillage is comprehended 
in the term “soil.” 

To Measure Land. Surveyors measure land by 
four-rod chains, which contain loo links. Each link 
is therefore 7.92 inches. On request, they report 
their surveys in miles, sections, acres, rods, etc. To 
measure land for agricultural purposes, when exact¬ 
ness is not required, “stepping”is the most convenient. 
By a little practice one can make hve steps to the rod 
within a few inches, and thus be able to calculate 
the area or dimensions of his grounds in a very simple 
manner. When the field is a square, a parallelogram, 
a rhombus or a rhomboid, the exact area can be 
calculated by multiplying the length in rods by the 
breadth in rods, and dividing the product by 160. 
When the field is triangular, multiply the base, or 
longest side, in rods, by the greatest width, in rods, and 
divide half the product by 160. When the field is a 
trapezium or a trapezoid, divide it diagonally by a line 
running from one extreme corner to the other, which 
will cut the field into two right-angled triangles; then 
proceed with each as in the foregoing rule, and add 
the areas of the two triangles together. The product 
will be the number of acres. When the field has 
more than four sides, all of which are straight, draw 
diagonals to divide the field into triangles; find the 
area of each separately, and the sum of the whole will 
be the number of acres. Where the field is long and 
the sides crooked and irregular, take the breadth in 
rods in a number of places, at equal distances apart; 
add them, and divide the sum by the number of 
breadths for the mean average or breadth; then 
multiply that by the length in rods and divide the 
product by 160; the quotient will be the number of 
acres. Where the field is long, and the sides and 
ends crooked and irregular, find the mean breadth in 
rods by the foregoing rule, and proceed in like manner 
to find the mean length in rods; then multiply the 
mean length by the mean breadth, and divide the 
product by 160, and the quotient will be the number 
of acres. Where the field is a circle, multiply the 
diameter by itself and the product by 7854, and point 
off four figures to the right. If the measurement is 
taken in rods, the answer will be in square rods, which 
if divided by 160 will give the number of acres. 

Horizontal measurements are always understood in 
surveying land. Therefore the chain or rod must be 
held on a level with the horizon in taking measure¬ 
ment. In going over steep hills a short chain must 
be used and great care taken in setting the pins. A 
plummet, and even a level, are necessary to exactness. 

The Public Lands are divided into two classes, 
one at ^1-25 per acre, designated as minimum, lying 
outside of railroad limits ; the other at $2.50 an acre, 
as double minimum, lying within railroad limits. 
Titles are acquired by purchase at public land sale,by 
ordinary “private entry,” and in virtue of the pre¬ 
emption, homestead, timber-culture, and other laws. 
Purchases at public sale are made when lands are 
“offered” at public auction to the highest bidder by 
proclamation of the President or by order of the 


General Land Office. Lands so offered and not sold, 
and not since reserved or withdrawn from the market 
can be secured by “private entry” or location. 

Heads of families, widows or single persons (male 
or female), over the age of 21 years, citizens of the 
United States or who have declared their intention to 
become such under the natuialization laws, may enter 
upon any “offered” and “unoffered” lands or any 
unsurveyed lands to which the Indians’ title is 
extinguished, and purchase not exceeding 160 acres 
under the pre-emption laws. After making settle¬ 
ment, if on “offered” land, the applicant must file his 
declaratory statement with the district land office 
within 30 days, for which a fee of $2.00 is required, 
and within one year from date of settlement, make 
final proof of his actual residence on and cultivation 
of the tract, and pay therefor at $1.25 per acre if out¬ 
side of railroad limits, or $2.50 per acre if within these 
limits; and he may pay in cash, or by military bounty 
land warrants, agricultural college, private claim or 
Supreme Court scrip. 

When the tract has been surveyed and is not 
“offered” land, the claimant must file his or her 
declaratory statement within three months from date 
of settlement, and make proof and payment within 
thirty-three months from date of settlement. Settle¬ 
ment is the first thing to be done under the pre¬ 
emption laws. 

When settlements are made on unsurveyed lands, 
settlers are required to file their declaratory statements 
within three months after the date of the receipt at 
the district land office, or of the approved plat of the 
township, embracing their claims, and make proof and 
payment within thirty months from the expiration of 
said three months; payments the same as in case 
of “offered” land. 

Pre-emptors may submit proofs of residence and 
improvements at any time after six months of actual 
residence. He must show by his own testimony and 
by two credible witnesses such actual residence and 
cultivation—-a habitable dwelling and other improve¬ 
ments, to the satisfaction of the land officers that the 
spirit of the law has been complied with. 

At any time before the expiration of the time 
allowed for proof and payment, the settler may, by 
making proper application at the land office and pay¬ 
ment of the required fee, convert his claim into a 
homestead, and the time he has resided upon the 
land is credited on homestead residence if he desires. 
No person who abandons his residence on his own 
land to reside on public land in the same State or 
Territory, or who owns 320 acres of land, is entitled 
to the benefits of the pre-emption laws. It is held, 
however, that this provision does not apply to a house 
and lot in town. Claims cannot be transferred until 
title is perfected. The second filing of the declara¬ 
tory statement by any pre-emptor, when first filing 
was legal in all respects, is prohibited. Before proof 
and payment on pre-emption claims, written notice 
must be given by the claimants to the Register, who 
must post a notice in his office and cause the same 











LAND. 


913 


to be published in a newspaper nearest the land for 
at least 30 days, as in cases of homesteads. 

Any person who is the head of a family or who has 
arrived at the age of 21 years, and is a citizen of the 
United States or has filed his declaration of intention 
to become such, is entitled to enter one-quarter 
section or less quantity of unappropriated public land 
under the homestead laws. The applicant must 
make an affidavit that he is over the age of 21 or is 
the head of a family, and that he is a citizen of the 
United States or has declared his intention to become 
such, and that the entry is made for his exclusive use 
and benefit and for actual settlement and cultivation, 
and must pay the legal fee and that part of the com¬ 
mission required to be paid when entry is made, as 
follows: When within railroad limits, for 160 acres, 
^10, commission ^8; for 80 acres, fee $5, commission 
$4. Outside of railroad limits, fee $10, commission 
and in proportion for 80 or 40 acres. When 
the^e requirements are complied with, the Receiver 
issues his receipt in duplicate, and the matter is 
entered iqxin the records of the office. After faithful 
observance of the law in regard to actual settlement 
and cultivation for the continuous term of five years, 
at the expiration of that term or within two years 
thereafter, final proof must be made, and if satis¬ 
factory to the land officers, that part of the commis¬ 
sions remaining unpaid (the same in amount as paid 
on entry) must be paid. The Register then issues 
his certificate and makes proper returns to the 
General Land Office, as a basis of a patent. 

Any settler desiring to make final proof, must first 
file with the Register a written notice of his intention, 
describing the land and giving the names of four 
witnesses by whom the facts as to settlement, con¬ 
tinuous residence, cultivation, etc., are to be estab¬ 
lished. 'Fhis notice must be accompanied by a 
deposit of money sufficient to pay the cost of publish¬ 
ing the notice which the Register is required to pub¬ 
lish for thirty days (five times), in a newspaper 
designated by him, and arrange with the publisher of 
the paper therefor. Notice is also posted in the land 
office for the same period. 

Final proof cannot be made until the expiration of 
five years from the date of the entry, and must be 
made within two years thereafter. In making final 
proof the settler may appear in person at the district 
land office with his witnesses, and there make the 
affidavit and proof required; or he may, if by reason 
of bodily infirmity or distance it is inconv^iient for 
him to appear at the land office, with his witnesses, 
appear before the judge of a court of record of the 
county and State, or district or Territory in which the 
land is situated, and there make final proof When 
a homestead settler dies before he can prove up, the 
widow, or in case of her death, the heirs, may con¬ 
tinue settlement and obtain title and requisite proof 
at the proper time. In case of death of both parents 
leaving infant children, the homestead may be sold 
for cash for benefit of the children, and purchaser 
will receive title. 


The sale of a homestead claim to another party 
before completion of title, is not recognized. In 
making final proof the settler must swear that no part 
of the land has been alienated, except for church, 
cemetery, or school purposes, or right of railroads. 

Homestead claims maybe relintiuished, but in such 
case the land reverts to the Government. If a settler 
does not wish to remain five years on his tract, he 
may pay for it, as under pre-emption law, in cash or 
warrants at any time after six months of actual resi¬ 
dence. Homesteaders are allowed six months after 
entry to commence improvements and establish resi¬ 
dence. 

The law allows but one homestead privilege to any 
one person. 

Every person who served not less than 90 days in 
the army or navy of the United States during the 
recent rebellion, who was honorably discharged and 
has remained loyal to the Government, may enter a 
homestead, and the time of his services shall be 
deducted from the period of five years, provided that 
the party shall reside upon and cultivate his home¬ 
stead at least one year after he commences improve¬ 
ments. The widow of a soldier, or if she be dead or 
is married again, the minor heirs (if any), may, 
through their guardian, make a homestead entry; and 
if the soldier died in the service, the whole term of 
his enlistment-will be credited upon the term of re¬ 
quired residence. Lands acquired under the home¬ 
stead laws are not liable for any debt contracted prior 
to the issuing of the patent therefor. 

Under the timber-culture law not more than 160 
acres on any one section, entirely devoid of timber, 
can be entered, and no person can make more than 
one entry thereunder. 

The qualifications of applicants are the same as 
under the pre-emption and homestead laws. The 
land-office charges are, for 160 acres or more than 80, 
$14 when an entry is made, and ^ at final proof. 
For 80 acres or less, $g at entry, and $4 at final 
proof. The applicant must make an affidavit that 
the land specified in his application is exclusively 
prairie, or other land devoid of timber, that his filing 
and entry are made for the cultivation of timber for his 
own exclusive use and benefit; that the application 
is made in good faith and not for the purpose of 
speculation, or directly or indirectly for the use of any 
other person or persons; that he intends to hold and 
cultivate the land and comply with the laws, and that 
he has not previously made an entry under the timber- 
culture law. 

No residence is required on a tree claim, but the 
claimant must break or plow five acres of a quarter 
section, and pro rata on a smaller tract, during the 
first year after entry. During the second year he must 
break five acres more, and cultivate to crop or other¬ 
wise the five acres first broken. During the third 
year he must plant in tree seeds, trees or cuttings, the 
first five acres, and cultivate to crop or otherwise the 
second five acres, and by the end of the fourth year 
the entire tract of ten acres must have been planted 








914 


LAiVn—LANnSCAFE GAEDEAANG. 


to timber trees, seeds or cuttings. Provision is made 
for extension of time in case drought or grasshoppers 
destroy trees. These trees he must cultivate and 
protect, and if, at the expiration of eiglit years from 
date of entry, or at any time within five years there¬ 
after, the entrant, or if he be dead, his heirs, shall 
prove by two credible witnesses the planting, cul¬ 
tivating and protecting the timber for not less than 
eight years, and that there were at the end of the 
eight years, at least 675 living, thrifty trees on each 
of the ten acres required to l)e planted, he or they | 
will be entitled to a patent. It should be added, 
that in making final proof it must be shown that “not 
less than 2,700 trees were planted to each acre.” 

It is not necessaiy that the ten acres should be in 
a compact body. 

Failure to comply with any of the requirements of 
the law at any time after one year from date of entry, 
renders such entry liable to contest, and u^Xin due 
proof of such failure the entry will be canceled. No 
land acquired under this law will in any event be¬ 
come liable to the satisfaction of any debt or debts 
contracted prior to the issuing of the final certificate 
therefor. 

qualified applicant cannot take a homestead and | 
pre-emption claim at the same time, but he may take j 
either and a tree claim at the same time. A man ! 
may take a pre-emption and a tree claim, and after j 
proving up and obtaining title to his pre-emption, I 
may then enter a homestead (if he can find one), and 
thus secure 480 acres of land. 

Land, in farming, the unplowed ^xtrtion of an area j 
laid off to be plowed. A plow is said to “ run to ' 
land” when it takes too large a furrow slice. 

Landau, a kind of carriage. See page 161. 

Landlord, a person who owns land and lets it out > 
to tenants. i 

Land-side, of a plow, the side next the unplowed 
land and opposite the feather. 

Landscape Gardening. In the infancy of human ! 
arts, all gardening would be comprehended in the I 
culture of a few fruits and esculent plants within a i 
very limited space; but at present the word garden 
has at le,^st three distinct significations. It is used 
to designate a spot destined for the culture of fruits 
and culinary vegetables ; to mark a space devoted to 
flowers and botanical pursuits; and to denote a more 
extended scene, characterized by forest trees and 
walks for shade and recreation, and combining such 
other objects belonging to external scenery as taste, 
art, or locality may confer. For kitchen-gardening 
and floral gardening, we refer to the articles on Gar¬ 
den and Floriculture. The art of forming the third 
class of gardens, and to which we propose in this ar¬ 
ticle to confine our attention, has been indifferently 
known under the terms pleasure, ornamental and 
rural gardening; but is now more generally designated 
landscape gardening—a very happy term, particularly 
as applied to the modern style of laying out grounds. 


We wish to impress upon the farmers the imjx)rtance 
of beautifying their farms, at least to some extent. A 
little taste and very little labor, and this labor well 
rewarded, may easily make a purely agricultural region 
one of delightful beauty. 

A farm that is skillfully managed, requires but lit¬ 
tle additional attention to fences, borders, farm roads 
and farm buildings, to make it a distinct and beauti¬ 
ful member in a beautiful landscajje. Art and utility 
here thoroughly concur. 'bhe cultivation which 
reaches cleanness, neatness and good order—and 
nature will do the rest surprisingly well in the coun¬ 
try—is the most economical tillage. The neglected 
out-buildings and the abused and scattered tools are 
as costly as they are unsightly. 'I'he ragged edge of 
cultivation which stops where the plow and harrow 
end, is no more in keeping with clean fields, and the 
full service of every foot of land, than it is with our 
human sense of work well and completely done. 
However it may be in the city, it is not beauty that 
costs, but ugliness; not cleaning up that makes life a 
drudger}’, but the exasperation of things in the way, 
things out of the way, and things not worth having 
when found. 

Art, when it costs most, often brings a sufficient re¬ 
ward ; but in its first principles in the country it 

hardly costs any¬ 
thing, and is still 
liberal in its gifts. 
Let the farmer 
simply aim, as the 
basis of operation, 
at clean grass, fine 
trees, snug build¬ 
ings, and tools in 
their places, and 
while he has saved 
many dollars from 
waste, and can 
hardly be said to 
have spenta dollar 
for ornamentation, 
he has the staple 
of beauty in large 
possession. He 
may afterward con¬ 
fine himself to these first terms, or he may overpass 
them at his leisure and according to his ability. 

As a contribution to the pleasures and refinements 
of life, to self-respect, to sympathy with the world as 
full of things to be enjoyed, to local attachments and 
to patriotism, few things will be found more effective 
than a little art added to our agriculture. No man 
is in possession of a well ordered place who has 
not a strong pledge of good-will to the world, of good¬ 
will to his neighbor who shares and enhances his 
pleasure, and of good-will to the nation which casts 
about it safety and peace. 

I hen it enhances the value of his property, and not 
alone that, but the attractions which it throws around 
the homes of young people are far more important, for 













LAiVnSCAPE GAPPENING. 



, Fig. 2. — Gardenia. 

a cultivated taste; and this taste is developed and 
cultivated by the study of the general principles of all 
the fine arts, especially the works of art. A real good 
landscape and an elaborate oil painting called a 


Fig. 3. —Arbor Vitee, American. 

“ landscape” equally represent the elements of cul¬ 
ture; therefore to make a good landscape is virtually 
the same as to e.xecute a good oil painting represent¬ 
ing one; both operations are simply ])icture-making. 
The two most general principles of this art are 


Fig. 4. — White Spruce, 

have rounded outlines, like the white oak, beech and 
sugar maple, while rocky and angular places suggest 
firs, sumac and angular structures. Beautiful views 
in the distance should be kept visible while the 
unsightly objects should be concealed; it is therefore 
requisite that the superintendent of the work should 
station himself at the doors and windows of the house 
and survey in every possible direction, directing the 
men on the ground in the setting of stakes. In 
making his surveys he has many things to consider. 
Besides those already referred to, he will have to take 
into account even the color of the folinge which the 
trees and shrubbery will have in autumn, and take 


these may prove the turning influences in their future ; 
lives. 

As landscape gardening is a fine art, it is imixjssible 
to lay down definite rules for every detail to be ob¬ 
served everywhere. In planning, stocking and fur¬ 
nishing a landscape, nearly everything depends upon 


congruity and variety. The ground and the objects 
upon it should have a kind of mutual reference and 
at the same time a sly and illusive change from one 
scene to another. The natural position of the ground, 
the ravines, lakelets, streams of water, hills, low 
elevations, rocks, native groves, and even the points 
of the compass toward which these various objects 
lie as viewed fiom the residence and public highway, 
all have to be considered in originally laying out the 
I plan to be pursued. Gentle undulations of the sur¬ 
face of the ground, for example, suggest that the trees, 
shrubbery and all works of art upon it should also 













gi 6 


LANDSCAJ^K GARDEN/NG. 


every possible advantage of every contingency. The 
architecture of the house should be planned along 


with the original design, as it is often very diffcult to 
make everything mutually respondent after a great 
expense has been incurred in the wrong direction. A 
Gothic house, for example, and sharp, angular, rocky 
cliffs and fir trees have a similaroutline, while a house 
of the Oriental or more rounded style would correspond 



Fig. 6 -—Fuluita ynftonica Zebrinn. 

with rounding undulations of the ground, luxuriant 
shrubbery and round-headed trees. And what is said 


here of the house is of course ecjually applicable to 
any building or structure on tire premises, as a lodge, 
arbor, observatory, bridge, etc. 

The plan, of course, should not in¬ 
volve the removal of earth any more 
than is necessary; but there is scarcely 
a spot to be found but will need change 
from the original configuration of the 
surface. Some joints will need round¬ 
ing down or up, and other places will 
need sharpening, or made more rough 
and picturesque, etc. Where the ground 
naturally suggests a round-topped hill, 
there carryout the suggestion and com¬ 
plete a rounded hill; where it indicates 
a sharp and angular hill, there com¬ 
plete tlie idea; where it looks like a 
basin for water or a water course, there 
make a lake or rivulet, etc. The trees, 
shrubbery, flowers and the works of art 
at each place should be made to cor¬ 
respond with the character of that place, 
in setting, grouping, in general outline, 
and in detail. 

The most important walk on the 
whole premises is that called the ap¬ 
proach, leading from the public high¬ 
way to the house. This, coming in toward the house 
in a winding diagonal, affords the visitor a better 
view of the architectural character of the house, 
ena.bling him to see two sides at once and from a 
varied “walking point”. There is danger of making 
the approach, and indeed all other walks, too circuit¬ 
ous. In general, both should curve almost as little as 
possible; that is, the curve should be definite and 
visible, but not much more than drat. In laying out 



Fig. 7 .—yapanese Mafile, Rose-tin‘c.d. 

the approach it is best to walk backward from the 
house, looking at it critically and staking off the 
ground as you go. It is even important that the 
exact spot where a visitor gets sight of the residence 
should be located, and the groupings of the trees so 
arranged as to conceal the house from the person 
coming in up to that point. The approach should 



















LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 


917 


appear to be the nearest route to the house, if it does 
not appear so naturally, it should be made to 
appear so by artificial obstacles which also should 
appear to be in their natural place. Where it quits 
the public road it ought not to break from it at right 
angles nor in such a manner as to rob the entrance of 



its imix>rtance, but rather at some point of the public 
road from which a lodge or gate may be more 
conspicuous; and where the high road may appear to 
branch from the approach rather than the approach 
from the road. After entering the park it should 
avoid skirting along its boundary, as that would 
betray a want of extent or unity of property. The 
house, unless very large and magnificent, should 
not be first seen at so great a distance as to appear 
much less than it really is, and the first view should 
be from the most pleasing point of sight. As soon as 
the house is visible from the approach there should be 
no temptation to quit it,—which will ever be the case if 
the road be at all circuitous, unless sufficient obstacles, 
such as trees or inaccessible |X)ints of ground, appear 
to justify its course. 



Fig. g. — Red-leaved "Japanese Maple. 


There will, however, in almost every demesne be 
insurmountable obstructions to the execution of one 
or more of the foregoing principles, but ingenuity can 
in some way utilize such obstacles. It is easier and 
sometimes better to deviate from the general rule 


! than to undertake to carry out a tasteful improvement 
I without any guiding principles. Where, for example, 
a public road runs on one side of the premises and a 
navigable water on the other, necessitating as it were 
two fronts to the house, it is not best to make the ap¬ 
proach or carriage drive lead all the way around to 
the opposite sides of the house, making the visitor see 
all the grand sights before he gets inside the domicile. 
It is better that he come in from the road-side and be 
“ surprised” by a grand view of the river and bluffs as 
he passes through the house and looks out of a door 
or window on the river side. 

Walks and drives are laid out on the same general 
principles as the approach, reference being had to all 
pleasant and unpleasant objects along the route. 
Some walks may open to the south, sheltered with 
evergreens and made diy and hard for a warm prom¬ 
enade in winter; others formed of closely mown turf, 
and thickly shaded by a leafy canopy of verdure, for 
a cool retreat in the midst of summer; others again 
may lead to some sequestered spot and terminate in a 



Fig. 10. —Gynerium arg-enteum. 


secluded rustic seat, or conduct to some shaded or 
rugged eminence where an extensive prospect can be 
enjoyed. The walks should in seme manner corre¬ 
spond to the scene it traverses, being rough where the 
latter is wild and picturesque, sometimes scarcely 
differing from a common foot-path, and more accom¬ 
plished as the surrounding objects show evidences of 
culture and high keeping. The walk may turn more 
abruptly than the approach where there is an inter¬ 
vening obstacle. 

For barriers, stone and wooden fences covered with 
vines are good; but evergreen and living hedges are 
better. Arbor vitae, Newcastle and Washington 
thorns, buckthorn, C)sage orange and privet are all 
capable of making superb hedges. All barriers are 
obstacles; hedges are barriers, and therefore should 






















9i8 


LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 



Fig. II. — Phlox. 

cludiftg all artificial lakes, nearly all imaginable irreg¬ 
ularities of outline, height, shape, etc., of the banks 
can be rnade by digging and masonry. Indeed, these 
irregularities can scarcely be too numerous and great, 
provided they appear neat and fresh. ’ 


Fig. 12. —Snoxudrop Tree. 

the general view. The number, location, size, outline, 
etc., are points requiring consideration. An island 
should not occupy the middle of the lake, as that in¬ 
dicates shallowness of water where it should be the 
deepest. ^ 7 he best places, generally, for islands are 
near the inlet and exit of the water. The dam, where 
one has to l)e made for the purpose of creating a lake, 
should be concealed by islands. In general, also, 
islands should be placed opposite the salient points of 
the shore. They should be covered with shrubbery, 
small trees and vines ; and small islands may have, 
besides, rustic habitations for swans and other aquatic 
birds. For the clothing of islands, the following 
shrubs, vines in their various species, etc., among 
hundreds of others, are commendable: Hazel, haw¬ 
thorn, alder, spicewood, winterberry, azalea, spirea, 
button-bush, swamp magnolia, laurel, rhododendron,’ 


not be set except where there seems to be some rea” 
son for their existence. For vines covering fences, the 
Virginia creeper is by far the cheapest in the West, 
and Its foliage in the fall is very beautiful. Climbing 
roses of different species are good for covering fences. 

In grouping trees, shrubbery, etc., liberal allowance 
should be made for long views, as they are the most 
important element in landscape, the skirting of trees 
and shrubbery being next. Extensive lawns can be 
kept well mowed with horse machines, and on distant 
grounds pasturage by sheep is just as good, for esthe¬ 
tic purposes as well as utilitarian. Distant lawns, 
especially if lower than the ground at the residence, 
should be separated from the nearer grounds by a 
ditch, which is invisible, for, as before intimated, 
fences are to be avoided as much as possible. 

Lakes should not appear to be mere watering places 
for stock, with straight, flat, muddy, monotonous 
banks; but the shore should have an irregular out¬ 
line, with rocks, grass or willow down to the water’s 
edge. In Illinois, Missouri, and most of the country 
in the Western States it is difficult to find a lake or a 
place to make one where the water will be regular; 
but Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota are very for¬ 
tunate in respect to “ water privileges” for park and 
landscape purposes. In improving a small lake, in- 


Islands require a due share of attention, as they 
serve as much as anything to set out the beauties of 






























LAN’DSCAPE GARDENING. 


919 


Virginia creeper, moneywort, grape, crab-apple, wil¬ 
low, aspen, etc. 

Brooks and rivulets should be encouraged into 
variety, as pools, islands, cascades, etc., with the 
margins rendered refreshing with appropriate verdure. 

Rustic seats and other frame work should not be 
prominent objects of view in the front yard or at a 
great distance anywhere else. They should be pret¬ 
ty well concealed by trees, shrubbery and vines. 
Gate lodges, terraces, vases, fountains, flowers in pots, 
tender shrubbery, trees and other plants, statuary, 
etc., etc., all have to be treated by the same elements 
of art criticism as govern the landscape, lawn, house, 
etc. 

By the accompanying engravings we give several 

very handsome de¬ 
signs for laying out 
grounds. These 
may be changed or 
varied according to 
the size of the grounds, 
the relative position of 
the various farm build¬ 
ings, etc. By Fig. 13 
a very neat and artist¬ 
ic design is represent¬ 
ed. The carriage road 
is distinguished in the 
plan by its greater 
width. A separate 
entrance is provided 
for the f o o t-w a 1 k. 
Carriages may be 
turned in front of the 
house, as shown in 

Fig. 13 .—Design oj"lirive-avay. walks the cut, or in the area 

and surroundings 0/ a rural residence, of the bam. 

A lot, about four or five rods wide, is represented 
by Fig. 14. The principal object is to obtain a small 
flower garden and shrubbery on an area of about one- 
tenth of an acre, and allow space for a kitchen 
garden and a few of the smaller sized fruit trees on 
nearly twice as much ground in the rear. If desired 
there may be a small horse or cow barn in the rear 
corner on the left—the “ cart-way ” otherwise being 
intended only for conveying coal and other heavy 
articles to the kitchen cellar. A small screen of 
evergreen trees runs on the right of the cartway to 
• separate it from the rest of the grounds, and the 
boundary on the left of this way may be planted with 
grapes or with raspberries, the former being trained 
on the boundary fence, and the latter kept snugly 
within bounds by a slat running parallel with the 
fence, and about six or eight inches from it—the 
included space holding the canes spread out like a fan. 

No large trees are planted on these grounds, as 
they would after a while occupy too much space and 
shade the smaller shrubbery and flower beds. Small 
trees may occupy the most remote corners, large 
shrubs the more open space, and small shrubs only 
be placed near the flower beds, where it is important 



to preserve an open space for full sunlight. A few 
plants will flourish in the more shaded spots. The 



Kitchen garden 


Fig 14 .—Design for Lot Four or Five Rods Wide. 

flower beds are mostly circular, with two elliptical 
ones. 

Fig. 15 is a plan intended for grounds varying 
from one to two acres, and it may be adopted for a 
large suburban or village residence, or for a farm, the 
owner of which can afford some expenditure to keep 
his home in finished order. If for the latter, the farm 
road will be placed to the right or left of the plan as 
here represented, and just without its boundaries, and 
the kitchen garden in the rear will be much larger, 
and be so arranged as to be cultivated by a horse. 

The leading object of the plan is to place the 
dwelling in a central position, and to surround it with 
ornamental trees and shrubs, bordering the lawn in 
front and at the sides, with a flower garden and 
dwarf fruit trees at the rear. The carriage road at 
the right is distinguished in the plan from the foot- 
walks by its greater width. The entrance to the 

dwelling being at the _ 

side, greater breadth p 

and a clearer view of — " 
the lawn are given in 
front. A carriage turn 
is afforded on the 
right. Space between 
the carriage-house and 
the boundary admits a 
cartw'ith manure to the 
kitchen garden. The 
flower garden at the 
rear of the dwelling 
consists mostly of cir¬ 
cular beds cut in the 
smooth turf, this shape 
admitting of a more 
easy preservation of 
the outline, while at 
the same time the dis¬ 
tribution of these beds zs.-Omajnental Grounds. 

may give any degree of freedom and variety. Imme¬ 
diately in the rear of the flower garden, the dwarf 
















































920 


LANDSCAPE GAPBENING. 


fruit trees are planted in quincunx form, and they 
may consist of dwarf apples on the Paradise stock, or 
ot such dwarf pears as grow with greatest vigor on 
tie quince, as the Duchesse d’Angouleme, Louise 
Bonne of Jersey, Doyenne Boussock and Beurre 
Biiperfin. The dwarf apples may be summer and 
autumn varieties of any selected sorts, and they will 
give a succession for family or table use at these 
times of the year. Between the dwarf trees and the 
kitchen garden is a trellis of grapes. The rear of the 
kitchen garden is planted with raspberries. The 
sides and rear lioiindaries are well flanked with ir- 
re^lar plantings of ornamental trees and shrubs. 

ig. i6 represents a comfortable farm residence, 
where the owner wishes to have everything neat and 
m good taste, but cannot spend much in ornamental 
gardening. The grounds are laid out in as simple a 
manner as practicable, so as to accord with good 





Is* 


Fig. i6 .—Farm Grounds, 

represented in the plan, they comprise 
from two to three acres, including the lawn, half of 

most of the kitchen garden 
The dwelling is approached by a good and well made 
gravel road, and the surrounding grounds are planted 
with handsome shade trees; those towards the rear 
may be the hardier, more vigorous and symmetrical 
ruit trees, such as will flourish in grass- as for 
example, the Buffum, Bartlett and Howell pears 
and the Elton Moreilo and Black Tartarian cherries’ 

I he lawn should be mown at least three or four times 
early in summer, or it may be kept short by turning 
in, a part of the time, a flock of sheep, when they can 
be easily seen, and injuiy to the trees prevented. 

1 he fruit garden may be kept cultivated by a shallow 
plowing early in spring, and a few harrowings after¬ 
wards, and perhaps one or two rollings near the 
season of fruit, to keep it smooth to the pickers. The 


ice-house, hen-house, and other of the smaller build- 
ings, may be placed near the carriage-htiuse. An 
evergreen hedge or screen separates the kitchen 
garden from the front grounds. A water reservoir 
and hitching posts are placed at the right of the 
house, at the intersection of roads. 

By more expenditure of labor and attention, flower 
beds may be kept in a circular form near the dwell¬ 
ing, and the lawn may be kept in the best order by 
mowing every few days. The main object, however, 
IS to present in this plan simple, neat and cheaply 
kept grounds for a fann residence, with little expense. 

We may notice here three general types of flower 
prdens. The irregular is surrounded by an irregular 
belt of trees and the beds are varied in outline as well 
as irregularly disposed, sometimes grouping together, 
sometimes standing singly, but exhibiting no unifonn- 
ity of arrangement. It belongs to the picturesque 
type of landscape, w-here the residence is of the rural 
Gothic style; or it might form a pretty termination to 
a distant walk in the pleasure ground, where it would 
be more necessary that the flower garden should be in 
keeping with the surrounding plantations and scenery 
than with the house. Where the flower garden is a 
spot set apart, of any regular outline, not of large size, 
and especially where it is attached directly to the 
house, the effect is more satisfactory- when the beds 
and walks are laid out in symmetrical forms. The 
French style has only low plants for the borders of the 
bed, with walks neither of gravel nor smoothly shaven 
turf. The beds are filled with choice flowering plants 
and the outline of the grounds generally are very* 
intricate and elaborate. The English style contem¬ 
plates symmetrical forms and figures or irregular 
curved outlines. Each separate bed is planted with a 
^ngle vanety, or at most two varieties of flowers. 
Only the most striking and showy are generally chosen' 
and the effect, when the selection is judicious, is highly 
brilliant Nor are any plants admitted which have 
ugly habits of growth or meager or starved foliage the 
aim being brilliant effect rather than the display of a 
great variety of curious or rare plants. To have this 
brought about more perfectly, and to have an elegant 
show dunng the whole season of growth, hyacinths 
and other fine, bulbous roots occupy a certain ixirtion 
of the beds, the intervals being filled with handsome 
herbaceous plants permanently platted, or with flower¬ 
ing annuals from the green-house renewed even^ 
season. As a general principle for regulating the* 
plants in this style, the winter and spring flowers 
ought as much as possible to be of sorts as admit of 
being in the ground all the year; and the summer 
crop to be planted at intervals between the winter 
plants, or the summer crop, having been brought for¬ 
ward in jiots under glass or liy natural protection, may 
be planted about the middle of June after the winter 
plants in pots are removed. A number of hardy bulbs 
ought to beixitted and plunged in the beds during the 
fall, and when out of bloom, in Mav or June, removed 
to a reserve garden and plunged there. 

La\]ng Out Flower Beds. For a large central 





























LANBSCAPE GARDENING. 


921 




flower bed, or one to be occupied with small shrub¬ 
bery, a less formal and more ornamental outline may 

be given, as seen in Fig. 17. 
This bed is easily laid out 
by describing 2 concentric 
circles, as in Fig. 18, and 
then making several smaller 
ones on the outer one. 
\Vhen a flower garden of 
some extent is desired on a 
lawn in the more finished 
part of the grounds, that 
the whole may be seen at a 
Central Flower Bed. glance a Very handsoiiie 
effect is produced by such a symmetrical arrangement 
as in Fig. 19, the dark figures being tlie beds,and the 
white space the lawn. A simpler form is shown in Fig. 
20. An important advan¬ 
tage in such designs is the 
facility with which addition¬ 
al beds may be made, or the 
number reduced. Irregular 
beds for flowers may be 
made by drawing circles 
and joining them. Arab¬ 
esque beds, represented in 
Fig. 2 1, flanking the curved 
walk, require an accurate 
eye for designing them in Y\i^. i%.—Laying out the Same. 
the best manner; but a graceful and curved outline 
may be preserved by the use of a rope, the mode of 
working with which we here describe: 

If small figures are to be laid out, 
the rope may be of moderate size, so 
as to make short curves; for large 
figures a larger and stiffer rope may 
be used. The operator places it upon 
the ground and forms with it the out¬ 
line of the proposed figure (Fig. 22). 
'Fhen, before beginning work, insert a 
few small pegs or slakes barely touch¬ 
ing it. These will keep it at its place 
while the sharp spade is inserted all 
along its side in cutting out the bed. 
Fu-.. xq.—sytnmetri. On Very Small pieces of ground, a 
cal Beds. rope will assist in laying it out, with¬ 
out the use of the rod already described; and on 
larger grounds, where the roads and walks have been 
already staked, a stiff rope placed 
along in contact with them will ^ 

enable the workman to make a 
perfect curve with the spade. 

It is important to make the two 
sides of a curved, drive parallel. 

An easy and rapid mode is first 
to lay out and stake one side, and 
then place a rope parallel with 
this, as nearly as can be readily 
done with the eye. Then take a 
jxjle of a length equal to the 
intended breadth of the road, and placing one end 





Fk:. 20 .—Symmetrical 
Beds. 


against each stake successively, sweep the other 
end backwards and forwards against the rope, which 
will place it precisely where it is wanted. 



To have a show garden all season with the least 
trouble, one can succeed with a group of pansies and 
spring bulbs, a bed of ever-blooming China roses, 
including the Isle de Bourbon varieties, a few Esch- 
scholtzias, petunias, Gilias, double dahlias, trailing 
verbenas and a few other annuals. 

The mingled system is most in vogue in America. 
It consists of such a scattering distribution of flowers 
in the bed as will afford fresh flowers throughout the 
season in one part of the bed about as much as 
another, without any particular prominence of any 
portion. To accomplish this, however, considerable 
study is required, as the habits of the plants have all 
to be taken into consideration at once. The smaller 
plants are set near the walk, the taller to the rear, but 
not with slavish exactness. 

All true taste in homestead scenery must spring 
from an appreciation of the scenery of nature ; and 
we can scarcely realize how easily we fix ourselves in 



the old utilitarian routine of barely living on what we 
eat and wear, and forget the constant and unalloyed 
happiness which we derive from natural scenery. We 
need fine scenery more about our homes than any¬ 
where else, yet there we have less of it than any¬ 
where else. As in this art there is greater variety of 
situation and adornment than perhaps in any other 
department of life, it is difficult to lay down a full set 
of definite rules to be observed everywhere; hence 
the necessity of studying nature and forming a good 
taste, then of exhibiting that taste by the innumerable 
ingenuities which give delight to the inventive mind, 
and indeed to all who can at all rise above a perfect¬ 
ly dead repetition. Every farmer who has a dreary 
home has often driven into town and witnessed beau¬ 
tiful homesteads in the suburbs as he passed along, 























































LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 


923 



and yet he imagines that it is scarcely worth while 
for him to begin home adornment until he is as 
wealthy as he imagines the suburban residents to be. 
The cost of homestead adornment is much 
less than it appears to be, while the out¬ 
lays in this direction are more likely to yield 
a reward, even though the proprietor ex¬ 
pects to sell his place, than most other in¬ 
vestments in life. 

A farmer should never make the mistake 
of setting a pretentious mansion down on 
the prairie, with nothing about it but rough 
fences and rank herbage. The owner of a 
fine house without anything about it to tone 
down its glaring exterior, has made one of 
the most comfortless mistakes possible. A 
cottage,however humble, surrounded by trees 
and with its vine-clad porch, with a winding 
path, gladdened with a few flowers, lead¬ 
ing to it, is far more beautiful as it is far 
more homelike. Other-things being equal, 
the farm with its pretty cottage and com¬ 
fortable barns, protected by wind-breaks, and 


who are anxious to have everything very nice, conceive 
of no way only the old, stiff, rectangular, square-rule 
plans for everything—everything is brought to straight 


Fig. 24. —Raceme nf Horse-Chestnut. 

enlivened here and there with clumps of trees, will 
bring far more money than the other with its barn¬ 
like mansion and its bleak surroundings. Even people 


Fig. 25. —Flowering Thorn. 

lines and square corners—fences all straight, gate 
exactly in front, a straight walk to the front door, 
shade trees arranged in exact military order. 
Such grounds present no pleasing variety—noth¬ 
ing but the tiresome sameness of straight lines and 
rectangular forms. 

For the site of your house, choose a rise of 
ground, a kind of hill if possible, in the most pic¬ 
turesque portion of your possessions. I.ocate the 
barn to the rear of the premises, somewhere in a 
northerly or easterly direction, and at the same 
time out of sight from the public highway. Have 
the vegetable garden also back of the house. Do 
not lay out a heavy wagon road through the front 
yard. Have the carriage way wind gently up 
toward the house, and off again to the barn. Put 
the grounds in blue grass and ornamental trees, 
but let the latter be in clumps irregularly scattered 
around. Do not have tall trees near the house; 
indeed, it is most graceful to have a perfectly grad¬ 
ual rise of tree-tops from near the house upward 
and outward, so that the house will appear to be 
in a small valley. This is specially practicable 
where the ground is level or nearly so, and the 
ground can be the west, north and east sides of 
the premises while the coveted hill spoken of can 
be on the south, and the public road running along 
on the latter. Evergreens should not be scat¬ 
tered about everywhere among the deciduous 
trees, but grouped in that portion of the grounds 
where a foreign or tropical feature of scenery can be 
best maintained. A few of the finest-looking ever- 


















924 


LANTERN—LARCH. 



greens can be set to advantage in the front yard 
sometimes; and one of these, or a mound, or some 
other ornamental object should 
be so situated as to be the apparent 
cause of each wind in the walks 
and drive. When we go winding, 
we want some reason for doing 
so,—some object to go around, as it 
were. To have a long bend in the 
path with nothing but a clean space 
of ground within is not only ridicu¬ 
lous but also painful. Your largest 
trees, however, should stand back 
of your house. Then when your 
trees have grown up, your house, 
when viewed from the road, will 
appear to stand back in a kind of 
bay, partially encircled with a rich 
back ground of sylvan scenery. It 
is a common error to plant too 
many trees in front and not enough 
back of the house and off at the 
sides. 

Fences are obstructions in landscapes, and the 
fewer of them the better. The front fence should be 

no higher than is 
necessary, and should 
be of about the same 
color as the bark of the 
trees in the front yard, 
so that it will not at¬ 
tract attention from the 
other scenery. It 
should never be white; 
but the dwelling, if 
small, may be white, 
yet if large, it should 
be of one of the “neu¬ 
tral” tints. Bench e s 
and rustic work should 
be out toward the 
right and left of the 
house and front yand, 
and not in the front 
yard. 

In com m e n c i n g 
homestead arr a n g e- 
men ts on naked 
ground, first plow and 
harrow it all thorough¬ 
ly ; form your plan 
and stake out the 
ground; have the trees 
set out by experienced 
workmen; cultivate 
the ground about them 
for a few years; the 
more open portions of 
the landscape may be 
devoted to low crops, 
kept cleanly hoed ; in 


Fig. 26. — Weeping birch. 


using the plow and harrow employ a good, single 
horse and a careful driver; after the trees have had 


Fig. -it . — Magnolia, 

several years start, and have become stout and vigor¬ 
ous, the ground may be seeded to grass. See article, 
Lawn. The small evergreens near the house may be 
trimmed to neat projxjrtions, but the larger ones far¬ 
ther away should be allowed to grow freely. Trees 
should not be allowed to touch each other. 

Tn short, endeavor to imitate nature’s rounded 
turns and flowing outlines, so as to make groups of 
trees and other plants present a scene of wild diver¬ 
sity. The aspect of the ground will suggest the turns 
to be made. 

The illustrations in this article, of trees and shrub¬ 
bery, represent those which may be used in ornament¬ 
ing the landscape. They are of recent introduction 
and most of them are becoming favorites for land¬ 
scape decorations. 


Lantern, something enclosing a light and protect¬ 
ing it from wind, rain, etc. It may be a large, 
stationary structure, as on buildings, or small and 
portable, to be carried by hand or on the arm. The 
latter are called hand-lanterns, arm-lanterns, or 
breast-lanterns, according to their arrangement for 
being carried. A “dark lantern,” or “ bull’s-eye,” is 
one emitting light only on one side, and having a 
door even to this side, which may be closed, com¬ 
pletely concealing the light; much used by burglars. 
The magic lantern, used by exhibitors, consists of 
magnifying glasses adjusted in connection with 
figures of objects to be illustrated, so that an en¬ 
larged view is thrown upon a distant screen. There 
are many modifications of this apparatus, as 
stereopticon, panopticon, etc. In machinery and 
architecture the term lantern has also other mean¬ 
ings. For keeping a kerosene or any other kind of 
oil lantern in good trim, see the article Lamp and 
Kerosene. 

Larch, a tree of the pine family, but which sheds 

















LARD—LARKSP UR. 


925 




all its leaves every fall. The tree is somewhat orna¬ 
mental in the landscape, but 
not sufficiently so to create 
much admiration. The wood 
is valuable for posts, tele¬ 
graph ])oles, railway ties, etc. 
The’ European larch, how¬ 
ever, now rapidly extending 
in cultivation, is a far more 
profitable tree to raise. A 

Larch Louse. (Chermes SpecieS of loUSe illfeStS _ the 
lands). larch, which may be identified 

by the veins of his wings, as exhibited by the annejced 
engraving. 


Lard, the leaf, intestinal and other fat of the 
hog when rendered in¬ 
to grease. It is the 
most imfxjrtant prod¬ 
uct of the hog next 
to the meat, being 
about one-sixth of the 
weight of the dressed 
carcass. The United 
States exports it in 
large quantities to 
foreign countries, prin¬ 
cipally Britain. 

To render, or try out 
lard, cut in small 
pieces, wash it wilh 
successive portions of 
clean cold water, until 
it becomes soft and 
will not discolor the 
water. Then place it 
in a vessel (a well 
tinned vessel is the 
best), in the bottom 
of whicn is a little wa¬ 
ter, and heat over a 
slow fire until the fatty 
portions are crisp and 
the melted fat be¬ 
comes perfectly clear 
and free from water. Strain it through cloth, into 
clean earthen jars, stir it a little while cooling, cover 
the jars as tightly as possible with waxed or varnished 
paper, and keep them in a cool dry place. 

To cleanse rancid or impure lard, place it in a 
vessel which is set in another much larger vessel, and 
the space between filled with water, to prevent the 
burning of the lard. Now melt the lard, and stir into 
it, gradually, one ounce of powdered alum and two 
ounces of pure table salt to every 50 pounds of fat. 
Raise the heat to 212® Fahr., and skim it till the 
scum, which contains all the impurities, ceases to 
rise. Strain through cloth into clean stone jars and 
let it cool. Next put it in a kettle of water and boil 
it slowly, stirring, to enable the water to separate all 
the saline impurities from the fat. Let it get cold 


and hard. I'hen take it off the water and heat it 
sufficiently to evaporate any water that may remain, 
and again strain into clean jars. It will now be 
clean, white and pure. 

Larder, a room where meat and other articles of 
food are kept before they are cooked; a pantry. - I’he 
most important practical observation we can make in 
this connection is that no rancid meat, kerosene or 
other odorous articles should be allowed in a pantry, 
as such things contaminate other articles. For the 
structure of the larder, see Residence. 

Lark, an innocent and cheerful bird, common 
throughout the temperate zones. There are several 
species. 

Horned Lark, or Shore Lark, is about half the 


f-forned hark. 

size of a Robin, the females being as large as the 
males and having a covering of brownish gray tipped 
with black upon the back, and white feathers upon 
the breast. There are yellow markings upon the 
neck and breast. The wings are dark brown mixed 
with white on the inside. The bird has three toes in 
front and one behind, the male having a beautiful 
black crescent on its neck, a black marking below its 
eyes and above its bill, and another handsome 
crescent or corona half encircling its forehead, some 
feathers which project above the head like a horn. 
These are all indicated in the illustration above 
given. There are hundreds of thousands of these 
birds in the Laramie Plains, the whole region during 
some seasons seeming to be alive with them. 

Larkspur, a beautiful flowering plant, of which 



















926 


ZAJ^ FA—LA UNDR Y. 


there are several species. Three or four species 
grow wild in the Northern States. 

Larva, an insect during the stage which inter¬ 
venes between the egg and the pupa. The names 
grubs, maggots and caterpillars are popularly applied 
to many larvje, and though all these names are very 
loosely used, and far too indefinite for any purposes 
of either scientific nomenclature or practical exact¬ 
ness, grubs may be generally regarded as a name for 
all larvae which feed uix)n field crops, maggots as a 
name for the larvae of flies, or dipterous insects, and 
caterpillars as a name for the larvae of moths and 
butterflies. 

Larynx, (lar'inx), the organ of the voice. It is 
constructed on the principle of a whistle, is situated 
in the upper portion of the wind-pipe, and is subject 
to a few diseases, in which case the voice is affected. 
Most of these diseases should be treated with “com¬ 
presses,”—that is, wet cloths bound loosely to the 
throat. The temperature of the compress should 
depend on the nature of the disease and the sensa¬ 
tions of the patient. A severe cold sometimes settles 
upon this organ, thickens the parts by swelling and 
inflammation and thus reduces the “ vocal exercises ” 
of the patient to a whisper. No special medication 
is required for such an affection further than the 
compresses mentioned and general care of the health. 

Lash, the thong or braided cord of a whip; a cord; 
a string; a stroke with a whip or anything pliant and 
tough. 

Lattice, any work of wood or iron, made by cross¬ 
ing laths, rods or bars, and forming a network; as, 
the lattice of a window; called also lattice work. 
'The old and standard style of plain lattice work is 
that which consists of planed laths or larger strips of 
wood nailed together in two sets, one across the 
other, with spaces of the width of the slats, and 
painted green. This is almost universally used 
about porches, both above and below the floor. 
More expensive and ornamental lattice work varies 
so much in style that there can be no classification. 
In architecture, however, taste requires an adaptation 
of the style of lattice to that of the. structure. 
Lattice shutters for windows, on the inside, are far 
superior to curtains. 

Laudanum, a preparation of opium, especially in 
spirit or wine; tincture of opium. Used in many 
medicines as a sedative and soporific. Hence its 
popularity in paregorics and soothing sirups for 
children, as it has a tendency to relieve distress and 
lull them to sleep. Many, if not most, physicians 
declaim against its use among infant children,—at 
least against an extended use of it, as it tends to de¬ 
bilitate and derange the system permanently. 
Laudanum is sometimes given by injection per 
rectutHy for the same anodyne purposes as when given 
by the mouth. For adults, 20 to 60 grains (or 
small drops) constitute a dose, to be repeated when 
it is ascertained that it is not effectual. For infants, 
3 to 5 drops. 


Laundry. Under this branch of domestic econo¬ 
my we shall take an extensive view. We shall not 
only treat of the ordinary process of washing the dif¬ 
ferent fabrics and the theory of washing, but shall 
include all the appliances of the laundry. 

Theory of Washing. The primitive mode of 
performing this operation, before detersive or cleans¬ 
ing substances were known, was, no doubt, washing 
clothes in simple water, and this method is still 
practiced in many countries. The Hindoos carry 
their clothes to the Ganges, where they undergo the 
necessary purification in water alone. But this re¬ 
quires much labor; and to remove with greater facility 
the discoloration of linen occasioned by being worn, 
which is partly of an oily nature, and therefore very 
difficult to destroy by water only, certain substances, 
called detersive, have been introduced, which assist 
in the process. Of these the principal one is soap, 
the manufacture of which we fully treat under that 
head; but a few observations as to its uses and differ¬ 
ent kinds we will make in this article here. 

It is well known that oil or grease is not soluble in, 
and will not unite with, water; a greasy spot cannot 
be washed out completely by water only, unless such 
a degree of rubbing be employed as will injure the 
cloth in some degree. But if oil be united to an alka¬ 
line substance, the mixture of the two is soluble in 
water; hence, if the greasy spot be touched with an 
alkali, as potash or soda, the latter will unite with the 
grease or oil, which being then soluble in water, rub¬ 
bing in that fluid, or washing, will cause it to disap¬ 
pear. If, then, soiled or greasy linen be washed in 
water containing potash or soda, the labor of cleans¬ 
ing is much less than with water alone, and the fab¬ 
ric, not being necessarily subjected to so much rubbing, 
suffers less wear. 

All the ashes of burned vegetables contain more or 
less of the alkali called potash; hence wood ashes 
was one of the most ancient detersive substances, 
and is still occasionally employed for that purpose. 
But alkalies, when used alone, have this inconveni¬ 
ence, that although they are extremely effective, yet, 
if employed in too great a quantity, they are capa¬ 
ble of corroding the clothes to be cleansed, and 
likewise of acting in the same manner on the 
hands. The difficulty of regulating properly their 
strength has led to the invention of soap, which 
consists of alkali already united to a certain pro¬ 
portion of oil or fat of some kind, by which its 
power of corrosion is so much diminished as not 
to destroy the texture of the fabric; and yet the 
alkali in the soap is capable of taking up a little 
inore oil or grease; such as may be found in soiled 
linen; and that is likewise converted into soap. 
No\v, all soap being soluble in water, the whole of 
the impurities may be thus removed by rubbing the 
linen between the hands in that fluid. In fact, 
then, in employing soap for washing, we make more 
soap, though die newly formed material is in very 
minute quantity, and does not become solid. Soap 
is not necessarily solid ; if oil and any solution of 













LA UNDR y. 


927 


alkali in water be mixed in a small vial and 
shaken together, liquid soap will be the result. 
Soap is made solid by certain processes of the 
manufacture, on account of the greater convenience 
in using it, than if it were in the liquid state. It 
will be easy to perceive, from this explanation, that 
the strongest soaps have the most alkali in their 
comix>sition, since it is by the abundance of this 
ingredient that the cleansing effect is produced; 
and it will likewise be evident why soaps of differ¬ 
ent degrees of strength are suitable for different pur- 
[xjses. It may be observed that there are other de¬ 
tersive substances besides soap, as wood ashes and 
other things containing alkali. Various clays have a 
similar effect, but produced in a different manner 
than it is from soap; by their absorbent quality 
they attract the oily particles from the cloth, and 
cause them to be more easily removed mechanically 
by rubbing in water; but no chemical union is thus 
formed, as in the case of soap. 

The alkalies potash and soda, when in a state of 
perfect purity, and not combined with any other sub¬ 
stance, are of a highly caustic nature, that is, they 
ix)werfully corrode animal and vegetable substances ; 
hence, although they would readily unite with oil or 
grease, so as to make it soluble in water, yet they 
would entirely destroy the texture of cloth, linen, or 
any similar substance, and therefore could not be used 
as detergents in that state. See Potash and Soda. 

But when these alkalies are united with carbonic 
acid, and are thus converted into carbonates, they are 
rendered much less caustic, and, although they will 
still render grease soluble in water, yet they become 
so mild that they will no longer act powerfully upon 
the texture of cloth, and may then, in moderate 
(Quantity, be used with safety as detergents. Hence 
it is that in this state alone they are employed in 
washing, bleaching, scouring, etc. 

Carbonate of soda is far preferable to carbonate of 
]X)tash for these purposes, because it is much less 
acrid, and is not so apt to injure the texture of linen 
goods as potash. It is, accordingly, much more ex¬ 
tensively employed, particularly since means have 
been discovered of preparing it so cheap as to super¬ 
sede pearlash almost entirely. 

Washing Fluids. A simple washing fluid is made 
by putting i pound of saleratus, or soda, in a gallon 
jug; fill up with water; let stand i week, and it’s 
ready for use; to use it put two pails of clear water 
into your tub, put i teacupful of the fluid in, and all 
of the clothes it will wet nicely; let soak 25 or 30 
minutes; wring out suds and boil as usual; add a 
little more fluid to the water left in the tub, and put 
your calico clothes through the same. It will not 
fade them at all, but loosens the dirt nicely. 

Borax, 4 ounces ; saltpeter, 4 ounces; sal-soda, 24 
ounces; sal ammoniac, ounce; aqua ammonia, 2 
ounces; alcohol, 4 ounces ; spirits camphor ounce. 
Dissolve all in one gallon soft water, put in a jug 
(adding the liquids), and cork tightly. Soak the 
clothes over night, or for a short time in the morn¬ 

59 


ing, in a tub of warm suds, containing ^ teacup of 
the fluid; after rubbing, boil, putting teacup of 
the fluid to a large boiler full of clothes. Will not 
fade prints unless spilled on in the full strength. 

For four dozen of clothes, take i jxjund of hard 
soap; 7 teaspoonfuls of spirits of turpentine; 6 tea¬ 
spoonfuls of spints of hartshorn; 5 teas\X)onfuls of 
vinegar. Dissolve the soap in hot water; mix the in¬ 
gredients ; then divide the mixture into two parts. 
Put half in the water with the clothes over night; 
next morning wring them out. Put them to boil in 
6 gallons of water, and add the rest of the mixture; 
boil 30 minutes and rinse out thoroughly in cold 
water. 

Take i pound of sal-soda and ^ pound of un¬ 
slacked lime, put them in a gallon of water and boil 
20 minutes; let it stand till cool, then drain off and 
put it in a stone jug or jar. Soak your dirty clothes 
over night or until they are wet through, then wring 
them out and put on plenty of soap, and to a boiler of 
clothes well covered with water, add i teacupful of 
washing fluid. Boil half an hour briskly ; then wash 
them thoroughly through one suds and rinse well in 
water, and your clothes will look better than the old 
way of washing twice before boiling. 

Soap. The most usual and convenient mode of 
employing the alkali for the purposes of washing is 
when made into soap, the action of which has been 
already explained. The various kinds of soap are 
made of one or other of the fixed alkalies, potash or 
soda, combined with fat or oil. We explained above 
that it is the alkali that gives to soap its detergent 
quality, and which renders it soluble in water. The 
grease serves to moderate the sharpness of the alkali, 
and to prevent its injuring the hands of those who use 
it. See Soap. 

Water. The quality of water used for washing is 
of the greatest importance in the process. In the 
article Water we explain the nature and properties 
of the different kinds, as obtained from various 
sources, as well as the difference between hard and 
soft water. To this we must refer our readers. The 
softest waters are the fittest for washing, simply be¬ 
cause they are the purest, containing no salts capable 
of decomposing the soap and destroying its action. 

When water is hard, it is owing to its containing 
earthy salts, generally either carbonate of lime or sul¬ 
phate of lime, the acids of which seize the alkali of 
the soap, which is united to the oil only by a weak 
affinity. If the cause of hardness be carbonate of 
lime dissolved in the water, simple boiling for a con¬ 
siderable time corrects it by driving off the carbonic 
acid in the form of gas, when the lime falls to the bot¬ 
tom, leaving the water soft, which may then be poured 
off and used for washing; or the addition of quick¬ 
lime may effect it, as has been stated. But when the 
hardness proceeds from sulphate of lime, or lime 
united to the sulphuric acid, which is the most fre¬ 
quent case, boiling has no effect, because the sulphuric 
acid cannot be driven off in this manner. It is then 
necessary to decompose the sulphate of lime by put- 









928 


LA UNDR y. 


ting into the water common soda, or potash, or pearl- 
ash, as may be most convenient. Even wood ashes 
will answer the purpose if no better material is to 
be had, because, as we have shown, they contain 
potash. As spring water and well water are very 
frequently hard, the addition of soda, concentrated 
lye, potash, borax, or some of the manufactured wash¬ 
ing powders or fluids, of which there are several good 
ones in the market, to such water, is a very common 
and a very useful practice. The following are simple 
and excellent recijjes for softening hard water; 

Hard waters are rendered very soft and pure, rival¬ 
ing distilled water, by merely boiling a two-ounce 
vial, say, in a kettleful of water. The carbonate of 
lime and any impurities will be found adhering to the 
vial. The water boils very much quicker at the same 
time. 

Fill the wash boiler with hard water, tlien put 
half a teacupful of wood ashes into a little cloth 
bag; let this lie in the water until that is warm 
enough to use. This is worth knowing. 

Dissolve I pound of the saponifier or concentrated 
lye in i gallon of water, and keep it for use in a 
well corked jug; to a tub full of pump or hard 
spring water, add from one-eighth of a gill to a 
pint of the clear solution, according to the size of 
the tub and nature of the water; a tablespoonful 
will generally be enough to make 3 to 5 gallons of 
water fit for washing. 

Washing. Some directions for the management of 
linen previously to its being washed may be useful; 
and we may, at the same time, observe that, though 
the term linen strictly means only cloth made from 
flax, yet, on this subject, it is usual to apply it in 
a general way to express most of the articles, whether 
linen or cotton, which are submitted to the various 
processes of the laundry. 

Soiled or foul linen ought not to remain long un¬ 
washed, as the dirt is then more difficult to be re¬ 
moved. Some families wash only once a month; 
but once a fortnight, or every week would be better. 
What has been used in the kitchen and other offices 
should be kept separate, being generally greasy, or 
otherwise very foul. Silk stockings, lace, dresses, and 
various nice articles that require particular skill in 
cleaning, of course receive different attention. 

Spots of grease or gravy on table-linen or napkins 
should be washed out with soap and water as soon as 
the cloths are withdrawn, otherwise they are some¬ 
times difficult to remove after the linen has lain long 
by; and stains from ink, wine, or fruits should like¬ 
wise be taken out. 

An excellent and simple mode of doing the wash¬ 
ing is as follows; On the afternoon previous to wash¬ 
ing day, the linen should be put to soak in a weak 
lye of lukewarm water, having a little soda put into 
it; but first it must lie well soaped on such parts as 
are the most soiled; and this operation should be 
performed with care, as it contributes much to the 
facility of the washing by loosening the dirt, and thus 
saving labor as well as the wear of the linen. For 


soaping the worst parts, soft soap will be found 
most economical. No more warm water should be 
used than is just sufficient to cover the linen when 
pressed down in it, that the strength of the soap 
may not be reduced. 

To save soap, and make the process easier, it is 
usual now to put some soda or washing jx)wder 
into the lukewarm water to render it soft; the quan¬ 
tity must be determined by experience; if too much 
is used it will exhibit its effects upon the hands of 
the operators. These are more particularly useful 
when the water is at all hard and will not make 
a lather. Careless washers leave their soap in the 
water where it dissolves, and is wasted unnecessarily. 

After the linen is well washed with plenty of luke¬ 
warm water the first time, it is to be put into a quan¬ 
tity of water as hot as the hand can easily bear, and 
washed in this again. 

The next operation after washing is boiling the 
clothes, in order to produce a good color, and to re¬ 
move entirely the soap or other detergent matters that 
have been used, which if left in would occasion a 
disagreeable smell. Some enclose the linen in a bag 
before it is put into the boiler, in order to guard it ef¬ 
fectually from the scum of the water, which is apt to 
attach itself. After being boiled for twenty minutes 
or half an hour, the linen is taken out, well rinsed in 
abundance of clean hot water, and afterward in clean 
cold water which has a sufficient quantity of blue to 
give the proper tinge. It is then taken out and wrung 
dry. Next it is ready to be conveyed to the place 
where it is to be hung up and dried. It is necessary 
to state that, if the operations were commenced by 
boiling the linen, the dirt would be fixed instead of 
being removed. Washing, therefore, precedes the 
boiling. 

The quickest and best way to do the washing for a 
family of six or eight persons: First, have plenty of 
boiling water; to every boilerful add from two to_three 
tables^xionfuls of pulverized borax; use some of the 
borax water from the boiler for every tubful of clothes, 
adding only enough cold water to make it comfortable 
for the hands; use soap on the most soiled, and rub 
on the board or through a washing machine ; do not 
boil the clothes; have a tub partly full of boiling hot 
borax water in which to put the clothes that have been 
rubbed ; let them remain in the hot borax water until 
you are ready to rinse them; from a quarter to a half 
hour will do; rinse in one clear water, without borax. 
Use very little, if any, bluing. Borax will not injure 
the texture of the finest linen, and for infants’ clothes 
or flannels it is the only thing that can be used with 
perfect safety. If stockings or socks are badly stained, 
they might be boiled in borax water for a few minutes 
only: too much boiling makes clothes yellow. Borax 
acts slowly, but surely. The improvement in clothes 
washed after this direction will be noticed after the 
second or third trial, often after the first. Add a tea¬ 
spoonful of borax to every quart of starch ; it will keep 
the starch from sticking, and add to the polish. 

Drying. It is not sufficient that the fabrics be 











LA UNDR 1 


929 


well washed, if it be not likewise dried in the best 
manner, since the whiteness and good appearance 
depend much upon this. All white goods should be 
hung in the sun. But the same cause which renders 
drying in the sun beneficial to white linen renders this 
injurious to all dyed and printed articles, as being 
destructive to color. These should, therefore, be 
dried in the shade, and never hung in the sun: it is 
the sun s rays, and not merely the air, which particu¬ 
larly occasion colors to fade. It is not uncommon for 
printed cottons to suffer considerable injury for want 
of this precaution, either from negligence or ignorance 
of the principles we have mentioned. Some articles 
require particular modes of hanging them up to dry. 
Very thick articles, as quilts, waistcoats, etc., are best 
hung over two lines placed a few feet apart, in order 
that both sides may be sufficientiy exposed to the air. 
The summer months are best for washing thick and 
heavy articles as blankets, counterpanes, quilts, etc., 
on account of the greater facility with which they may 
be dried out of doors in that time of the year, and thus, 
also, acquiring a better color. Laces require to be 
stretched smooth, and tacked to a piece of white calico 
before they are hung up. Muslin and other dresses 
must be stretched as smooth as possible, that they 
may not get wrinkled in drying. But it is unnecessary 
to detail all the little precautions to be observed in 
hanging out various articles of dress, since these are 
sufficiently understood by those who are practiced in 
it, and scarcely admit of being explained by any short 
directions. But, notwithstanding the superiority of 
drying clothes in the open air, this is not always 
practicable, and they are then dried within doors. 

Starching. As it is necessary to have certain parts 
of linen and various articles of dress less pliable than 
usual, starch is employed to give the requisite stiffness. 

To make the starch for use, it must be mixed with 
a sufficient quantity of cold water, until it is about the 
consistence of common paste, carefully breaking all 
thelumps,and rubbing it till it is quite smooth, then add 
boiling water in the projxjrtion of a pint of water to an 
ounce of starch; put the blue flannel bag into it, and 
let enough color be dissolved to give the required tint. 
The making of starch properly requires some care. If 
made in a tin sauce-pan, it is a chance if it does not 
burn, like all thick liquids. The starch being properly 
mixed, put it on the fire and let it boil, taking care to 
stir it all the while, to prevent burning. When it is 
taken off the fire and poured out, cover it with a plate, 
to prevent a skin forming. If it be wanted stiffer than 
common, a little gum Arabic or isinglass dissolved 
may be added; and for some articles of lawn, gum 
Arabic alone is used, without starch. Some add a bit 
of white wax. 

The parts of linen and other articles of wearing 
apparel that require to be starched are too well known 
to demand enumeration, and even these vary some¬ 
what with fashion. Wet bosoms and collars in hot 
water, ring very dry, and starch while wet; rub the 
starch well in and ring in a dry towel; roll tightly 
together, let lie two or three hours and then iron. 


The process of starching consists merely in dipping the 
part into the starch, and squeezing it. Linen may be 
glazed by adding a teaspoonful each of salt and finely 
scraped soap, to a pint of starch. 

Washing by Machines. Hundreds of attempts 
have been made to lessen the labor of washing by the 
use of machinery. Many of these are complicated 
and quite w'orthless, while others require more tact 
and labor to manage and use than is required to rub the 
clothes with the hands. There are, however, some 
very practical and valuable machines now manu¬ 
factured. These greatly lighten labor, but so 
numerous are washing machines and so varied in their 
workings that we can give no intelligent instructions 
as to their kinds, uses, etc. 

Marking Clothes. The marking of linen being 
connected with the business of the laundress, we shall 
introduce the subject in this place. Marking has 
usually been practiced with the needle, and still must 
be for blankets and woolen articles; but linen and 
cotton can be more conveniently marked with an ink 
that is indelible by the ordinary processes of washing; 
observing, however, that this will be discharged 
wherever the bleaching liquid is used. 

The best marking ink is made in the following 
manner, which it is useful to know, as in some places 
it cannot be purchased or depended upon. Get one 
drachm of lunar caustic, dissolve it in less than half 
an ounce of pure water (distilled or rain is best), 
having put into it a drop or two of nitric acid; but this 
is not essential. This forms the ink; but as it is yet 
colorless, the writing done with it would not be visible, 
and it would be too thin. To give it a little color, 
add to it a little indigo, or even a drop of common ink; 
and to give a little thickness, add a very little gum, 
which by itself will give a greenish color. To prepare 
the linen to be written upon, dissolve an ounce of salt, 
tartar (sub-carbonate of potash, the common potash 
used for washing) in an ounce and a half of water. 
Wet the linen with this preparation, and let the place 
dry completely: when the part is dry, rub it with 
something hard to smooth the surface, and write with 
the ink prepared as above. The writing will be 
indelible. 

Another is made as follows; Lunar caustic, two 
parts; sap green and gum arabic, of each one part; 
distilled water sufficient to dissolve to the right 
consistency of ink. Before marking the linen wet it 
with a solution made of soda, one ounce; water, one 
pint; sap green, half a drachm. Mix and dissolve. 
Let the solution thoroughly dry before you mark the 
linen with the ink. This forms the ground to write on 
and prevents the ink from spreading. 

Any one may easily make these inks; but it must 
be observed that lunar caustic will burn the skin if 
handled; it should, therefore, be lifted by a pair of 
pincers or scissors. The ink also makes a black stain 
upon the skin, which no washing will remove; it must, 
therefore, be used with neatness and care. If the ink 
is too pale, there is not lunar caustic enough in it; if 
there is too much, the ink will lie ajit to run or blot. 







93 ° 


LAUNDRY. 


The vial containing the ink should be kept from 
the light by wrapping paper around it, or keeping it 
in a case. 

Clothes-lines, Pins, etc. The items of clothes 
lines, pins and wringers are important in themselves, 
yet so simple are they and so varied in their makes, 
etc., that nothing of value could be said upon them. 
Lines may be of wire or rope and must be strong and | 
durable, and not injure the clothing. There are 
many good wringers made, most of which do their 
work well and are a great relief to the muscles of the 
arms. A wringer should be fastened u^xm the tub-rack 
where it will be stable, and convenient to the tub. 

How TO Wash Various Fabrics and Articles. 
The following are directions for washing many of the 
fabrics and articles. They are standard and have 
been recommended by some of the most skillful 
laundresses and housewives in the countr}L 

Blankets. Take a clean barrel and place in it a 
boilerful of boiling soft water, to which add good 
soap enough to make a strong suds; then put a table- 
sixionful of turpentine and one of good whisky; stir 
well, and put not over two blankets in this, turning 
them about so as to be thoroughly wet and to lie 
loosely in the suds ; cover the barrel over with some¬ 
thing thick enough to prevent the steam escaping, 
then let them stand until cool enough to handle; 
j)ound them with your pounder, turning frequently; 
rinse in hot sudsy water, with a little indigo in the 
water. If blankets are much soiled, they will require 
ixiunding through more than one suds. 

Have plenty of warm water in which you have 
previously melted, say, a quarter of a ixiund of white 
soap, free from resin, stirring well until it is a lather; 
add to this a quarter of a jxiund of borax, stir again, 
put in your blankets and turn them around in it for 
ten minutes, keeping the boiler on the range, but do 
not allow it to boil; take them out in clear water and 
rub them ; rinse them in water slightly blued ; wring, 
and snap and shake them until the water is out of 
them, then let them get perfectly dry and press them 
under damp muslin. It will require two persons to 
handle them. 

Calicoes. Calico clothes, before they are put in 
water, should have the grease six)ts rubbed out, as 
they cannot be seen when the whole of the garment 
is wet. They should never be washed in very hot 
soap-suds; that which is mildly warm will cleanse 
them quite as well, and will not extract the colors so 
much. Soft soap should never be used for calicoes, 
excepting for the various shades of yellow, which look | 
the best washed with soft soap and not rinsed in fair 
water. Other colors should be rinsed in fair water, 
and dried in the shade. When calicoes incline to 
fade, the colors can be set by washing them in luke¬ 
warm water, with beef’s gall, in the projxirtion of a 
teacupful to four or five gallons of water. Rinse 
them in fair water; no soap is necessary, unless the j 
clothes are very dirty. If so, wash them in lukewann ! 
suds, after they have been first rubbed out in beef’s- 
gall water. A little vinegar in the rinsing water of 


pink, red and green calicoes, is good to brighten the 
colors, and keep them from mixing. 

Fast color prints should be washed in warm suds, 
scalded, if the ground is white; if dark, the scalding 
may be omitted. Add a little starch to the last 
rinsing water, to give the goods a fresh appearance 
without stiffening them. Iron as soon as possible. 

Doubtful color prints. Two tubs of suds of hard 
soap, each with a handful of salt, strained; use three 
rinsing waters; in the last, of hard water, put forty 
drops of elixir of vitriol and a teaspoonful of gum 
arable to each gallon, and strain; use yolk of egg on 
grease spots, and wash in clear, warm water till they 
are removed, then wash prints through the two suds, 
and rinse in the three waters; wring dr>-, and hang 
in the shade. 

Swiss Muslin, and other thin muslins, should be 
gently squeezed and not rubbed. They, and all 
handkerchiefs, collars and small articles should be 
boiled in bags made on purpose, and large enough to 
allow them to be rinsed, ready for the clothes line, 
without removing from the bag. 

Delaines. Wash quickly in one or two suds, with 
ox gall added, if ixissible; rinse as in “doubtful 
prints,” using vinegar or alum for vitriol, and twice as 
much gum arabic. 

Colored Merinoes. Wash each breadth and piece 
by itself, first in clear, soft water of blood heat to re¬ 
move the egg used to clean grease spots; then in 
suds of the same temperature, after which rinse in 
warm rain-water and stiffen with gum arabic, a table¬ 
spoonful to the gallon. 

Delicate Mermoes and Delaines. Boil a peck of 
bran in a boiler of soft water three hours; let it settle 
and cool; strain through a thick cloth and wash the 
goods in the water, each piece by itself; then rub 
through three waters, and rinse and dry. 

E7nbroideries. Take a strong suds of good hard 
soap; mend broken places and soak for a day; 
squeeze carefully out of the suds, passing each article 
through the hands several times; wash in other suds 
in the same way till the suds are left clear. Articles 
should be frequently pressed under water and stirred 
up, so as to expose each to the sun. Rinse clear 
without wringing much; add a little blue to the 
water; dip each article and wring by pressing in a 
towel. 

Lace Curtams. To wash and do up lace curtains, 
soak over night in warm suds of soft water; next 
morning wash in two suds, boil, suds out and rinse 
in water not ver)' blue, as they are so soft they take 
the bluing very quickly. Make thin starch, boil a 
moment and strain. Do not hang them on a line, 
but spread sheets on your carpeted spare rooms, and 
pin them down tight. Then spread on the sheets 
the curtains. Stretch as tight as you dare without 
tearing and pin through upon the carpet if you can, 
as close as ever}^ three inches. You will be pleased 
with the change you have made in your curtains. 
When dr}', you can easily erase the marks the pins 
have left, by gently pulling the edges of the curtains. 
















LA UREL. 


931 


\Voole?is. If you do not wish to have white 
flannels shrink when washed, make a good suds of 
hard soap, and wash the flannels in it without rub¬ 
bing any soap on them; rub them out in another 
suds, then wring them out of^t, and put them in a 
clean tub, and turn on sufficient boiling water to 
cover them and let them remain till the water is cold. 
A little indigo in the boiling water makes the flannels 
look nice. If you wish your white flannels to shrink 
so as to have them thick, wash them in soft-soap suds, 
and rinse them in cold water. Colored woolens that 
incline to fade should be washed with beef’s gall and 
warm water, before they are put into soap suds. 
Colored pantaloons look very well washed with beef’s 
gall and fair warm water, and pressed on the wrong 
side while damp. 

Delicately Tinted Hose^ etc. Wash the article as 
quickly as possible; do not lay it out of your hands 
until it is well and thoroughly rinsed in two waters, 
the last one to be well salted. 

Gentlemens Wear. To wash gentlemen’s wear, 
such as black and "white pants, vests, coats and 
heavy overcoats, wash as usual, rinse thoroughly in 
two waters, then prepare a third water thus: To four 
pails water (warm or cold) add a quart of salt; when 
dissolved, rinse the clothing through it; turn every 
article wrong side out, hang in the shade to dry, and 
you will be well paid for the little extra trouble, when 
you see how nice and clear they are. 

Silks. If red, use muriate of tin in the bran-water; 
if green, blue, crimson, maroon, or bright yellow, use 
oil of vitriol. When badly soiled, the bran-water 
alone should be used for washing, and the muriate or 
vitriol put in the rinsing water. Use yolk of egg for 
grease spots, letting them dry. Spread the silk on a 
clean, white wood board, and wash quickly each 
breadth with a sponge or woolen cloth, first on one 
side and then on the other; rinse in the prepared 
water without wringing. If very much soiled go over 
twice, and finish the washing without drying the egg, 
the second time; dry in the shade and stiffen with a 
little gum arable, unless the silk is heavy. 

White Counterpanes. Soak in a strong solution of 
soap and soda for forty-eight hours; if spotted, rub 
them; if not, boil an hour in a boiler of suds, with 
three tablespoonfuls of soda and two of turpentine. 
Rinse in three waters without wringing, and in the 
fourth put a little blue and wring the way the warp 
runs. 

White Cotton Cloth., Directions for JFashing. 
Table-cloths, or any white cloths that have coffee or 
fruit stains on them, before being put into soap-suds, 
should have boiling water turned on them, and remain 
in it till the water is cold; the spots should be then 
rubbed out in it. If they are put into soap-suds with 
the stains in, they will be set by it, so that no sub¬ 
sequent washing will remove them. Table-cloths will 
be less likely to get stained up, if they are always 
rinsed in thin starch water, as it tends to keep coffee 
and fruit from sinking into the texture of the cloth. 
White clothes that are very dirty, will come clean 


easily if put into strong, cool suds and hung on the 
fire the night previous to the day in which they are to 
be washed. If they get to boiling, it will not do them 
any harm, provided the suds is cool when they are 
put in; if it is hot at first, it will set the dirt in. 

To IVash Lace. Cover an ordinary wine bottle 
with fine flannel and stick it firmly round the bottle; 
tack the outer edge of the lace to the flannel, rolling 
it smoothly round the bottle, then tack the inner edge 
smoothly down; iron over the lace with a piece of very 
fine flannel or muslin; rub the whole gently with clean 
suds. If the lace is very much discolored, fill the 
bottle with hot water and set it upright in a saucepan 
of suds and let it boil for a few minutes, then place 
the bottle under a running tap to rinse the lace 
thoroughly; make some starch about as thick as 
arrowroot for an invalid, melt in it a small quantity of 
the best white and a little loaf sugar. Plunge the 
bottle two or three times into this starch, pressing out 
the superfluous starch with the hand; then dip the 
bottle into cold water, remove the outer covering from 
the lace, fill the bottle with very hot water, and set it 
in the sun to dry the lace. When nearly dry take it 
off the bottle carefully, pick it out with the fingers, and 
lay it in a cool place to dry. 

Laurel, a name of several species of trees and 
shrubs, even of different genera and orders. 

1. Laurel, ox Sweet Bay. (Taurus nobilis.) The 
home of this shrub is around the Mediterranean. It 
is an evergreen, bearing aromatic leaves and at the 
base of the leaf stems clusters of small, yellowish-white 
flowers. The leaves, called “bay leaves,” are used to 
flavor certain fancy dishes for the table, and both 
leaves and tree yield an aromatic oil used to flavor 
the bay water of commerce. 

2. American Laurel; Mountain Laurel; Broad¬ 
leaved Laurel; Calico Bush. (Kalmia latifolia.) 
This is also an evergreen shrub, growing from three to 
ten feet high, throughout the eastern portion of the 
United States, especially abounding on the sides of 
hills and mountains. The flowers are beautiful, but 
the leaves are narcotic-poisonous, especially to sheep. 
They are said to be eaten with impunity by deer, 
goats and partridges. Similar properties characterize 
other species of Kalmia, as sheep laurel and swamp 
laurel. All these have been used in medicine. 

3. Cherry Laurel. (Prunus lauro-cerasus.) This 
laurel, belonging to the rose order of plants, is not 
lx)isonous. It, too, is evergreen, growing 15 to 20 feet 
high, bearing shining leaves, small, white, odorous 
flowers, and fruit like a small black cherrjc It is a 
native of Asia Minor, but has been introduced into 
Europe. Prussic acid, for medical purposes, is 
obtained from its leaves. 

4. Rose Laurel; Rose Bay; South Sea Rose. 
(Nerium Oleander.) Another name of the common 
oleander, which see. 

5. Sassafras. (Taurus Sassafras, now Sassafras 
officinale): well known. 

6. Spice-wood; Spice Btish; Fever Bush. (Taurus 









932 


LA IVN. 


or Lindera Benzoin.) This is a common wild shrub 
throughout the eastern portion of the United States. 
It is very odoriferous. The berries have been used as 
a substitute for allspice, and a decoction of the leaves 
and twigs as a stimulant and febrifuge. • 

Lawn, ground in front of or surrounding a residence, 
covered with grass. We have very fully treated of the 
care and decorations of the grounds surrounding the 
residence, in Landscape Gar¬ 
dening and Floriculture, and 
therefore in this article have but 
a few observations to make. 

Every one realizes how beauti¬ 
ful a well-kept lawn is. Its con¬ 
dition may change the whole 
aspect of the home from the ex¬ 
terior views. It costs so little 
and is really worth so much that 
farmers cannot afford to neglect their yards. 

There are three modes of forming lawns. The first 
is to mellow the surface and sow grass seed thickly; 
these coming up with the weeds, the seeds of which 
are in the soil, much labor is required afterwards to 
get all these out by hand. The second is to plow and 
re-plow, harrow and re-harrow, for a season, in order 
to work out all the foul seeds, allowing time between 
the operations for the seeds to germinate, and 
remembering that many seeds will not grow if buried 
over an inch deep; hence the necessity of repeating 
the stirring many times, in order to bring all parts up 
to the surface. Then sow fine grass seed, such as 
red-top, June grass, white clover, etc., mixed, and at 
the rate of at least one bushel per acre, rolling it in. 
'Fhis is to be done as early as possible in spring, and 
then, when it is a few inches high, mow it closely as 
often as once a week the season through. This will 
give a handsome, green, carpet-like velvet. The third 
mode, usually the most expensive, but the most speedy 
and certain, if well performed, is to turf the surface. 
First make the soil deep and mellow, and even at the 
surface; then pare from an old pasture the turf, cut 
very smooth, with perfectly parallel and straight sides, 
and of a perfectly uniform thickness of about two and 
a half inches; spread this turf over the mellow 


When the grass becomes thin and of weakly 
growth, a top-dressing of good stable manure should 
be laid over the surface in December. It is impor¬ 
tant that the manure should be well rotted before 
being used, and occasionally during winter it should 
be broken up and moved around some, the object 
being to distribute it evenly and fine enough so it 
will settle around the roots of the grass and nourish 

it. The rough portions 
should be removed at the 
opening of spring. 

Do not use oats in sow¬ 
ing grass seed, as is often 
done. It robs the young 
grass of much nourishment 
and dies when the grass 
most needs its protection. 
Timothy is too coarse and 




Fig. \%^La'wn Hose Cart, 


surface, as smooth as a floor, and roll evenly. If 
manure is applied to make the soil rich, it must be 
finely pulverized, and thoroughly and evenly worked in. 


Fig. 2. —Lawn Mower, 

uneven for the lawn. It is, however, easily killed 
by close cutting late in the summer. The following 
is an excellent mixture of grass seed; Kentucky blue 
grass one bushel, red-top one bushel, spear grass one 
bushel, and white clover two bushels. Mix and divide 
in two equal parts, sowing one part one way and the 
other half the other way. Then sow two pounds of 
flat turnip seed. This quantity is sufficient for one 
acre. 

Every lawn of any pretentions should be kept 
smooth by a machine. Mowers are now made that 
leave the lawn in a beautiful, velvety condition, and 
the short grass falling down over the roots forms an 
excellent mulching. These mowers are simple, easily 
managed and do their work so admirably that one 
should be used upon every lawn of any considerable 
size. In this article we present illustrations ol 
different makes of lawn mowers. Fig. 2 represents a 
mower made by Mast, Foos & Co., Springfield, O. 
It has a center cut and can be used on uneven sur¬ 
faces, cutting over knolls and ridges, close up to 
walks and down terraces. It is of very light draft and 
not liable to get out of order. The wheels are 7 
inches in diameter and are both drivers, so that it 
runs lightly and cuts in turning to the right or left. 

Fig. 3 is an illustration of a lawn mower made by E. 





























LA Y—LEANNESS. 


933 


S. Bristol & Co., Chicago. It is made from the best 
material and is a speedy and close cutter. 

Another thing necessary in connection with the 



Fig. 3. —Lawn Mower. 

lawn, in cases of drought during the hot summer 
months, is the hose and cart. We give an illustration 
of a good cart (Fig. i) made by the Union Manu¬ 
facturing Co., Toledo, O. It is intended for those 
who use 25 to 7 5 feet of hose. A new design and 
cheap. 

See Landscape Gardening and Floriculture. 

Lay, Ley or Lea, a meadow; a plain or plat of 
grass or clover land. A clover lay is the best ground 
upon which to raise most crops. 

Layering consists in bending down a branch to 
the ground and confining it there until roots are 
formed and a new plant started, something in 
imitation of the spontaneous propagation of the straw¬ 
berry by its runners. Generally, however, it is best 
to put the lowest angle, the joint where the roots are 
expected to grow, a little below the surface of the 
ground, or at least cover that point with good, moist 
earth. The bough is usually held in its place by a 
stake with a short prong at the upper end. Grape 
vines can be laid down for some distance so that 
several new shoots can start at once from as many 
joints. Cut off the end of the branch back to the 
buried portion. In one season the new plants will 
have roots sufficient to be. taken up for transplanting. 
Layering is done in early spring. 

Leach, to wash, as ashes, by causing water to pass 
through them, and thus to separate from them the 
alkali; the ashes leached; a tub in which ashes are 
leached: see Ashes. A “ leachy ” soil is one underlaid 
with sand or gravel, and thus is incapable of holding 
water. 


Lead, a soft metal with a bright, silvery luster. 
The surface readily tarnishes when ex{x)sed to air; 
hence we see its natural color and luster only when 
fresh cut. The uses of this familiar metal are well- 
known. White lead is a carbonate of common lead, 
litharge is an oxide of lead and red lead is a peroxide 
of the same. Metallic lead, in the form of shot, is 
used by many horse dealers to relieve- temporarily 
the heaving, or symptoms of broken wind, or heaves 
in horses. It is needless to say that if the lead is not 
speedily converted into an insoluble oxide, the 
animal so treated will die in a month or two. 

Oxide of Lead. This preparation of lead is used 
in the manufacture of common sticking plaster or 
diachylon. 

Iodide of Lead: see Iodine. 

Acetate of Lead; Sugar of Lead. A solution 
of acetate of lead is known by the name of Goulard’s 
Extract of Lead, and was formerly, and is still by 
some persons, recommended and used in cases of 
sprains, and as a wash for diseased eyes. Better and 
less injurious agents are now used by the educated 
veterinary surgeon. Goulard’s Extract, or lead water, 
should never be used in diseases of the eye, as it can 
do no good beyond what cold water can do, but it 
dulls the eye by making it hazy and opaque. It will 
be well to remember this and act upon it, not mind¬ 
ing what old and antiquated books and persons may 
say or think in regard to what we recommend. 

Lead Poisoning produces a sugary, astringent, 
metallic taste, tightness of throat, colicky pains, 
violent vomiting, hiccup, convulsions and death. As 
an antidote, administer Epsom or Glauber’s salt, or 
plaster of Paris, or alum, or phosphate of soda. Give 
also an emetic of sulphate of zinc (24 grains to 
pint of water); leeches to belly; fomentations if 
necessary; and a castor oil mixture with laudanum. 

Leaf Mold, rotted leaves. Leaf mold from the 
forest constitutes the best soil or manure for all those 
plants whose native habitat-is the woods, as the small 
fruits and nearly all flowers and ornamental shrubs. 
Indeed, there cannot be too much leaf mold upon any 
farm or garden, and it should be the principal part of 
the soil in almost every flower pot. It is too tedious 
to collect for field or orchard purposes, but it is wise 
to supply it to flowers, strawberry beds and many 
special small crops. 

Lean Meat is the muscle of an animal, and is the 
principal part eaten. 

Leanness, want of flesh, both muscle and fat. 
When the result of disease, it is called emaciation; 
when it is the disease itself, it is called marasmus. 
Among persons of health the motto, “Fatness for 
beauty and leanness for utility,” may prevail to a 
limited extent. Nearly all the heavy work of the 
world, both mental and physical, is done by people 
of comparative leanness; hence such persons need 
not envy the plump, whose chief physical merit con¬ 
sists in a “ prepossessing appearance.” We offer. 











934 


LEAN-TO—LEGAL TENUER. 


turpentine. The luster of morocco is restored by 
sponging it with white of egg. 

To Restore Softness to Leather. Rub in 
neat’s-foot or castor oil. . But the best oil for harness 
is a mixture of i quart neat’s-foot oil, 4 ounces beef 
tallow and 3 tablespoonfuls of lampblack. For sum¬ 
mer use, add 4 ounces beeswax. 

Polish for Patent Leather. Take ^ pound 
molasses or sugar, i ounce gum arabic and 2 }X)unds 
ivory black; boil them well together, then let the 
vessel stand until quite cool, when the contents will 
have become settled; then bottle off. It is applied 
without brushes or polishing. 


therefore, no remedies for leanness. See Fatness, 
page 432. 

Lean-to, a shed attached to a building. This 
form of structure is referred to in the articles Green¬ 
house, Barn, etc. 

Lease, a demise or letting of lands or tenements to 
another for life, for a term of years, or at will, or for 
any less interest than the lessor has in the prop¬ 
erty, for a rent or compensation reserved; the con¬ 
tract for such letting; any tenure by grant or per¬ 
mission ; the time for which such tenure holds good; 
to let; to rent. See Rent. The form of a lease is 
simple. In drawing one up state the names of both 
parties, describe the land or property leased, state 
the time for which it is leased, for what purposes, 
amount to be paid, and insert any special agreement 
made by either party. 

Leather, hides cleaned of hair and tanned. 

To Distinguish Good Leather. The best tanned 
leather is of a yellowish drab color in the interior, be¬ 
ing tanned with oak bark by the old process. That 
which is tanned by hemlock bark is reddish in the in¬ 
terior, and that which is tanned by the modern short 
process is of still a different color, and neither of the 
latter is so good as the other. Properly tanned leather 
is of the same color throughout its thickness. If, on 
moistening a fresh cut surface with the tongue, it 
shows a lighter color in the center, reject it. Beware 
of varnished leather; a good quality does not need 
doctoring. Rotten or half tanned leather is never so 
soft or pliable as fully tanned and good stock. In 
buying shoes or boots, by a little practice one can 
Judge of the quality of the stock by moistening and 
rubbing a small portion of the surface. If it works 
up open, loose and spongy, it is poor material; if it 
continues hard and glossy like wood, it is too hard 
and liable to crack. 

To Preserve Leather. Never heat it so hot 
that you can smell it. Patent leather, in particular, 
is easily injured by heating. Wear rubber over-shoes 
as little as possible. Do not wash leather with hot 
water and soap; remove the dirt with a damp sponge. 
For uncolored leather, moisten the sponge with a 
solution of oxalic acid. Keep it saturated with neat’s- 
foot oil, avoiding all varnishes and all blacking con¬ 
taining varnish. Ignorant and indolent hostlers are 
apt to use such substances on their harness as will 
give the most immediate effect; and these, as a gen¬ 
eral thing, are most destructive to the leather. Full 
details regarding the cleaning and oiling of harness 
are given in the article on that subject. 

To Restore the Luster of Leather. Give a 
new coat of “grain black,” which may be obtained of 
harness-makers. Before putting on this substance, 
wash the leather with potash water until all the grease 
is killed, and after the black is put on, oil and tallow 
all the surface. This will not only fasten the color 
but make the leather flexible. Harness grained in 
this way can be cleaned with kerosene or spirits of 


Leaven (lev'n), yeast, or a substance which pro¬ 
duces fermentation, as in dough ; especially a mass 
of sour dough which, mixed with a larger quantity of 
dough or paste, produces fermentation in it and ren¬ 
ders it light; also called leavening. Literally, to 
leaven is to render light. Yeast is the best form of 
leaven. 

Ledger, an account book in which all the trans¬ 
actions are classified under the names of the respect¬ 
ive parties. See Book-keeping, pages 101-2. 

Leech, a small aquatic animal, which has a great 
capacity for filling itself with blood, by cutting through 
the skin of a person or an animal and sucking. It is 
extensively used by the medical profession (though 
not so much as formerly) for the reduction of local in¬ 
flammations and congestions at the surface of the 
body. When full, the leech will disgorge itself if a 
little salt or vinegar be applied to its head, and it is 
immediately ready for another meal; but the practice 
of emptying them and applying them the second time 
has passed away, as infectious diseases have been 
communicated by such practice. There is one leech 
farm in this country, namely, at Newton, L. 1 . 
Most leeches are imjxirted from Europe. Most 
drug stores keep these creatures on hand, for the use 
of physicians. 

Leejt, a species of onion and therefore cultivated as 
onions are. Sow in April in drills six or eight inches 
deep and 18 inches apart, but cover thinly; when the 
plants are up thin to nine inches apart in the drill; 
during their season of growth, gradually draw the 
earth around the plant until the drills are filled level 
with the surface. Water in times of drouth. Draw 
for use in October. This vegetable is used in soups 
or boiled as asparagus, especially in the winter. The 
recommended varieties are the Large Musselburg, 
the Early London, the London Broad Flag, the Broad 
Scotch, Very Large Rouen and the Extra Large Car- 
entan. The wild leek of this country is a flat-leaved 
plant resembling a flag, and• is often eaten by cows in 
the spring, giving their milk a disagreeable flavor. 

Lees, dregs or sediment of liquors. 

Legal Tender, lawful money, or money which a 
successful suitor at law can be forced to take in satis¬ 
faction of judgment. Promises to pay, except those 
issued by the general Government, cannot be made 










LEGHORN—LETTER- WRITING. 


935 


legal tender. In the settlement of all contracts at 
law, legal tender, or lawful money, can be exacted and 
made to settle the litigation, unless the contract 
expressly states other considerations. 

Leghorn (leg'horn), a kind of plait for bonnets and 
hats, prepared from the straw of a variety of bearded 
wheat, cut when green, and dried. It was originally 
made at Leghorn, Italy, whence the name. Also, the 
term denotes a variety of the domestic fowl. See 
page 525- 

Legs, of the horse, see page 737 and 807. 

Legume (legume or le-gume), the seed pod of 
certain plants, as the bean, pea, locust, red-bud, cof¬ 
fee-bean tree, peanut, etc. Such plants are therefore 
denominated “leguminous,” and belong to the order 
Leguminosae. 

Leicester (les'ter), a breed of sheep; see Sheep. 

Lemon, a very sour fruit of the order of Oranges, 
and the most popular in the world for flavoring foods 
and drinks. Both the rind and the juice of the inte¬ 
rior are used, but generally for different purposes. 
Lemons will keep a long time—some weeks—if 
wrapped in soft paper and put in a cool dark place. 
It is said that they will keep still longer packed in 
sand. For winter use in cooking, the surest way to 
secure the lemon flavor is to pare off the yellow rind 
(being careful not to take the white and bitter skin) 
and put it in a wide-mouthed bottle and cover it with 
alcohol. This makes the purest essence of lemon; 
or, the rind can be grated and mixed with an equal 
quantity of sugar, bottled, corked and sealed. Squeeze 
and strain the juice, and to every pint add one and a 
quarter pounds of sugar; leave it a day or two in an 
open vessel, then skim, bottle, cork and seal. 

Lemonade, water flavored with lemon juice, and 
generally sweetened. There are three ways of making 
lemonade: To squeeze the juice into cold water: this 
is the shortest way; or to cut the lemon in slices 
and soak it in cold water; or to cut it in slices and 
then boil it. Lemonade is one of the best and safest 
drinks for a person, whether in health or not. It is 
suitable to all stomach diseases, and is excellent in 
sickness generally. The pips, crushed, may also be 
mixed with water, and used as a drink. Some advise 
that every one should rub his gums daily with lemon 
juice, to keep them in health. The hands and nails are 
also kept clean, white, soft and supple, by the use of 
lemon instead of soap. It also prevents chilblains. 
Lemon is used in intermittent fevers, mixed with 
strong, hot, black coffee, without sugar. Neuralgia may 
be cured by rubbing the part affected with a cut lemon. 
It is valuable, also, to cure warts, and to destroy dand¬ 
ruff on the head by rubbing the roots of the hair 
with it. 

Lemonade, to Carry in the Pocket. Loaf 
sugar, I pound; rub it down finely in a mortar, and 
add citric acid, ^ ounce (tartaric acid will do), and 
lemon essence, ounce, and continue the trituration 


until all is intimately mixed, and bottle for use. It 
is best to dry the powders. A rounding table-spoon 
can be done up in a paper and carried conveniently in 
the pocket when persons are going into out-of-the-way 
places, and added to a half pint of cold water, when all 
the beauties of lemonade will stand before you wait¬ 
ing to be drank, not costing a penny a glass. This 
can be made sweeter or more sour, if desired. 

Milk Lemonade. Dissolve pound of loaf sugar 
in I pint of boiling water and mix with them i gill of 
lemon juice, and i gill of sherry, and then add 3 gills 
of cold milk. Stir the whole well together, and strain 
it. 

The “lemon "sirups” of the soda fountains are 
usually based on tartaric acid, and contain other 
deleterious drugs. 

Lentil, a bean-like plant, common in the fields of 
Europe, where the seed is used as food. The plant 
is comparatively small, and as a crop is unimportant. 

Letter-Writing. The youth of the country are 
interested in all modern accomplishments that will 
render them good companions and acceptable mem¬ 
bers of good society; and so very important is the art 
of letter-writing that we deem it necessary to incor- 
^xirate an article of instruction upon this point. 

Requirements for Correct Writing. The let¬ 
ter or note should be free from all flourishes. The 
rules of punctuation should be followed as nearly as 
possible, and no capital letters used where they 
are not required. Ink blots, erasures and stains 
on the paper are inadmissible. Any abbreviations of 
name, rank or title are considered rude, beyond those 
sanctioned by custom. No abbreviations of words 
should be indulged in,nor underlining of words intend¬ 
ed to be made emphatic. Avoid ambiguity; let your 
sentences be clear and easily understood. All 
amounts of money or other numbers should be writ¬ 
ten, reserving the use of numerical figures for dates 
only. Pure white paper envelopes are in better taste 
than tinted or colored in writing letters of friendship. 
After having filled a page with writing do not again 
write from top to bottom, or across the former writing. 
A business letter should be clear, correct and concise. 
Avoid redundancy; let the letter be confined to the 
subject of business only. But a business man should 
not forget to be polite and courteous, even in the 
hurry and rush of trade. 

It is far more dangerous to attempt jesting by let¬ 
ter than by word of mouth. In writing pleasantries 
be sure to make them so clear that your friend cannot 
misunderstand you. An insulting letter should be 
sent back to the person who sent it. In this way he 
will learn of your thorough contempt for himself and 
his literary effort, and very likely avoid a repetition of 
the annoyance; otherwise, he might think the letter 
had miscarried, and write again. 

The arrangement of the address of a letter should 
always be parallel with the envelope. Never write 
across it. To do so shows excessively bad taste as 













' LETTUCE. 




well as ignorance. The stamp should be placed on 
the upper right hand corner. 

The following rules should be observed in address¬ 
ing a letter: The name of the party addressed should 
be written first, in the middle of the envelope, then 
the name of the postofifice underneath and a little to 
the right, next the county, in a similar manner, and 
lastly the State. Or, should it be to a party residing 
in a city; give the street and number immediately after 
the name. It is best to write the name of the State 
in full. It is in good taste, however, to write the name 
of the county at the lower left-hand corner, and in 
case of cities, it should be omitted altogether. Titles, 
as Esip, M. 1)., etc., follow the name in the same line, 
but positions, as “Supt. of Schools,” “Prof, of Lan¬ 
guages in Miami University,” “Agent Wilson S. M. 
Co.,” etc., should be next below the name. 

In epistolary correspondence, both in the body of 
the letter and in the address on the envelope, never 
use fancy inks, but good black ink, and never attempt 
flourishes unless you can make them well. Be careful 
to cross all the t’s and x’s and dot all the i’s and j’s. 
Punctuate as well as you can. Read over the last 
letter from your friend, and make some sort of re¬ 
sponse to every point that may call for it. Endeavor 
to avoid commonplace matter, and write such details 
as will interest your friend. 

Formalities in Opening and Closing Letters. 
In addressing a clergyman, it is customary to com¬ 
mence “Reverend Sir,” or “ Dear Sir.” Doctors of 
divinity and medicine are thus distinguished: “To 
the Rev. William Johnson, D. D.,”or“ Rev. Dr. John-, 
son “ to F. M. Luse, M. D.,” “ Doctor Luse” or 
“Dr. Luse.” 

The President of the United States and Covernors 
of States are addressed “His Excellency.” U. S. 
Senators, members of Congress and men distinguished 
by holding various political offices of an honorable 
nature, are addressed as “Honorable.” 

A business letter should commence with “Sir” or 
“ Dear Sir,” and the name of the person addressed 
may be written either at the beginning or at the close 
of the letter, in the left-hand corner. In letters com¬ 
mencing with the name, as “My Dear Mrs. Morris,” 
it should not be immediately repealed in commenc¬ 
ing the letter. 

in writing notes in the third person, which is con¬ 
fined to notes of invitation, they should not be signed. 

In social correspondence the commencing of letters 
is regulated according to the degree of acquaintance or 
friendship existing. They usually are: “Madam” 
or “ vSir,” “ Dear Madam” or “ Dear Sir,” “ My Dear 
Madam” or “ My Dear Sir,” “ Dear Mrs. Jones” or 
“ Dear Mr. Jones,” “ My Dear Mrs. Jones” or “ My 
Dear Mr. Jones,” “ My Dear Friend.” Social let¬ 
ters likewise admit of an almost Infinite variety of 
forms in the way of complimentary closings. But 
care should be taken that the salutation and close 
are consistent, one with the other. The form of the 
close is generally that prompted by the feeling, which 
should be nicely adapted—not too formal, or too 


familiar. It should have some reference to the 
salutation, and appear s^xintaneous, natural and sin¬ 
cere. If the salutation reads “ My Dear Friend,” 
it would not be proper or courteous to write “Your 
friend,” or “Yours respectfully.” The word “ respect¬ 
fully” would seem cold and formal after having used 
the expression “friend.” Then, again, tautology must 
be avoided. You have already used the word 
“friend” in the salutation, and it would be tautolog¬ 
ical to use it again at the conclusion. It would be 
proper to write, “ Yours ever,” or “ Ever yours,” or 
“Sincerely yours,” “Yours with esteem,” “Yours 
gratefully,” “ Yours faithfully,” “ Ever, my dear 
John, faithfully yours,” “Your grateful Mary,” or 
any such conclusion as the heart may dictate, consist¬ 
ent, of course, with the degree of friendship. “ Yours 
truly,” or “ Yours respectfully” are the customary 
forms for closing business letters, and are inconsist¬ 
ent, cold and even unkind when employed as con¬ 
clusions to social letters. 

A married lady should not sign herself with the 
“ Mrs.” before her Christian name, or a single lady 
with the “Miss.” In writing to strangers, however, 
who would not know whether to address you as 
“Mrs.” or “Miss,” the address should be given in 
full after signing your letter, as “ Mrs. Sylvester Sim¬ 
mons,” followed by the directions; or, if unmarried, 
the “ Miss” should be placed in brackets a short dis¬ 
tance preceding the name. Only letters of unmarried 
ladies and widows are addressed with their Christian 
or given names. The letters of married ladies are 
addressed with their husband’s names. A note should 
not be commenced very high or very low on the 
page, but nearer the top than the middle of the sheet. 

Letters of Introduction. Letters of intro¬ 
duction should be brief and carefully worded. Give 
in full the name of the person introduced, the city or 
town he is from, intimating the mutual pleasure that 
you will believe the acquaintance will confer, adding 
a few remarks concerning the one introduced, as cir¬ 
cumstances seem to require. They are left unsealed, 
to be sealed before delivery by the one introduced. 
A letter of introduction should not be given unless 
the person writing it is very well acquainted with the 
one whom he introduces, and also with the one to 
whom he writes. 

Letters Requesting Employment. A letter of 
this kind should be short, and written with care and 
neatness, that the writer may both show his penman¬ 
ship and his business-like qualities, which are often 
judged of by the form of his letter. 

Lettuce. This salad persistently demands a rich 
and rather moist soil. The rows should be about 12 
inches apart, and the plants thinned from 8 to 12 
inches apart for the heading varieties. Sow as early 
as possible. This plant is well adapted for forcing. 
When heads are not desired it may be grown in a 
mass. The more rapid the growth the better the 
quality. There are later kinds adapted for summer 
use, which, of course, may be sowed later. Lettuce 
sowed late in autumn and mulched or covered with 














LE VER—LICE. 


937 


boards during the winter, will come forward unusually 
early in the sprintt. 

Varieties. Black-Seeded Idnnis Ball. Hardy, 
earlier than Silesia; large heads. 




Fig. I. —Early Curled Silesian. 


Boston, or White 
Tennis Ball. One of 
the most popular. 

Early Curled Sile¬ 
sian. Very tender and 
sweet, and one of the 
best for forcing and 
for early market; one 
of the best for gar¬ 
nishing. 

Prize Head. Said 
to be the best of all; 
leaves tinged with a 
rich wine color. 
Red-Edged Victoria. 

One of the best for early sowing. 

Drumhead. Very large, crisp and tender; a 
standard sort. 

Large India. Resembles Drumhead, but later. 

Brcnan Genoa Cabbage. Of medium size, round 
head, stained with red about the top; one of the best 
for either summer or winter use. 

White Cabbage. Chiefly valuable for its hardiness; 
may be sown in the fall in alternate rows with spinach, 
and the same slight covering will protect them both 
through the winter; in the spring, after the spinach Is 
cut, the lettuce will yield a fair crop of fair quality. 

Versailles. Fine 
s u m m e r variety, 
with large heads; 
green. 

Neapolitan. A 
good summer 
variety. 

Perpignan, 

Heads sometimes 
seven inches in 
diameter; one of 
the best summer 
varieties; not in¬ 
clined to go to seed. 

Early Cabbage, or Dutch Butter-Head. 

Has speckled leaves. 

White Paris Cos. 

Stone-Head Golden 
ising to bear the palm 

Rival seedsmen, of course, advertise many other 
varieties of lettuce, for the sake of winning custom, 
but they all know that three to five varieties are 
enough for any family, although professional garden¬ 
ers may want a few more. 


Fig. 2. —Early Cabbay^e Lettuce, or Dutch 
Butter-Head. 

Excellent. 


Fhe best of the Cos varieties. 
Yellcnv. A new variety prom- 


Lever (lev'er or le'ver), a bar or rod for raising 
weights, resting on a jxiint called a fulcrum. 


Library, a collection of books arranged on shelves 
for ready reference. The most important observation 
we have to make under this head, is, that the few 


books which most people have are generally so jxior 
—at least for their pur^xise—that their possessors 
have but little interest in them, and therefore but 
little interest in literature generally; and when a 
friend, especially a traveling agent, offers a really 
good and practical work, it is regarded with indiffer¬ 
ence or suspicion. Hence the difficulty of getting a 
family started in the right direction in the selection of 
good books. They do not take pains to post them¬ 
selves on the characteristics of a good work, and from 
a lot of books spread out before them they are actually 
more apt to select the poorer than the better class. 
(See Book, page loo). 

At the same time, there are many valuable things 
in most libraries that are unknown to the owfier, 
simply for the reason that he does not take as much 
time as even two or three hours a week for a month 
or so to ascertain the contents. Many a time a 
farmer travels for miles, or spends dollars, or other¬ 
wise suffers considerable loss for not knowing what 
he might have known by laying his hand on the 
proper book in his possession and turning to the right 
page. One should be so familiar with the contents of 
all his books that he can in a moment turn to any 
desired subject. To those who read but little, the 
best books for the library are encyclopedias, for in 
them is the gist of all knowledge, so far as may 
generally be required, wfithin the scope of the different 
ones. Besides, the information they contain is more 
accessible, even to one unaccustomed to consulting 
books. 

One is more apt to use his books if he has a neat 
little case in which to keep them. Books are often 
neglected because they are scattered around and 
difficult to find. 


Lice, parasitic insects, especially those which in¬ 
fest mammals. They have a sucking mouth, and do 
not undergo any metamorphosis in their development. 
The presence of lice, especially on the human head, 
is generally considered indicative of a want of cleanly 
habits, although they are occasionally found in the 
heads of children of exceptional cleanliness, being 
transmitted from other children in the school-room, 
or on the play-ground. 


To Destroy Vermin in Children’s Heads. Take 
I ounce each vinegar and stavesacre, ounce each 
honey and sulphur and 2 ounces of sw^eet oil. Make 
into a liniment, and rub the head with it. Insects 
are immediately suffocated by benzine. Those some¬ 
times found in the heads of human 
beings are destroyed by it at once, 
without any inconvenient result being 
perceived. It has been emjiloyed 
very sucessfully in banishing the in¬ 
sects which infest domestic animals. 

The use of stavesacre for the destruc¬ 
tion of the insects infesting the human 
head is a time-honored application 
among country people, beds of the 
plant being cultivated frequently for the express pur- 



Fig. I. —Head 
Louse» 





















938 


LICHEN^LIGHT. 




pose of furnishing material for the decoction. The 
efficiency of this remedy seems to depend on the 
presence of the alkaloid called delphine, which ap¬ 
pears to be a poison especially fatal to insects. 

Body Ver.min, or Body Lice. These are a little 
broader than the common head louse, and are so 
called because they are scattered over 
the body. Change of clothes and 
frecpient washing of the body will soon 
rid one of these pests. 

'Fhe Crab Louse confines itself to 
the genital regions, is still broader in 
proportions, and it is killed by the use 
of unguentum, red precipitate, or other 
mercurial preparation. One should 
not, when using these remedies, e.x]iose 
himself to “colds ” or exhaustive labor. 

Lice on domestic animals and on plants are numer¬ 
ous, for the treatment of which see respectively the 
animal and plant in this work, and the article Insects, 
pp. 878, 892. A general remedy for all lice everywhere 
is kerosene, sometimes diluted with water, but it is 
often more unpleasant or dangerous than necessary; 
hence we give other and better remedies in specified 
cases. 



Fig. I..—Body 
Louse. 


Lichen (li' ken or lich'en), a plant of a very low 
organization which grows on rocks or the bark of 
trees, where it forms a kind of incrustation, or upon 
the ground, where it consists of irregular lobes parallel 
with the earth’s surface. Occasionally, in all situa¬ 
tions, it divides into branches. The several species 
of lichen abound in the cold and temperate parts of 
the world. The reindeer moss is one species, and 
constitutes an article of food for the reindeer; and 
Iceland moss, wdien deprived of its bitterness by soak¬ 
ing in alkali and boiled, is an article of diet sometimes 
recommended to invalids. Other species of lichen 
are used in tonic medicines and in dyes. All the 
species abound in starch. 

Licorice, or Liquorice (lik'o-ris), a plant of 
southern Europe, having a root of sweet and pleasant 
taste, mucilaginous and slightly bitter and aromatic. 
Some species grow in northern Africa and western 
Asia, and one in this country. A species of bed- 
straw (Galium arc(Bzans), has a definite licorice taste 
in its leaves, and is common throughout the United 
States. It is sometimes called licorice root. The 
medicinal herb from the old country is used chiefly 
as a demulcent in catarrh and expectorant in coughs. 
It is best in the form of a decoction. The root of the 
ajxithecary shops is sold in long pieces. The best 
are those which have the brightest yellow color in¬ 
ternally and are not worm-eaten or decayed. Many 
confections are flavored with licorice, as with hore- 
hound. 

Light. There are different theories as to what 
light really is, but the one prevailing at the present 
day among scientists is the theory of molecular 
motion, or that luminous bodies have the property of 
causing vibrations or undulations in an ethereal fluid 


that fills all space, and thus an effect is produced 
upon the eye analogous to that on the ear in sound, 
which is known to be the result of invisible undula¬ 
tions or waves formed in the air by sonorous bodies. 

Sunlight. As nearly all organisms (plants and 
animals) have come into existence and attained their 
present degree of development under the direct 
influence of sunlight, they are consequently depend¬ 
ent upon the same influence for their highest 
perfection and welfare. This law of nature is often 
overlooked by the husbandman, as w^ell as by all 
other persons, and many trees, shrubs, plants, domestic 
animals, and especially huffian beings are avoidably 
left to suffer too much shade. Excepting mushrooms 
and possibly one or two other crude and unimixirtant 
species, the more sunlight all our plants have the 
better they are for all purposes; and the more our 
residences, both inside and out, are exposed to sunlight, 
the more healthful they are. Sunlight purifies the 
air, invigorates the cells, strengthens the nerves, cheers 
up the spirits, toughens the skin and builds up every 
organ. 

Artificial Light. Artificial light is probably as 
ancient as the human race or the use of fire; but the 
means employed to produce it among savage tribes 
have scarcely advanced beyond burning branches of 
trees or splinters of wood. Torches w'ere probably an 
improvement upon these; and lamps, even of the 
simplest kind, display a great advance in refinement, 
requiring a combination of contrivances, such as the 
preparation of oil, a vessel to hold it, and a proper 
substance for the wick. 

It is not a little remarkable that the ancient nations, 
who evinced such skill and taste in several of the 
elegant arts, should have made no improvement in 
the simplest kind of lamp, except that of its form. 
Although antique lamps have been found in Hercula¬ 
neum, Pompeii, and other places, of almost infinite 
variety, made of baked clay or of bronze, from the 
most simple forms to those of the most studied 
description, exhibiting a surprising variety of designs, 
and admirable for the beauty of their workmanship, 
yet the principle of the lamp scarcely varies from what 
must have been the original contrivance—an open 
vessel, with a wick laid in the oil. The light which 
these supplied must have been weak and unsteady; 
and, as there were no means for destroying the smoke, 
this must have been annoying in closed apartments 
when the oil was bad. The lamp was sometimes 
suspended, and occasionally was placed upon that 
elegant piece of furniture, the candelabrum, or stand, 
of which some of the most beautiful forms in marble 
and bronze are still preserved. 

Simple as is the contrivance of candles, they do not 
appear to have been generally known to the ancients, 
who continued long to make use of the lamp only. 
We read, however, of a species of candles sometimes 
used among the Romans, made of strings of papyrus, 
or rushes, dipped in pitch and surrounded with wax. 
Wax and tallow candles were, according to Pliny, 
likewise occasionally employed in religious offices. 













LIGHTNING. 


939 


Torches and flambeaux were used at all times; and in I 
the early part of the modern period we find that at j 
great entertainments, halls were lighted up, not only | 
with lamps, but with flambeaux held in the hands of 
domestics kept for the purpose. In the twelfth century, 
candles of wax and chandeliers were generally seen in 
churches; and, as refinement increased, they came 
gradually into use among the nobility and wealthy 
all over Europe, as did those of tallow among the 
middle classes. The discovery of Argand, by which 
the smoke of lamps was destroyed, produced a new era 
in artificial illumination; and these implements, which 
had long been laid aside in the best apartments, were 
again introduced. 

Various modifications and inventions have later 
been made in lamps, especially since the introduction 
of kerosene in our own country. This of course caused 
a radical change in the modes of using artificial light. 
Likewise did the introduction of gas, which is largely 
used in cities. At the present day kerosene is more 
generally used throughout the country than any other 
substance for producing artificial light. Electric light 
is being used in the cities, and it will doubtless soon 
be found the cheapest and best light in every estab¬ 
lishment which runs a steam engine at night for other 
purposes at the same time. As soon as a cheap 
chemical battery can be invented that will be effectual, 
electric light will be the cheapest form of illumination 
even for all ordinary dwellings. 

Lightning. Lightning, the result of electricity 
accumulated in the clouds, is due to evaixjration from 
the surface of the earth, to chemical variations in the 
air and on the earth, and probably to friction between 
currents of passing air differing in temperature. Zigzag 
lightning is caused by the spark leaping from one 
conducting point to another,—either of moisture of 
the opix)site electricity. If the space through which 
the flash passes is small, this does not occur. Sheet 
lightning is the effect seen when the flash itself is 
invisible, and we only pert;eive the glare of its light 
upon the clouds. Lightning also assumes other forms 
which are less common, including that of a globe, and 
what is called the brush form. Air being a non¬ 
conductor of electricity, the electricity consequently 
becomes visible in the flash; if it were not a 
non-conductor it would neither be seen nor heard. 
The flash of lightning is instantaneous, but thunder 
usually continues for some seconds, and often a half 
a minute. This results from the comparatively slow 
progress of sound, four and a half seconds being 
required for it to travel a mile; and when the flash is 
several miles in length, the sound is a half minute or 
more in coming from the remote portions of the flash. 
The distance of a thunder-storm from the spectator 
may be nearly determined by counting the seconds 
between the flash and thunder, and allowing about 
four and a half seconds to the mile, or thirteen miles 
for a minute. It is well known that when the electric 
current passes through the body of a man, or a beast, 
the animal fluids being excellent conductors, its action 
upon the nerve is so violent that life is either 


endangered or at once destroyed. For this reason 
any person out in a storm of lightning ought to shun 
the path of the electric fluid, and be cautious to avoid 
certain objects by which it might be attracted or 
discharged. It is well known that trees should be 
avoided on such occasions, but it is not so well known 
why, and consequently many people ignore all pre¬ 
cautions in connection with that fact. Attracted by 
the tree, the electric fluid will run down it through the 
sap under the outer bark, the sap being a conductor 
of electricity; but if a better conductor be near enough, 
such as the human fluids would be, the lightning will 
leave the tree and pass into the body of the un¬ 
fortunate who chanced to have sought that shelter. 
For the same reason it is dangerous to be near water 
during a thunder-storm, water being so good a con¬ 
ductor that the lightning might take his body on its 
way to reach it. To lean against a wall at such a time 
is also dangerous, because the fluid will run down a 
wall to reach the man because he is the better con¬ 
ductor of electricity. Bell-wire being an excellent 
conductor, it has sometimes been found a source of 
danger from lightning to those who pull it. For the 
same reason all substances which act as conductors of 
electricity should be avoided during a thunder-storm,— 
putting up an iron shutter-bar, the exposure on the 
person of metal chains, keys, brooches, etc. When 
wet a person is in less danger from the lightning than 
when dry. The lightning-rods or conductors set up 
serve, by their height, to discharge the lightning, and 
at the same time the metal conducts it harmlessly 
away. 

The relative value of different metals as conductors 
of electricity may be expressed in the following figures: 
Lead, i; iron, 2.6; zinc, 4; copper, 12. One light¬ 
ning conductor to a building of average extent is found 
to afford sufficient protection. Conductors defective 
in the principles of their construction have often 
been found rather to increase the danger than to 
diminish it. If the rod is not sufficiently thick to 
conduct the whole of the electric current to the earth, 
its metal becomes fused, and the building injured. 
Lightning turns milk sour by disturbing its electrical 
condition, and effecting its decomposition. 

There is no doubt that the safest place for shelter 
during a thunder-storm is the interior of a dwelling- 
house or other enclosed building, at a distance from 
windows and street-doors; and in a cellar, perhaps, 
for choice, not only is the chance of being struck in¬ 
finitely less, but the risk of serious injuiy is also much 
diminished. The popular objection to take shelter 
under a tree in a storm we have shown to be well 
founded, especially if the tree be isolated. A low 
tree, or a hedge with several high trees in its prox¬ 
imity, is less objectionable, as the lightning will 
generally be attracted by preference to the most 
prominent objects. Trees standing near taller ones 
are seldom struck. The electric cloud coming 
within the attraction of a mass of trees, probably dis¬ 
charges itself insensibly through the innumerable 
points of foliage. A wood, therefore, is not an unsafe 









LIGHTNING-ROD. 


940 


place, though even there it may be well to keep 
away from a tree which is higher than its neighbors. 
Many persons have been killed while standing under 
a hay or corn rick; these, therefore, should be avoid¬ 
ed. From their dryness they are worse conductors 
than the human body, so that the current passes from 
them to the latter, as the readiest channel by which 
it can reach the ground. But is it safer to remain in 
the middle of a large open space ? This is a doubt¬ 
ful question; for a man in the erect position, though 
less prominent than a tree, still offers a dangerous 
jxjint of attraction when no other object is near, and, 
if struck, the whole force of the stroke will pass 
through his body, entering probably by his head; 
whereas under the tree the current is likely to be 
divided and split up, so that though the chance of 
being struck may perhaps be greater, the risk of fatal 
injury is considerably less. 

It appears to be pretty generally agreed that the 
safest plan, supposing shelter within a house to be 
unattainable, is to remain near some prominent object, 
such as a tree, but on the side opposite to that from 
which the storm is proceeding, and at a distance suf¬ 
ficient (say twenty or thirty yards) to avoid the risk of 
the electricity being attracted from the tree to the 
person. Under any circumstances the recumbent is 
undoubtedly safer than the erect position, elevated 
and prominent situations being of course carefully 
avoided. Additional security may also be obtained 
by depositing watch and chain, money, or other 
metallic substances which attract electricity, at a safe 
distance. Wet clothes are not without a compensating 
advantage; they are all the better conductors of 
electricity, and, if they do not convey safely the whole 
of the current, they will transmit a much larger pro¬ 
portion of it, so that there will be all the less risk of 
personal injury. A gun is a very unsafe companion; 
nothing could well be worse than to walk about in a 
thunder-storm with a gun over the shoulder. Neither 
is it wise to walk along an exjx)sed road under an 
umbrella, especially one with metallic stem and 
frame-work. 

It is a common opinion that a barn full of fresh 
hay is more liable to be struck than other buildings, 
on account of the column of vapor passing upwards 
from the hay. It has even been asserted by high 
authority that an ice-house is peculiarly liable to be 
struck, because the evaporation from the melting ice 
forms a partial conductor. A little reflection will 
show the fallacy of these opinions. There is not 
so much vapor passing off from nearly dry hay as 
from an equal surface of moist earth over all parts of 
the farm; and the cold moisture in an ice-house 
would not furnish a larger amount of vapor than a 
warm surface of earth. 

When a person has been struck by lightning and is 
apparently dead, the treatment for restoration should 
be as follows; Dash cold water repeatedly over the 
whole body, including face and head, continuing to 
pour it on the latter for some time, letting it run down 
over the body. Should the patient not revive in a 


few moments, dig a hole in the ground, remove all 
clothing and place him in it in a half recumbent 
position, and cover the body, all except the face, with 
fresh earth. The moment there is indication of life 
and the eyes begin to move, shade the face, and 
when he breathes freely, place him in a light and 
airy room, and wash the body with cold water. Or, 
if this cannot be done, apply friction to the spine with 
strong liniments and mustard poultices to the feet, 
using the water as above indicated. 

Lightning-rod, a metallic bar by which an un¬ 
usual amount of atmospheric electricity in the vicinity 
of a building may be safely conducted to the earth 
and dissipated in it. Few questions perhaps have 
been more puzzling to the farmer than that of light¬ 
ning-rods. A farmer who has erected a fine residence, 
or has a good barn well stored with grain and filled 
with valuable stock, has fears lest either may be 
struck by lightning and consumed by fire, and yet 
from the varying and contradicting reports of the 
value of rods, he really knows not whether his build¬ 
ings are safer with than without. Then “the absolute 
worthlessness, and even danger,” of rods made by 
different companies are shown by the glib agents of 
other companies, until the farmer, who really is 
anxious to protect his property and family, and willing 
to expend the necessary amount for lightning-rods, is 
so bewildered and unsettled that he knows not what 
to do. In this article we shall discuss in the simplest 
\yay all the practical features of this perplexing ques¬ 
tion ; nor shall we do this in the interests of any 
lightning-rod company, or, indeed, any one but the 
farmer. When besieged by agents of such companies 
who show up such glowing records for various rods or 
“insulators,” let him ponder over the facts herein 
stated and judge of its merits from such basis and 
not by what the agent may say. In the article on 
Swindle we show up the manner in which many 
agents disjx)se of their rods, and what gross im¬ 
positions they practice upon the farmers. 

As to whether lightning rods are really beneficial in 
protecting buildings from lightning, we can confidently 
say, that, if properly made, they will afford protection; 
but if improperly constructed, will do no good and 
may be a positive harm. In support of the former 
statement we may refer to the following as well-known 
examples: The monument in London, which is over 
200 feet high, and has stood two centuries, has never 
been struck by lightning, which has often fallen on 
the lower buildings around it. The metal connections 
which unite the different parts of the monument, 
afford a free passage for the electric fluid to the' moist 
earth below; the other buildings have no such con¬ 
nections. A church in Carinthia, standing on a hill, 
was struck on an average five times a year, and in 
one instance several times a day. It was deemed un¬ 
safe to celebrate serv'ice within its walls. A lightning- 
rod was then placed upon it, after which it was struck 
but once in five years, and in this instance no harm 
was done, the stroke falling on the metallic point 
without damage. The church of St Michael, in 












LIGHTNING-ROD. 


941 


Charlestown, Mass., was frequently damaged by light¬ 
ning, but after the erection of a rod it had escaped 
for fourteen years. St. Mark’s steeple, in Venice, 
340 feet high, was often struck until protected by a 
rod, after which it escaped. The celebrated Stras¬ 
bourg cathedral was struck three times within a quar¬ 
ter of an hour in 1833, causing damages which re¬ 
quired millions to repair. In the year 1835 lightning 
conductors were erected, since which no harm has 
occurred. The cathedral at Geneva, the most con¬ 
spicuous and highest in the city, has entirely escaped 
for centuries, while another tower much lower has 
been freciuently injured. The great central tower of 
the cathedral is built entirely of wood, but covered 
with metallic plates, which are connected with the 
roof of metal, and this, through the rain pipes, with 
iron drain pipes imbedded in the earth. 

To substantiate the latter assertion, it is well known 
that many buildings have been struck with lightning, 
although furnished with rods, and in some cases 
destructive conflagrations have been the consequence; 
but in all these instances, where an examination has 
been made, obvious and glaring defects have been 
discovered in their construciion. It has been estimated 
that more than half the lightning-rods now in use 
throughout the United States are of little or no value, 
and some may be even positively detrimental; prob¬ 
ably not one in ten proves as safe and efficient as it 
might easily be made. 

It having been decided that a good rod, properly 
put up, is a benefit, and that a bad one may be harm¬ 
ful, the next questions arising are; What are good 
rods and how should they be put up.? A word may 
be necessary as to what a lightning-rod should do, 
and the relative values of the different metals as to 
their powers as conductors. 

Clouds charged with electricity are often two or 
three miles high, or even more; and when this is the 
case, the lightning rarely or never strikes the earth or 
the objects at its surface, but the discharges are from 
one cloud to another. Sometimes, however, their 
lowest surface may be within half a mile or less. 
When very near the earth, there is greater danger to 
buildings, trees and animals. There is no doubt that 
the moisture in apparently clear air may sometimes 
contain much electricity, but less than dense clouds. 
Buildings and trees, although they are imperfect con¬ 
ductors, may be sufficiently so as to invite the dis¬ 
charges of lightning in their downward course, but not 
enough to afford a perfect passage, and hence they 
may be torn or shivered to pieces, or set on fire. The 
object of lightning-rods is to provide a safe and com¬ 
plete passage for the discharge by using metal, which 
is thousands of times a better conductor than moist 
wood, stone or brick. 

As to what are the essential features of a good rod, 
the following observations may be made. The con¬ 
ducting power of a metallic bar of a,given length and 
of uniform size is proportional to its cross section. 
Thus an iron bar two inches square will conduct 
electricity as well as a copper bar one inch square. 


because it has four times the sectional area. By in¬ 
creasing the diameter of the bar of a poor conductor, 
we may make it equal in conducting power to a bar 
of better conducting material but of smaller size. 
While copper has four times the conducting power of 
iron, it costs much more than four times as much as 
iron. Iron is found in the market in the form of long 
bars, well suited for use as lightning-rods, while copper 
has to be specially manufactured for such use, whereby 
its cost is still more increased because a material 
which is manufactured for a special use costs 
more than the same material manufactured for 
general use. Bar iron will cost from 3^ to 4 
cents a ^xjund, while bar copper will cost about 50 
cents. With ordinary bar iron we may therefore obtain 
the same amount of conduction at far less cash cost 
than we can with copper. Another point in favor of 
iron is that it is so difficult to melt, the melting point 
of iron being more than 1,200® above the melting 
point of copper. A lightning-rod should not melt or 
become red hot by any stroke of lightning which may 
fall upon it. 

There are a large number of different rods made 
and sold through the country, many of which seem¬ 
ingly were constructed by parties who absolutely knew 
nothing about electricity or its conductors. There are 
rods made of fine copper wires and coarse zinced iron 
wires twisted together. Then there are wires made 
by twisting together three or four wires of tin. Tin is 
comparatively a poor conductor, and nrelts at a very 
low temperature. Some rods are made of copper 
tubing, or twisted copper wire, or of iron fluted and 
twisted into a spiral, some galvanized and others not. 
There are other styles and of all shapes imaginable. 
There are some special advantages claimed for each, 
for which the farmer must pay a good, round price. The 
rod, as recommended by some of the best scientists in 
the world as the best, and it is certainly the cheapest, 
is a solid round bar of iron, not less than three-fourths 
of an inch in diameter. There is no danger of such a 
rod melting, and it will safely conduct any flash of 
lightning to the ground. Such a rod, which may be 
put up by any farmer if he will observe the principles 
laid down in this article, will conduct the electric cur¬ 
rent many thousand times better than the common 
materials of which houses and barns are built, and the 
current will take this metallic course in preference to 
the building. If the rod is high enough above the 
building, so that any discharge may find it before 
reaching the building, it will be carried safely down¬ 
ward, provided there is no break or interruption in 
the rod, and provided it reaches a permanent con¬ 
ductor at the bottom, to convey the discharge into 
the earth. 

These then are tTie three essential parts: r. Height 
above the building. 2. Continuity throughout. 3. 
Connection at the bottom with permanently moist 
earth or water. 

r. If the rod is not high enough, there will be 
danger that the lightning may strike the chimney 
the soot of which is a conductor, or it may strike, 










942 


LIGHTNING-ROD. 


other elevated portions. As a general rule, the top of 
the rod should be at least as much above the roof as 
half the length of the roof from the rod. In other 
words, a rod will commonly protect a horizontal 
space the diameter of which is four times as great as 
the height of the rod above it, if the rod stands in the 
middle; or twice as great, if the rod is at one end. 
If the rod is attached to a chimney nearly at the 
center of the roof, it must lie half as high as the dis¬ 
tance between the chimney and the farther end of 
the building. Sometimes it may be more convenient 
to place the rod at one end, a more direct connection 
being thus obtained with the earth. In this case the 
rod must be twice as high as when placed at the 
center. Probably a still better way would be to place 
a rod at each end, and secure a direct communication 
with the earth at both ends. Or, if the two are well 
connected by a metal bar on the roof, this arrange¬ 
ment will be nearly as good. 

2. The importance of a continuous rod is self- 
evident; for if made up of several parts or sections, 
and one is displaced, the rod would do more harm 
than good, by inviting the discharge without convey¬ 
ing it from the building. Paint the rod, and especial¬ 
ly all the joints, to keep it from rusting. 

3. For the same reason, a sufficient earth terminal 
is absolutely essential, to convey the discharge away 
from the building. If defective in this particular, 
no rod, however perfect in all other respects, can 
be of any use, but would be a source of danger. 
Nearly all the cases of failure in conductors are 
doubtless from this cause. They afford a partial 
passage for the discharge, or convey it into the build¬ 
ing. In this way buildings have been crushed, torn, 
and set on fire by the lightning, and water and gas 
pipes torn up and melted at the joints. 

Water and moist earth are conductors, while per¬ 
fectly dry earth has scarcely any conducting power 
at all. The rod must therefore penetrate the ground 
deep enough to reach permanently moist earth. In 
most localities a depth of six or eight feet will be 
enough, if branching in various directions at the 
bottom, so as to dissipate the electric discharge. The 
rod may have a terminus in a well if convenient, 
but never put into a cistern. The water, however, 
will rust the iron, and therefore damage it in time. 
If put into a cistern it might go dry and then the 
connection would be worthless; or if the cistern was 
surrounded with dry earth the escape of the discharge 
would be nearly prevented. If the rod is put in the 
ground fill the hole around it with powdered cliar- 
coal, it being a better conductor than the soil, is 
slower to dry when wet and prevents the rod from 
rusting. 

For most buildings it is best to weld the different 
pieces together, which makes the rod stifTer, and less 
liable to become separated into parts than if simply 
screwed together, or connected by staples or links. 
Any owner of a building who is about to erect a rod 
should measure with a cord or tape-line the distance 
from the top of the house to the ground where the 


rod is to pass, and then add to its length eight or ten 
feet for the portion beneath the surface; and also for 
the height above the building one-quarter or more of 
the length of the roof if the rod is placed at the 
center, or one-half the length if placed at one end. 
The pieces of rod sufficient for this length may be 
easily welded together by a blacksmith, and it may 
then be taken home by fastening the pointed end to 
a wagon and dragging the length on the ground. 
Two or three men can then erect it and place it in 
position on the building. Spike or clamp the rod 
securely against the side of the building. If you 
have a good rod it is unnecessary to have it insulated 
from the building. The ordinary glass collars, three- 
quarters of an inch thick, will certainly not prevent a 
stroke of lightning leaving the rod and striking the 
house, when it can penetrate a mile of air (the very 
best of insulators), shiver vast oaks, and split rocks 
into fragments. Faraday, the greatest electrician the 
world has ever known, says upon this subject: 

“ Some persons conceived that it is desirable to 
insulate the conductor from the wall of a building by 
glass; but all such contrivances are absurd, since the 
distance to which tlie metal could be removed from 
the wall by the interjxjsed insulation was altogether 
insignificant compared with the distance through 
which the lightning must pass in a discharge from 
the clouds to the earth.” 

The rod should be brought in connection with the 
eave troughs, or any other metallic substance, so that 
any electricity they may draw will be conveyed to the 
ground. 

As to the point, much is said by lightning-rod men, 
and many different kinds are made. Most of those 
sold through the country are made of platinum, be¬ 
cause of its infusibility. As a matter of fact, however, 
it is not as good as copper, for the latter has more 
than seven limes the conducting power for electricity 
that platinum has, and. further, having but one- 
seventh the conducting power of copper it would 
under the same circumstances be heated seven times 
hotter by a flash of electricity, and a flash that would 
heat a copper wire to its melting point (1,996^ Fall.), 
would heat a platinum wire of the same size 13,072'^ 
Fall.,—a temperature greatly in excess of the melting 
of platinum. Of the two metals, therefore, platinum 
would be in greater danger of being melted by a flash 
of lightning than copper. For this reason and because it 
is cheaper, a point made of copper with its surface 
nickel-plated or gilded, is preferable. This, made of 
solid copper, conical shape, two inches in height and 
one inch in diameter at the base, will be all that is 
required. 

High-priced and patented lightning-rods have been 
made with various points and angles, wings, corruga¬ 
tions and spiral coils, with the claim that the angles 
and points would draw the electric fluid and increase 
the safety, when in fact they would equally tend to 
discharge it from those points into the building. 
None of these patents are better in any respect than 
the simple round rod described above. If square or 










LILAC—LIME. 


943 


flat bars are used, instead of round bars (and they 
will also answer a good purpose), they may be screw¬ 
ed to the sides of the building in the same way, by 
means of staples and screws. This mode answers 
well when the building is 
partly made of iron. 

Employing a common light¬ 
ning-rod agent or vender is 
one of the many errors com¬ 
monly committed. Most of 
them, knowing little of the 
science, erect imperfect rods, 
with many needless append¬ 
ages, at a cost to the owner 
of seveial times that of a 
good, simple rod. To make 
one which shall be both cheap 
and efficient, every owner 
should construct and put up 
his own, according to estab¬ 
lished principles. 

The owners of all buildings 
on which rods have stood 
many years should occasion¬ 
ally examine them, to see that 
the earth terminals have not 
become unsafe by rusting 
away. 

See Lightning. 

Lilac, a well-known and 
popular ornamental shrub, 
putting forth its fragrant, 
purplish flowers early in spring. 

It is quite hardy in the North¬ 
ern States and easy of cul¬ 
tivation. A rarer species has 
white flowers. A Parisian 
kind is more profuse in flower¬ 
ing, and has been used for 
ornamental hedges, as it bears 
shearing tolerably well. The 
peculiar and beautiful color 
of the flowers of the common 
kind has given name to the 
color called “lilac.” 

Lily, one of the most pop¬ 
ular flowering plants, the most 
of which bear very large and 
gorgeous flowers. 

To keep posted in the new 
varieties from year to year 
one must consult florists’cata¬ 
logues. The lily is hand¬ 
some in all its stages of 
growth, and not a little grace¬ 
ful when completing its 
height and swelling its flower LUiuin canduiutn. 
buds; and after it bursts into bloom, its flower is 
one blaze of color and outshines the most brilliant 
hings in the garden. There are several genera of 

6o 


lilies, many species and a vast number of varieties- 



The Pond Lily. 

Lima Bean: see article Bean. A gardener has 
recently given his experience that he can raise this 
species of bean better without poling, by keeping the 
tendrils nipped off. By this means the vines are kept 
low and bushy and the fruit made to mature earlier 
than by the usual method. We should judge that 
the same principle would work as well with the other 
running varieties. 

Lime. This is composed of but two chemical or 
primary elements, namely, calcium and oxygen. It 
is a highly acrid, alkaline and caustic earth, more sol¬ 
uble in cold than in hot water; hence boiling precip¬ 
itates it as a lining on the inside of the vessel. The 
acids readily unite with lime, forming many of the 
most useful compounds; as, carbonic acid, combined 
with lime, forming carbonate of lime, or chalk and 
marble; sulphuric acid, forming sulphate of lime, or 
gypsum ; phosphoric acid,forming phosphate of lime; 
nitric acid, forming nitrate of lime, etc. Water poured 
upon quicklime, combines with it and forms the 
hydrate of lime. The process, as is familiar to every¬ 
one, is attended with considerable heat. Chlorine 
combines with this base, forming the celebrated dis¬ 
infectant chloride of lime. “ Milk of lime” is simply 
water and lime mixed together so as to have the ap¬ 
pearance and consistency of milk. The various salts 
of lime (phospate, sulphate and carbonate) constitute 
the mineral or solid elements of bone; and lime in 
nearly all its forms enters largely into various medi¬ 
cal compounds. Pure lime diluted in water is a pop¬ 
ular remedy for certain forms of dyspepsia. Of 
course, lime, in its various combinations, is an essen¬ 
tial constituent in all vegetable products; and it is 
from vegetable sources alone that herbivorous animals 
obtain all the limy (calcareous) elements of their 
bones and tissues. 

Lime dust is one of the most popular remedies 
against insects of almost all kinds. The following is 
the best method of applying it to destroy slugs, mil¬ 
dew, etc.: To a peck of fresh lime, broken up into 
small pieces, add four pounds of flowers of sulphur, 
and just boiling water enough to slake the lime to a 





















944 


LIMITATION, STATUTES OF—LINIMENT. 


dry powder, covering the vessel as soon as the water 
is poured on. When needed for use, mix water with it 
sufficiently to make a whitewash, and apply to trees, 
cellar walls, etc., with a whitewash brush. 

Limitation, Statutes of. By this term is meant a 
certain period limited by statute, after which a claim¬ 
ant cannot enforce his claim by suit at law. No such 
limit exists in moral law, where a debt is due until it 
is paid, no matter how long it runs. Time begins to 
run with the date of the instrument, or promise upon 
which the claim is based. Limitations are fixed by 
State law, and they vary in the several States, as, with 
reference to the most common causes, are given in 
the following table: 

LIMITATIONS OF ACTIONS. 


STATES 

AND 

TERRITORIES. 

Assault, Slander, 

I Replevin, etc. 

I Open Accounts. 

I Notes. 

r}. 

s 

w 

Scaled and Wit¬ 
nessed Papers. 

Years 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Alabama. 

1 

3 

6 

20 

10 

Arkansas. 

I 

3 

5 

10 

10 

California. 

3 

2 

4 

5 V 

5 

Colorado. 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

Connecticut. 

I 


6 

6 

17 

Dakota. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Delaware . 

I 

3 

6 

20 

20 

District of Columbia. 

I 

3 

3 

12 

32 

Florida. 

2 

5 

5 

20 

20 

Georgia. 

I 

4 

6 

7 

20 

Idaho. 

3 

2 

4 

5 

5 

Illinois. 

I 

s 

10 

20 

10 

Indiana. 

2 

6 

20 

20 

20 

Iowa. 

2 

5 

10 

20 

10 

Kansas. 

1 

3 

5 

5 

15 

Kentucky. 

I 

5 

5 

15 

IS 

Louisiana. 

1 

3 

5 

10 

20 

Maine. 

2 

6 

20 

20 

20 

Maryland. 

3 

3 

3 

12 

12 

Massachusetts. 

2 

6 

20 

20 

20 

Michigan. 

2 

6 

6 

10 

10 

Minnesota. 

2 

6 

6 

30 

20 

Mississippi. 

I 

3 

6 

7 

7 

Missouri. 

I 

4 

5 

5 

10 

Montana. 

2 

2 

4 

5 

4 

Nebraska. 

2 

6 

20 

20 

30 

Nevada. 

2,6 

6 

20 

20 

20 

New Hampshire. 

I 

- 

— 

10 

30 

New Jersey . 

2 

6 

5 

20 

20 

New Mexico. 

I 

3 

10 

10 

30 

New York. 

I 

6 

15 

15 

IS 

North Carolina. 

1 

3 

10 

10 

10 

Ohio. 

I 

6 

15 

IS 

15 

Ontario (Upper Canada). 

I 

S 

5 

.30 

30 

Oregon. 

2 

I 

6 

10 

20 

Pennsylvania . 

I 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Quebec (Lower Canada). 

1,2 

5 

5 

30 

30 

Rhode Island. 

I 

6 

6 

20 

20 

South Carolina... 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Tennessee. 

I 

6 

6 

20 

— 

T exas. 

I 

2 

4 

10 

30 

Utah. 

I 

2 

4 

5 

7 

Vermont. 

2 

6 

14 

8 

8 

Virginia. 

5 

5 

S 

10 

20 

NVashington Territory. 

2 

3 

6 

9 

20 

West Virginia. 

5 

5 

6 

10 

30 

Wisconsin. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Wyoming. 

I 

6 

15 

10 

23 


Lin, Linden, etc., a name of the basswood tree. 
See page 512. 

Linch-pin, a pin inserted through a hole in the 
end of a bolt to hold a wheel or other parts of machin¬ 
ery from slipping off. 


Lincoln, a variety of sheep. See Sheep. 

Linen. The cloth so named, from the Latin Imuni 
(flax), is the principal fabric manufactured from flax. 
The fineness of linen is determined by the relative 
length of yarn in a given weight, and also by the 
number of threads of warp contained in a certain space 
of the reed in weaving, to which the threads of weft 
in a similar space must bear a fixed and regular pro¬ 
portion. In judging of linen of whatever fineness and 
price, particular attention should be paid to the even¬ 
ness of the threads, and also to the firmness and close¬ 
ness of the texture. The color should be very white, 
and the surface glossy; but this gloss should be prin¬ 
cipally, if not wholly, the effect of the calender em¬ 
ployed in finishing the cloth. Many inferior fabrics 
are rendered marketable by a large proportion of 
starch, from which they receive not only a fine gloss, 
but also a factitious hardness, or body, as it is termed, 
qualities which disappear after the first washing; and 
the cloth, having lost in this ordeal all its vellum-like 
consistency, becomes, to use a familiar expression “as 
lX)or as a rag.” Hardness and smoothness, therefore, 
can never be safely depended upon as a criterion; 
the eye must be rather closely applied to discern 
whether these qualities actually proceed from the 
strength and fineness of the fabric. The threads 
must not only be even, but must have a certain wire¬ 
like roundness; a magnifying glass is very useful to 
examine the texture of linen by; but the purchaser 
should be in the habit of using it, otherwise he will 
be misled. Some linen is sold free, or nearly so, from 
this dressing, and such is to be preferred. See Laun¬ 
dry, Bleaching and Stains. 

Line of Deposit, the average amount kept by one 
to his credit in the bank. The “line of discount” is 
the average amount borrowed by him from the bank. 

Liniment, a soft ointment, or a medicated and 
thickened oil designed to be rubbed upon the skin 
and to act as an anodyne, an emollient or local stim¬ 
ulant, for the relief of deep-seated pains and inflam¬ 
mations. The following are receipts for making some 
excellent liniments; 

Compound Soap. Take Castile soap, oil sassa¬ 
fras, gum camphor, spirits of hartshorn, and spirits 
of turpentine, each i ounce; alchohol, 2 ounces; 
mix. A good liniment for swelled glands, inflamed 
tonsils, sore throat, quinsy, mumps, and inflamed 
female breasts. 

Rheumatic. Take alchohol, 4 ounces; gum 
camphor, oil hemlock, oil cedar, and spirits tur¬ 
pentine, each 54 ounce; mix. Use freely in rheu¬ 
matism, pains, swollen joints, sprains, etc. 

Rheumatism of the Joint. Take oil of linseed, 
oil of cedar, and oil of amber, each, i ounce; gum 
camphor, ounce, dissolve in ounce of sweet 
oil, by rubbing in a mortar, first adding to the cam¬ 
phor a few drops of alcohol, so as to powder it; 
spirits of turpentine and laudanum, each, ounce ; 
mix, shake w'ell, apply and rub in well. One of the 
best rheumatic liniments known. 




































































LINK—LIVER. 


945 


Nerve. Take oil of sassafras, tincture of Cay¬ 
enne, spirits of hartshorn, oil of pennyroyal, oil of 
hemlock and laudanum, each, ^ ounce; mix, shake 
well, and bottle for use. Useful in all acute pains, 
as in neuralgia, headache, spasms, toothache, gout, 
rheumatism, sore throat, inflamed breasts of females, 
and all nervous pains. 

Arnic.a. Take tincture of arnica, i dram; al¬ 
cohol, 4 ounces ; mix, and shake well in the bottle, 
unequaled for pains in the feet and limbs, from 
walking; for all fresh and recent sprains, bruises, 
and contused wounds, and for rheumatism of the 
joints, and gouty pains. 

German Liniment. Take chloroform, olive oil, 
and aqua ammonia, of each r ounce; acetate of mor¬ 
phia, lo grains. Mix, and use as other liniments. 
Very valuable. 

Stimulating Liniment. Cayenne, ounces; 
salt, I tablespoon ; spirits of wine, 2 ounces ; cam¬ 
phor, ounce; spirits of turpentine, y pint. Bottle, 
and shake now and then during one day. Then add 
y^ pint of vinegar. It is excellent for sponging the 
body in cases of pain, debility, inflammation, rheuma¬ 
tism, gout, sore throat, numbness, neuralgia, etc. 

Cook’s Electro-Magnetic Liniment. Best alco¬ 
hol, I gallon ; oil of amber, 8 ounces; gum camphor 
8 ounces; Castile soap, shaved fine, 2 ounces; beef 
gall,4 ounces; ammonia, 3 F’s strong, 12 ounces; 
mix, and shake occasionally for twelve hours, and it 
is fit for use. This will be found a strong and valu¬ 
able liniment, and also cheap. It may be used in 
swellings, strains, etc., and rubbed upon the throat, 
breast, and lungs, in asthma, sore throat, etc. 

Liniment after Shaving, r ounce of lime water, 
I ounce of sweet oil, i drop of oil of roses; shake well 
before using and apply with fore-finger. 

Lime Liniment. Linseed or common olive oil and 
lime-water, equal parts, to be well shaken before 
using, is good for scrofulous or other sores, and still 
more for burns or scalds. 

Horse Liniment. Common liniment for horse, 
4 ounces linseed oil; 2 ounces spirits of turpentine; 
I ounce aqua ammonia. Mix. Good for sprains and 
bruises. 

Another: Creasote, laudanum and olive oil, equal 
parts. This is excellent for sprains. 

Another: i pint vinegar; i drachm nitric acid; i 
ounce oil turpentine.; i drachm oil sassafras; shake 
well before using, excellent for grease heels, scratches 
or any external application where a liniment is 
required. 

Another: Take spirits of turpentine and dissolve as 
much gum camphor as it will take. This will be 
found good to remove calluses. 

Link, a ring, generally elongated, several of which 
compose a chain; a short wire or small rod, a num¬ 
ber of which constitute a chain, as in the “surveyor’s 
chain.” In surveying, a lirtk is 7.92 inches, being the 
i-rooth part of a four-rod chain. 

Linseed, flaxseed. Ground flaxseed makes the 


best poultice, as it is less irritable and retains its 
moisture better than most articles used for that pur¬ 
pose. 

Linseed oil is pressed out of ground flaxseed by 
a powerful hydraulic press, and is almost the only oil 
used in mixing paints. The fresher it is the better it 
will dry. It is a good and safe purgative for the horse, 
and should be given by farmers and non-professional 
persons in preference to any other article. The Eng¬ 
lish veterinary surgeons use linseed oil for colic in the 
horse in the following combination: Linseed oil, one 
pint and two ounces each of oil of turpentine and 
laudanum. In cases of choking in either horses or 
cattle, a half pint of linseed oil should be poured 
down the throat, so that by its emollient properties 
the substance may pass readily down the gullet. 
For horses, one or two pints is the dose used for 
a purgative. For scalds and burns, linseed oil is 
mixed with lime water. 

Cake Meal. That portion which is kept after 
the oil has been expressed from the seed, is a good 
feed for horses and cows, given occasionally. 

Linsey-Woolsey, a coarse fabric made of thread 
for warp and its woof worsted, generally one blue and 
the other white, or mixed with red 

Lint, flax; linen raveled, or scraped into a soft 
substance, and used for dressing wounds and sores. 

Lintel, a horizontal piece of timber or stone placed 
over a door, window, or other opening: a head-piece. 

Lipped and Harled, built without mortar, but 
afterward having the joints filled with mortar, and the 
whole rough-cast or harled. Said of walls. 

Liquidate, to finally settle the affairs of a com¬ 
mercial house; to pay a debt. 

List, among other meanings, signifies the outer 
edge or selvedge of cloth ; a strip of cloth forming the 
border, particularly of broadcloth and serving to 
strengthen it; a strip of cloth; a fillet. List carpet 
is the finest sort of rag carpet. 

Literature, or Letters, learning; in its widest 
sense it embraces all composition except that which 
relates to the positive sciences, as mathematics, me¬ 
chanics, etc.; but it is usually confined to works of 
taste, sentiment, poetry, history, etc., in which ex¬ 
pression itself becomes an art. What we have to say 
under this head, appropriate to this work, will be 
found under the heads of Book, Education, Library’, 
etc. 

Lithotomy, the operation of cutting into the blad¬ 
der for the removal of urinary calculi. For the oper¬ 
ation on the horse, see page 761. 

Live Paper, paper (of obligation) which has not 
matured. Over-due or protested paper is termed 
“dead.” 

Liver, the chief blood-depurating organ of the 
body, situated around and behind the stomach. It 
is of a brownish-red color, lobed, unsymmetrical in 









946 


LIVE STOCK—LOCUST. 


form, and heavy. In it is situated the gall (or bile) 
bladder and duct, the contents of which are derived 
from the impurities of the blood, taken out by the 
liver. This large organ is subject to several diseases, 
as follows: 

Congestion. This is known by a sense of ,weight 
and a moderate pain in the right side, both in front 
and under the right shoulder blade, constipation and 
lead-colored stools, nausea, furred tongue, bitter taste 
in the mouth, a yellowish skin and white of the eye, 
and headache or dizziness. In the chronic form ; 
these symptoms are not so prominent, are not constant, 
but are fixed. In the early stages the regular profes¬ 
sion recommend blue mass at bed-time, two or three 
grains at a dose, for two or three nights. Keep the 
bowels open. Others recommend extract of dande¬ 
lion, in pills, one grain of leptandrin to each pill, one 
pill to be taken every night. For the advanced stages, 
give three or four drops, twice or thrice daily, of nitro- 
muriatic acid. The “Hygienic” system urges the im¬ 
portance of sweating baths, chest compress, friction, 
passive exercise and abstinence from condiments 
and doubtful articles of food and drink. 

Inflammation. The symptoms of this affection 
scarcely differ from those of congestion. The pain in 
the side is greater, there is fever, and sometimes vom¬ 
iting and diarrhoea. Avoid mercurials. Take saline 
cathartics, rest in bed, vegetable diet and cooling 
drinks, as lemonade without sugar. 

Jaundice: see page 901. 

Fatty Degeneration. The liver is enlarged, the 
pain is not severe, there is oppression of breathing, 
etc., but the evidences of this particular affection are 
too obscure, even for a skilled physician. Preventive 
hygiene is the only resort for mitigation of the mala¬ 
dy, which is indeed incurable. 

Other diseases of the liver are waxy liver, cancer, 
syphilitic fever, fungoid growths, etc., which are too 
difficult of diagnosis and treatment. 

often one has a cough and fears he has incipient 
bronchitis or consumption, when the whole cause is 
the pressure of the enlarged liver upon the lungs. 
When the cough is dry, non-expectorating and not 
severe, oppression by the liver is probably the only 
cause. 

Live Stock: see Stock. 

Loam, a soil chiefly com^iosed of silicious sand, 
clay, chalk, lime and a little oxide of iron, magnesia 
and various salts, and also decayed vegetable and 
animal matter, giving proportionate fertility. It is the 
standard soil for the purposes of cultivation. See 
Soil. 

Loan, money lent. Some persons loosely use this 
word in the sense of “borrow,” and thus unnecessarily 
obscure their meaning. “ Lend” and “borrow” are 
words of definite signification, which all persons clearly 
understand. 

Lobelia, or Indian Tobacco. This is an annual 
or biennial plant, native throughout the United States, 


and contains most valuable medicinal properties. It 
is emetic and stimulating, and from its action on the 
great sympathetic nerve, its effect is felt throughout 
the whole system. It exerts a peculiar ‘action upon 
the trachea and bronchial vessels, expelling all col¬ 
lected mucus. It must, therefore, be very valuable in 
asthma, croup, whooping-cough and consumption. The 
gteatest benefit from it has been found in dyspepsia, 
coughs, asthma, liver complaints, etc. It has relieved 
asthmatic subjects when on the point of suffocation 
by accumulated phlegm, cough, etc; also in pneu¬ 
monia of infants. 

Lobscouse, a hash of meat with vegetables of 
various kinds; an olio. 

Lobster, a large crustacean, of the appearance of 
a common crawfish. It is of a greenish color, but 
when boiled becomes a bright scarlet red. They are 
used as a fancy article of diet to a small extent in the 
cities. 

Lock-jaw, or Locked-jaw, a violent contraction 
of the muscles of the body, but particularly of the 
jaw, by which its motion is suspended ; a variety of 
tetanus. It is generally caused by intense pain in the 
extremities, as when a nail is run into the foot. Nar¬ 
cotic poisons sometimes produce it. Occasionally 
lock-jaw makes its appearance suddenly, shortly after 
the injury has been received, but generally comes on 
gradually, beginning with a slight stiffness in the back 
part of the neck, which soon increases so as to render 
it difficult and painful to move the head. Soon there 
will be pain at the root of the tongue, tightness across 
the chest and pain shooting through the back. The 
muscles of the jaw then become stiff and soon locked 
so tightly that it is impossible to open the mouth, 
d'here may or may not be contraction or stiffness in 
the limbs and other parts of the body. 

Preventioji. Forthwith bind on a wound in the 
bottom of the foot or palm of the hand a rind of salt 
pork. If the part swell, bathe it in strong wormwood 
tea, and bind on another pork rind; rest till healed. 
Or, soak the limb well in warm lye, and apply a hot 
Indian-meal poultice, wet with lye. Renew it when 
cold. 

lleatment. Sweating is of the first imixirtance in 
this complaint. As soon as the symptoms are suffi¬ 
ciently strong to indicate the disease, get the patient 
under the infhience of lobelia as soon as possible. 
This will relax the muscles. Give tinctures of lobelia 
and Cayenne, in tablespoonful doses, two parts of the 
former and one of the latter. If the jaws are so set 
that they cannot be opened, pour the mixture down 
by the side of the teeth, and close the lips. If it finds 
its way into the mouth and throat it will relax the 
muscles. Repeat the dose until relaxation is effected. 
Should the case be very severe and serious, give also 
injections of lobelia, Cayenne and laudanum. 

Lock-jaw in cattle: see page 209; and in horse, 
page 809. 

Locust, a well-known insect, usually termed the 
















LOGS—LO TION. 


947 


“ grasshopper.” See page 882. Also, a tree, of which 
there are two species,—the Common and the Honey 
Lxjcust. Tlie Common does well as an ornamental 
or shade tree in most parts of the United States; but 
in the prairies of the Northwest the wind and the 
locust borer injure it and render it very unsightly. 
The Honey Locust is a native of the central portion 
of the United States, and does well for hedge-fencing 
in Wisconsin and Minnesota, jx^ssibly better than the 
Osage orange. 

Logs, To Measure: see Lumber. 

Logwood, a small leguminous tree of Central 
America, the wood of which is extensively used in 
dyeing, producing a deep red color that becomes dark 
• by exposure. It has a slight peculiar odor and sweet 
but somewhat astringent taste. Medicinally it is a 
mild astringent and styptic, antiseptic, being very 
valuable in diarrhoea, dysentery, foul ulcers and 
wounds, etc. It is sold at the drug stores in the 
form of chips, is very cheap and convenient to pre¬ 


hooting of the owl are nothing like as wild and weird 
as the cry of the loon. The bird is about three feet 
long from the point of its bill to the end of its tail, 
Vvith a spread of wings of about five feet. The illus¬ 
tration given on this page plainly shows the outline of 
its body. Its color is brownish black, though the feet 
are grayish blue. It is unable to walk well on land, 
its legs being so short, but it is an excellent swimmer 
and diver, remaining for a long time under water, and 
swimming rapidly while beneath the surface. When 
alarmed, it swims very low in the water, not more than 
an inch of the line of the back with the neck and 
licad being visible. It is almost impossible to shoot 
the ;e birds, as they dive instantly upon seeing the 
flafir of the gun, and rise to the surface a considerable 
distance away after a lapse of some time. The bird 
then keeps turning its head in every direction, watch¬ 
ing for danger, and diving again upon the next flash 
of the gun. When followed by the hunter it does not 
attempt to fly, but relies upon diving and on its ability 
to remain under water for its safety. Besides the 



Loon. 


pare and apply. The extract is a popular form for 
both dyeing and medical uses, ^'he decoction is made 
by boiling 2 ounces of chips in i pint of water; allow 
it to stand till cold, then strain through a cloth or a 
fine sieve; for horses and cows this quantity will make 
• one dose. For calves with scours i to 3 ounces will 
be the dose, which repeat if the case demands it. It 
is a safe and cheap remedy. 

Loon. Frequently the Loon, or Great Northern 
Diver, is seen in the streams and lakes of some parts 
of the United States. Its cry at night is wild enough; 
and at times, when a storm is approaching, becomes 
absolutely terrifying. So dismal a note is seldom 
heard in the mountain solitudes. The clanging noise 
of the wild goose, the harsh croak of the crane or the 


Great Northern Diver there are two other Loons, 
named respectively the Black-throated Diver and the 
Red-throated Diver. Both of these are considerably 
smaller in size than the first-named, but their habits 
are similar. 

Lotion, a medicated liquid for washing or bath¬ 
ing any diseased part of an animal. Lotions are used 
principally in cutaneous diseases, and in case of ex¬ 
ternal inflammation. But some are anodynes, and 
contain the same kind of sedative or narcotic princi¬ 
ples as anodyne liniments; some are stimulants, and 
contain principles for rousing indolent tumors or 
ulcers; and some are refrigerants, and contain either 
saline principles which reduce the temperature at the 
momentof their being applied, or spirituous and volatile 















948 


Z U ERIC ANTS—L UMBER. 


substances which occasion cold, by tlieir evaporation. 
Both the sedative ones and the stimulating ones, if 
wrongly applied, may be dangerous; all the refriger¬ 
ating ones require to be repeatedly or even frequently 
applied; and some ordinary ones which quacks pre¬ 
scribe as remedies for many or most cases of external 
disease, are sometimes very mischievous, and may 
oftener do harm than good. 

Lubricants: see Oils. 

Lucern (lu'cern), or Alfalfa, a species of clover 
which thrives on the Western plains and in the Pacific 
States, and constitutes one of the best forage plants 
for cattle and swine. In many sections of the West 
it is more profitable than any other species of forage, 
as it stands drouth better than other clovers. It 
wants old, rich and well-drained land, clear of weeds. 
Prepare the ground thoroughly by plowing and har¬ 
rowing; sow lo to 20 pounds of seed to the acre, 
about the middle of April, for the latitude of Kansas; 
harrow in lightly, following with the roller, if possible. 
The plants make a feeble growth the first season. 
The weeds should be mowed down, running the scythe 
just over the tops of the alfalfa. After the first season 
this plant will take care of itself and keep possession 
of the ground for many years. Its greatest enemy is 
the common mole, and it should not be too severely 
pastured by cattle and hogs in late summer and fall. 
When well established it will yield three or four crops 
each season. Plowing under a crop of this clover is 
said to be the best method of reducing the lands of 
the West. 

In the South lucern will yield more provender to 
the acre than any forage plant in the North, one acre 
producing enough for five horses a year. Raising 
forage in this way is far cheaper than lo pull blades of 
corn, and some cheaper even than cutting corn-stalks 
in the field, all losses considered. 

Lucern should be top-dressed every third year with 
some manure free from the seeds of weeds. Ashes 
are very suitable for it. The lucern field should be 
near as jxjssible to the stables, as work-horses, during 
the spring and summer, should be fed with it in a 
green or wilted state. 

The roots of this plant go down deeper into the 
earth than those of any other herbaceous plant, and 
hence brings up more nutritive elements to the surface. 
It is therefore the best plant in the world for reno¬ 
vating old soils. 

Lumber. Under this head we will include sawed 
and hewn timber in the rough, and the only practical 
remarks to be made in this connection consist of the 
best ways of measuring lumber in its various market¬ 
able shapes. 

Board Measure. Sawed lumber, as joists, plank 
and scantlings are bought and sold by board measure. 
The unit of this measure is a superficial foot one inch 
thick, or one foot of lumber is as if it was one foot 
long, one foot wide and one inch thick. To find the 
contents of lumber by this measure, multiply the 
breadth in inches by the thickness in inches, and 


that by the length in feet and divide the product by 
12, and the quotient will be the contents. 

Timber Measure. Round, sawed or hewn timber 
is bought and sold by the cubic foot. Round timber 
when squared is estimated to lose one-fifth; hence a 
ton of round timber contains only 40 cubic feet. 

To measure round timber, take the girth in inches 
at both ends, add them, and divide the sum by two 
for the mean girth. Then multiply the length in feet 
by the square of one-fourth of the mean girth in 
inches, divide the product by 144, and the quotient 
will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Example. What are the cubic contents of a round 
log 16 feet long, 28 inches around at the small end 
and 44 at the large end? Solution; 28 plus 44 
equals 72, which divided by 2 gives 36, the mean 
girth. The square of one-fourth of this is 81, which 
multiplied by 16, the length of the log, gives 1296. 
This divided by 144 gives 9, the cubic feet in the log. 

To measure square timber multiply the breadth in 
inches by the depth in inches, and that by the length 
in feet, and divide the product by 144, and the 
quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Exa 7 nple. What are the cubic contents of a square 
log 20 feet long, by 22 inches broad and 18 deep? 
Solution: 22 multiplied by 18 gives 396, and this by 
20, the length in feet, gives 7920, which divided by 
144 gives 55, the number of cubic feet. 

Spars from 4^4 to 10 inches in diameter inclusive, 
are measured by taking the diameter, clear of bark, 
at one-third of their length from the large end. 
Spars are usually bought and sold by the inch 
diameter; all under four inches are considered poles. 
Spruce spars of seven inches and less should have 
five feet in length for every inch in diameter. 

For the convenience of those who may have occa¬ 
sion to measure lumber we give the following 

Table, showing the Number of Feet, Board Meas¬ 
ure, of Joist, Scantling and Timber of given Lengths 
and Sizes; 


Size in 

Inches. 




Length 

IN Feet. 





12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

2.\’4. 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

IS 

16 

17 

19 

20 

2X6. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

2x8. 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

35 

37 

40 

2X10. 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

37 * 

40 

43 

47 

50 

2X12. 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

3x6 . 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

45 

3x8. 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

3X10. 

30 

35 

40 

45 

5° 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

3X12. 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

4x4. 

16 

>9 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

35 

37 

40 

4x6. 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

4X8. 

32 

37 

43 

48 

53 

59 

64 

69 

75 

80 

4X10. 

40 

47 

53 


67 

73 

80 

87 

93 

100 

4X12. 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

II2 

120 

6x6. 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

6x8.. 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

II2 

120 

6x10. 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

13° 

140 

150 

6x12. 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

13c 

144 

156 


180 

8x8. 

64 

75 

8s 

96 

107 

117 

128 

139 

149 

160 

8x10. 

80 

93 

’°ZJ 

120 

133 

147 

160 

173 

187 

200 

8x12. 

96 

1 12 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

224 

240 

lOXIO. 

100 

”7 

133 

'5° 

167 

183 

200 

21 7 

233 

250 

I0XI2. 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

2 60 

280 

300 

12X12. 

144 

168 

162 

2i6 

240 

264 

288 

312 

336 

360 

12X14 . 

168 

196 

224 

252 

280 

308 

336 

364 

392 

420 

14x14. 

ig6 

229 

261 

294 

327 

3.‘;9 

392 

425 

457 

490 






















































L UNAR CA USTIC—L YMPH. 


949 


Lunar Caustic, fused and mold-cast nitrate of 
silver. It is prepared for the purposes of pharmacy 
by a series of operations with silver, nitric acid, and 
distilled water, but may be summarily regarded as 
nitrate of silver liquefied by heat, and cast in small 
cylindrical molds. The little cylinders of it are 
solid and dark grey, and when broken across show a 
crystallized structure. It is inodorous, and has an 
intensely bitter, caustic, metallic taste, and gives a 
black tinge to skin and hair. Lunar caustic is pref¬ 
erable to all other caustics for rubbing over a rabid 
dog’s bite upon horses, and is excelled only by butter 
of antimony for destroying fungous growths in the 
wounds and ulcers of horses. It is used for giving a 
black stain to red or light hair, and is the basis for in¬ 
delible ink for marking linen. 

Lungs. For diseases of the lungs, see Consump¬ 
tion, page 259; in Cattle, pages 202 and 213; in 
Horses, page 810. For bleeding of the lungs, or 
spitting blood, take a teaspoonful of dry salt occasion¬ 
ally and bathe the feet in warm waters In very 
severe cases keep the patient quiet and give powder 
composed of i grain of Cayenne and ^ grain each 


of opium and ipecac every two or three hours un- 
until relief is afforded. Or give one tablespoonful 
each of vinegar and paregoric in a cup of cold water 
every half hour. Sponge the chest with cold water 
and keep the shoulders raised. Do not permit the 
patient to talk. Hemorrhage of the lungs may be 
easily distinguished from that of the stomach, the 
latter of which is less dangerous. Blood from the 
stomach is much darker in color, more or less mixed 
with the contents of the stomach, and is vomited up, 
while the blood from the lungs is thrown up in small 
quantities by coughing or hawking, is more or less 
mixed with mucus, and is of a florid color. 

Lute, in chemistry, a pasty matter used to fill 
cracks in vessels, or coat their surfaces from fire. Clay, 
putty, dough, lime, white of eggs and melted India 
rubber are variously used for this purpose. 

Lye, a fluid saturated with potash or other salts. 

Lymph, the fluid of the lymphatic vessels. It 
is slightly milky, but becomes pink on exposure to 
air, and divides into a clot and fluid part. It is the 
surplus nutritious fluid returned from every part of 
the body to the blood through the thoracic duct. 







































M 



ACARONI, edible paste dried in tubular 
form, for preservation and the market. It 
is prepared for the table in various ways. 
I. Simmer it in water in which some pep- 
■j per and allspice tied up in muslin have been 

previously boiled together, with a piece of 
butter and some salt. VVhen nearly done, pour 
off the liquor and let it steam for a while. 2. 
Boil four ounces of the macaroni in veal broth until 
tender; drain off the broth and two tablespoonfals of 
cream, an ounce of fresh butter, and two tablespoon¬ 
fuls of grated cheese, with some salt and pepper. 
Mix well together over the fire for a few minutes, and 
it is then ready to serve. 3. Macaroni pudding: 
Pour a pint of cream boiling hot on the crumbs of 
a penny loaf, or French roll; cut one pound of beef 
marrow very thin; beat four eggs well; add a glass of 
brandy, with sugar and nutmeg to taste, and mix all 
well together. It may be either boiled or baked, 40 
or 50 minutes; cut two ounces of citron very thin, 
and place the slices all over the pudding. 

Macaroon (mac-a-roon'), a small cake composed 
chiefly of almonds and sugar. 

Mace, the spicy covering of nutmegs, used in fla¬ 
voring. 


Machinery. The utility of machinery in its ap¬ 
plication to manufactures consists in the addition 
which it makes to human power, the economy of 
human time, and in the conversion of substances 
apparently worthless into valuable products. The 
forces derived from wind, from water, and from steam 
are so many additions to human power. 

Experiments have shown that the force necessary 
to move a stone on the smoothed floor of its quarry is 
nearly two-thirds of its weight; on a wooden floor, 
three-fifths; if soaped, one-sixth ; upon rollers on the 
quarry floor, one thirty-second; on wood, one-fortieth. 
At each increase of knowledge, and on the contrivance 
of every new tool, human labor is abridged; the man 
who contrived rollers quintupled his power over brute 
matter. The next use of machinery is the economy 
of time, and this is too apparent to require illustra¬ 
tion, and may result either from the increase of force 
or from the improvement in the contrivance of tools, 
or from both united. Instances of the production of 
valuable substances from worthless materials are con¬ 
stantly occurring in all the arts; and though this may 
appear to be merely the consequence of scientific 
knowledge, yet it is evident that science can not exist, 


nor could its lessons be made productive by applica¬ 
tion, without machinery. In the history of every 
science we find the improvements of its machinery, 
the invention of instruments, to constitute an import¬ 
ant part. The chemist, the astronomer, the physician, 
the farmer, the painter, the sculptor, is such only by 
the application of machinery. 

Applied science in all its forms, and the fine and 
useful arts, are the triumph of the mind, indeed, but 
gained through the instrumentality of machinery. 

The difference between a tool and a machine is 
not capable of a very precise distinction, nor is it 
necessary, in a popular examination of them, to make 
any distinction. A tool is usually a more simple 
machine, and generally used by the hand; a machine 
is a complex tool, a collection of tools, and frequently 
put in action by inanimate force. All machines are 
intended either to produce power, or merely to trans¬ 
mit power and execute work. Of the class of mechan¬ 
ical agents by which motion is transmitted, the lever, 
the pulley, the wedge, it has been demonstrated that 
no power is gained by their use, however combined. 
Whatever force is applied at one part, can only be 
exerted at some other, diminished by friction and 
other incidental causes; and whatever is gained in 
the rapidity of execution is compensated by the neces¬ 
sity of exerting additional force. These two principles 
should be constantly borne in mind, and teach us to 
limit our attempts to things which are possible. 

Madder, a shrub the roots of which are used in 
the process of dyeing fabrics. This can sometimes be 
profitably raised in the Northern States. The soil 
should be a rich, sandy loam, free from weeds, roots, 
stones, etc., and containing a good portion of vege¬ 
table earth. Alluvial bottom land is the most suitable, 
but it must not be wet. Plow deeply in the fall and 
spring, and roll and harrow. Next, plow the land 
into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys between, three 
feet wide. Madder sets, or seed roots, are best 
selected when the crop is dug in the fall. The hori¬ 
zontal uppermost roots, with eyes, are the kind to be 
used; these should be separated from the bottom roots, 
and buried in sand in a cellar or pit. They should be 
cut or broken in pieces containing two to five eyes 
each, that is, three to four inches long. Plant about 
the middle of April, in the beds prepared as above . 
directed, three rows to each bed, and 10 inches apart 
in the row, and covering them two inches deep. Eight 
or ten bushels are required for an acre. Weed and 
hoe carefully and thoroughly during the summer, fill- 







MAD-DOG—MANDIBLE. 


951 


ing the vacancies by sections of the stronger roots, in 
June. When the plants are 10 or 12 inches high, 
bend the tops down to the surface of the ground, and ' 
cover all except the tip end with earth from the alleys, 
bend the shoots outward and inward in every direc- | 
tion so as in time to fill all the vacant space on the I 
beds, and about one foot on each side. Cultivate the 
alleys, and as soon as the plants are about a foot high 
again bend down and cover them as before. This 
process is repeated the third time during the first sea¬ 
son, the last time being as late as September. The 
object is to fill the ground as full of roots as possible. 
Repeat these processes the second year, taking care 
to keep the edges of the beds as high as the middle, 
to retain somewhat of the rains. Pull out what weeds 
appear, and plow the alleys. Very little attention is 
required the third year, at the end of which, or of the 
fourth year, the roots may be dug the first part of 
September. With a sharp shovel cut off and remove 
the tops, with half an inch of the surface of the earth; 
then take a plow of the largest size, with a sharp 
coulter and a double team, and plow a furrow out¬ 
ward, beam deep, around the edge of the bed; stir 
the earth with forks, and carefully pick out all the 
roots, removing the earth from the bottom of the fur¬ 
row; then plow another furrow, and proceed thus 
until the work is done. 

As soon as ^wssible after digging, wash the roots in 
a running stream, or under a pump spout. Conven¬ 
ient vessels for washing are half-bushel boxes with a 
wire-screen bottom. Stir the roots about in the water 
and pull them apart. When washed clean, lay them 
out upon platforms to dry. After the second or third 
day’s drying the madder should be protected against 
dews at night and rain, placing the platforms upon 
one another and covering the uppermost one. Five 
or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the 
madder sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is 
convenient to kiln-dry and grind it. 

The size and mode of constructing the kiln for dry¬ 
ing madder may be varied to suit the circumstances. 
A good and cheap plan for drying a ton of roots at a 
time is the following; Set four strong posts in the 
ground 12 feet apart one way and 18 the other, the 
front two 14 feet high and the others 18; put girths 
across the bottom, middle and top, and nail boards 
perpendicularly on the outside as for a common barn. 
The boards must be well seasoned, and all cracks and 
holes should be otherwise stopped up. Make a shed 
roof of common boards. In the inside put upright 
standards about five feet apart, with cross-pieces to 
support the scaffolding, the first cross-pieces to be 
four feet from the floor, the next two feet higher, and 
so on to the top. On these cross-pieces lay small 
j)oles about six feet long and two inches thick, four or 
five inches apart. On these scaffolds the madder is 
to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid at the 
bottom, to keep all dry and clean. When the kiln is 
filled, take six or eight small kettles or hand furnaces, 
and ])lace themTouror five feet apart on the floor, but 
on bricks or stones; in these make charcoal fires, but 


not so large as to scorch the madder over them. A 
person must be in constant attendance to watch and 
replenish the fires. In 10 or 12 hours the madder 
will be sufficiently dried, when it will be as brittle as 
pipe-stems. Immediately after it is dried it should l)e 
threshed with flails or broken by machinery, so that 
it will feed in a common grist-mill. If not immediately 
ground it will gather dampness and become too tough 
for grinding. Any common grist-mill can grind the 
roots properly. When ground finely it is fit for use, 
and for market may be packed in barrels like flour. 

In one crop of four years’ growth 2,000 barrels per 
acre have been raised, at a net profit of $200. 

Mad-dog. Bite of; see Bites and Hydrophobia. 

Mad Staggers, of horse: see page 810. 

Magnesia, an alkaline earth employed in many 
medicines and sometimes in household receipts. The 
salts of magnesia, as carbonate, sulphate etc, are also 
extensively used. If too much magnesia is swallowed 
by mistake, let the patient take vinegar or lemon 
juice. 

Magnetism, the force of attraction and repulsion 
acting between substances. There are the varieties 
of “ animal ” magnetism, electro-magnetism, terrestrial, 
cosmical, etc. The first two are of considerable im¬ 
portance in Hygiene, which see. 

Magpie. This crafty and well-known bird is found 
on both continents, though it is much more limited in 
its range in America, being confined to the northern 
and western regions. In its habits and manners it 
much resembles its brethren, the crows; like them, it 
indiscriminately feeds on both animal and vegetable 
food; it is peculiarly destructive to eggs and young of 
the feebler tribes of birds. It is about 18 inches in 
length*and weighs from eight to nine ounces. It has 
a black bill, wings and tail, but the latter are varie¬ 
gated with white, green, purple and blue of different 
shades. The construction of the nests of these birds 
shows great art; they have a thorny cover and the 
entrance is at the side. The female lays from five to 
seven pale greenish eggs, closely spotted with black. 
When taken young they readily become domesticated 
and learn to repeat many words and even sentences, 
as well as to imitate every noise within hearing. 

Majolica (ma-jol'i-ca), a kind of fine pottery or 
earthern-ware with painted figures. 

Mallenders: see page 810. 

Mallow, Indian : see Indian Mallow. 

Malt, grain, especially barley, which has been 
soaked in water to the verge of sprouting and then 
dried. It is a cheap form of sugar, used as the 
basis of beer and ale. 

Mandible, the upper jaw of a biting insect. It 
consists of one piece, and is more like a pair of strong, 
notched teeth than a proper jaw, and forms the chief 
instrument in breaking and triturating the insect’s 
food. It is generally large and horny in beetles, min- 








952 


MA NBRAKE—AlAiYUFA CTORIES, 


ute and membranous in moths and butterflies, and 
long, slender and lance-like in hemipters, and often 
entirely wanting in flies, yet veiy distinct in gnats 
and gadflies. 

Mandrake, belladonna or May-apple,—two very 
different plants; but the word is used in both senses. 

Manege (ma-naizlf), or Menage (ma-nazlf), the 
art of horsemanship, or of training horses ; also, a 
school for teaching these arts. 

Mange (mainj), the scab or itch, in domestic ani¬ 
mals. For mange in the horse, see page 8io; in cat¬ 
tle, see page 209. 

Mangel Wurzel (mangl wurzl), a species of beet, 
particularly valuable for stock and for sugar-making. 
Nothing is better for milch cows during the winter. 

Cultivation. Drill the seed for horse culture two 
and a half feet apart, and when the plants are well 
up or the size of a good cabbage plant, thin them to 
about one foot apart, leaving the strongest plants; 
keep down the weeds at the start with a hoe or hand 
cultivator, and you will soon be able to manage them 
with a shovel-plow. For hand cultivation, plant them 
about 20 inches between rows, and thin to about 15 
inches apart in the row. * In this way you can raise 
from one {xjund of seed about four tons. Have a 
safe place to store them from frost, and as handy to 
feed out as possible. . With a corn-knife, cut them up 
small enough for cows to eat, and feed them raw. 
They should be pulled up, the tops twisted off, and 
laid in the sun long enough to let the dirt dry on 
them, and hauled at once to where they won’t freeze 
or even get frosted. They need the same care as po¬ 
tatoes. Haul the tops to the brood sows and pigs. 
Now, the next year plant them in the same place. If 
you keep them clean this year you will have less 
trouble the next year with weeds. 

Varieties. Improved American Sugar ox Lane's. 
A long white variety for stock. 

The Long Red. One of the best for all purposes. 

Carter's Mammoth. Very large. 

Carter s Orange Globe. The best variety of yellow 
globe. 

Yellow Globe, Red Globe and White Sugar. Suc¬ 
ceed better than the long sorts in sandy soil. 

Vilmorin's L^fiproved French White Sugar. One 
of the best for sugar. 

Yellcnv Ovoid. Symmetrical and free from rootlets. 

Red Giant Ovoid. Very large and pulls up free from 
dirt. 

Nor biton Giant. A new English variety which 
tends less to a hollow neck than the old long red 
kind. 

Knauer's Lfnproved Lmperial. The standard Ger¬ 
man variety for making sugar. 

Manger, a fixed trough at the head of a stall for 
holding the hay, the chaff, fodder, etc., for the horse 
or the cow. A horse’s manger is generally made to 
extend from side to side of the stall but really does 
not need to be more than about 20 inches long and 


16 inches wide, and may, in many instances, be most 
conveniently placed in one of the corners of the 
stall; and it ought, in every case, to be a movable 
fixture, so that it may readily be taken out to be 
cleaned. A cow’s manger ought to be placed high 
enough above the floor to prevent any straining of the 
lower jaw or the fore legs when the animal is grap¬ 
pling with the food, and ought also to be wide enough 
for a horned cow to prevent her from rubbing and 
wearing the tips of her horns against the wall. 

Man-hole, a hole through which a man may creep 
into a drain, cess-pool, steam boiler, etc., to clean or 
repair. 

Manila (ma-nil'a), a fiber from a plant of the 
Philippine Islands, used in cordage, ropes, etc. 

Manioc (ma'ni-oc), Manihot, etc. (the word is 
variously spelled), the plant from which cassava and 
tapioca are prepared; also, the cassava itself. Can 
sometimes be found on sale at groceries and pro¬ 
vision stores. 

Manipulate (ma-nip'u-late), to treat or work any¬ 
thing with the hands; to manage in hand-work. A 
cook manipulates flour to make pastries; a nurse 
manipulates a patient by the kneading, rubbing, etc., 
of the various parts of the body. 

Manna-croup, ground wheat consisting of large, 
hard grains which remain in the bolting machine after 
the fine flour has been sifted out; used for making 
pudding, soups and the like. 

Mansard-roof, a curb roof: see example in article 
Barn. 

Manufactories. A country which is exclusively 
agricultural remains comparatively poor in' respect to 
many of the luxuries and refinements of civilization, 
—mostly for the reason that it pays a heavy tribute 
to manufacturing nations or centers for the manufac¬ 
tured articles they use; and furthermore, they have 
not the means, the machinery or the skill to manu¬ 
facture for themselves. At the other extreme is the 
nation that is dependent mainly upon its manufac¬ 
tures. When other nations begin to take care of 
themselves and withhold their patronage, this exclu¬ 
sively manufacturing nation suffers. America, until 
some time in the nineteenth century, was an example 
of the former, and Holland and England are striking 
examples of the latter. Between these two extremes, 
blessed is that people who have manufactories enough 
for themselves, but who are not dependent upon for¬ 
eign patronage. This js the point which America 
has now attained,—bating a few luxuries which the 
spendthrifts of the cities still send abroad for. 

Some years ago the question arose. Why should the 
people of the South and the West send East for all 
their manufactured goods? and the answer was. 
There is not sufficient reason for pouring our wealth 
into the lap of the East, and we will take care of our¬ 
selves and make our own clothes, tools, fancy articles, 
furniture etc. These agricultural sections, therefore. 
















MANURE. 


have esiablished many factories among themselves; 
but they find that they are straggling, especially in 
certain lines, against the low-priced labor of poor peo¬ 
ple in the older sections, both in this country and in 
Europe, where the capitalists are thus enabled to 
manufacture and ship into the interior of this country 
at a cheaper rate than Westerners can afford to make 
for themselves. In other words, the people of the 
newer sections can make more money by other labor 
than working in a factory'. Hence, whiggism, tariff, 
protection etc. 

Moreover, some sections remain long deprived of 
manufacturing industries because the people there are 
either unenterprising or are dangerous. Being igno¬ 
rant and suspecting, they imagine the immigrant cap¬ 
italist has come in to rob them, overturn their customs 
or do them harm, and the worst of them mask them¬ 
selves some night and burn the factory. Of course 
moneyed men will keep away from such sections. 

It appears, therefore, to be the interest of every 
community, to manufacture for itself all fit needs, but 
to be cautious how it renders itself dependent upon 
exports for existence. Exporting is all well enough 
when there is an opportunity to gain by it, but it is 
not a steady and lasting support of national existence,' 
or of national thrift. An agricultural community can 
live without the manufacturing people, but the man¬ 
ufacturing people cannot .live without the agricultural. 

Manure. In the virgin land of our prairies, the 
expedients adopted in older countries for refreshing 
and invigorating the land are found to be wholly 
unnecessary. The early settlers in Virginia and 
Kentucky and the Carolinas raised prime crops 
throughout a series of from 20 to 50 years without 
once using any kind of manure. The successors of 
the original cultivators of some parts of Illinois con¬ 
tinued even longer to raise cereal crops without man¬ 
ure; and the settlers in Iowa and other regions 
of the West are pursuing the same easy and luxurious 
course. When the tract in the Green Mountains in 
Massachusetts was first settled the same exuberant 
fertility was attributed to it that has since character¬ 
ized Kentucky and many other States. From those 
regions the paradise traveled to the western parts of 
the State of New York, to Connecticut, to the countries 
on the Ohio, to the Southwest, to the valley of the 
Mississippi, and is now making its progress beyond 
the Missouri river. In consequence of the long accu¬ 
mulation of vegetable mold, those regions, even if 
naturally sterile, held out at first the promise of an 
abundant return to the cultivator. In consecjuence, 
too, of the accumulation of azotized and ]5hosphatic 
substances from the excrementation of birds, the 
exuvite of reptiles, and the bones of many kinds of 
vertebrated animals, and still more of the vast native 
store of saline substances derived from transmuta¬ 
tions of the surface rocks, and from other sources, the 
virgin lands of the prairies possess a vastness of fer¬ 
tility which the most scourging husbandry could not 
]X)ssibly, for a long period, exhaust or even seriously 
reduce; but without due attention and proper regard 


it can and will finally be done, leaving a barren soil. 

Now, the earliest inhabitants of the post-diluvian 
world, and all the first settlers in all the arable re¬ 
gions of the old Continent, such as the first Phoeni¬ 
cian colonists in Greece, and the first Greek colonists 
in Italy and Spain, would find themselves placed in 
the same luxurious agricultural circumstances as the 
first settlers of our own prairies, and when they had 
cropped any tract to exhaustion, by any such process 
as would simply remove their herds and habitations 
to some new piece of virgin land. The marvelous 
ease with which they extracted produce from the soil, 
the constant succession and the great plenteousness 
of their cereal crops, and the facility of their immi¬ 
grations' upon tract after tract of the most productive 
land, seem, in fact, to have been the very elements of 
the well-known day-dreams of the earliest Greeks of 
the historical period respecting a golden age. 

But the time would come when they could no 
longer live solely upon virgin land, when they would 
be prevented, by the increase of population and the 
difficulty of travelling, from abandoning the lands 
which they had exhausted, and when they would feel 
compelled to attempt the re-fertilization of these lands 
by manuring, to imitate, on a large scale, those natural 
processes of accumulating the mold of decayed veg¬ 
etation, the droppings of animals, and the gathering 
together of all sorts of organic refuse by which the 
lands had been originally enriched. The great ma¬ 
jority of the population became eventually obliged to 
remain stationary, and required, as truly as the agri¬ 
cultural inhabitants of the old countries of the present 
day, to practice manuring in order to maintain produc¬ 
tiveness in the soil, or to render agricultural labors re¬ 
munerating. 

Homer mentions an old king as found manuring 
his field with his own hands, and describes a dog as 
laying upon a heap of dung with which the laborers 
were about to manure the farm. Cicero observes that 
no notice of manuring is taken by Herod. Augeas 
is celebrated as the discoverer of the use of manure 
in Greece, and Stercutius, the son of Faumes, as the 
discoverer of it in Italy. Xenophon represents earth 
which has long been under water as a fertilizer of the 
soil, and recommends leguminous crops to be grown 
for the purpose of being plowed into the ground as 
manure, and remarks, in reference to them “ that they 
enrich the soil as much as dung.” Virgil indicates 
some slight acquaintance with the ameliorating effect 
of a change of crops, and recommends nitrum, not 
saltpeter as most translators say, but carbonate of soda 
or carbonate of potash, in mixture with the dregs of 
oil, as a steep to make the seed grain swell; and sug¬ 
gests the advantage of scattering ashes over exhausted 
land; evinces, altogether, a surprising amount of ac¬ 
quaintance with the methods of artificial fertilization; 
and speaks, not only of such ordinary manure as 
dung, but of such rare and almost special manure as 
pumice-stone and shells. Pliny says, “There are 
many different kinds of manures, and the thing itself 
is very ancient.” Varro so comprehensively and min- 







954 


MANURE. 


utely enumerates animal manures as to notice even 
the dung of blackbirds, thrushes, and other birds kept 
in aviaries. Cato and Theophrastus and Columella 
write still more fully and knowingly, displaying a 
knowledge of at once organic, inorganic and mixed 
manures which would have been creditable to distin¬ 
guished American farmers of fifty years ago, and occa¬ 
sionally dropping hints which might be serviceable to 
many a considerable farmer of the present day. 

The Greeks and Romans of the periods immediate¬ 
ly preceding and following the Christian era, associated 
all ideas of successful husbandry with the careful 
accumulation and the liberal use of manures. They 
consider the application of manure as one of the 
principal operations of agriculture, and placed it next 
to plowing. They were so sensible of the advantage 
aiising from manuring their fields, that they were very 
careful in finding out and collecting such things as 
were found proper for the purpose. They carefully 
gathered the dung of their cattle; they carefully 
littered their cattle with straw or stubble, which was 
carried with the dung to the dung-hill; they collected 
all kinds of ashes; they used different kinds of eartli; 
they burned trees, shrubs, and stubble in their fields; 
and they frequently sowed pulse to be plowed in while 
green. There are some passages in Cato and Colu¬ 
mella that show with what care all kinds of dung, and 
all other things fit for manure, were collected. “You 
may make manure says Cato, “of these things: stub¬ 
ble, lupines, straw, bean stalks, chaff, haulm and oak 
leaves.” “I am not ignoran^,” says Columella, “that 
there are some farms in the country in which neither 
the dung of cattle, nor of birds is to be got. However 
even in such places he is a slothful husbandman that 
has no manure. He may collect any kind of leaves, 
the cuttings of briers, and rakings of high-ways; he 
may cut ferns, which though on the fields of’ his 
neighbors will be rather an advantage than an injury 
to him, and mix with the cleanings of the court-yard; 
he may dig a hollow place, and throw into it ashes’ 
the dirt of the kennels and jakes, all kinds of straw’ 
and everything that is swept from the house.” But 
the ancients not only used various kinds of animal and 
vegetable substances for manure; they also mixed 
earth of different qualities. “Some advise,” says Theo¬ 
phrastus, “to mix together earth of different qualities: 
for example, light with heavy, and heavy with light; 
fat with lean, and lean with fat; in like manner, red 
and white, and whatever has contrary qualities ; because 
this mixture not only supplies what is wanting, but 
also renders the soil, with which another is mixed, 
more jxjwerful: so that what is worn out, being mixed 
with a fertile kind of earth, begins again to carry crops 
as if renewed, and what is naturally as barren as clay, 
if mixed, is rendered fruitful; for one kind mixed 
with another, in some measure serves as dung.” 

The use of farm-yard manure and of all the ordinary 
composts appears to have little improved, and not 
mucli varied from the times of the classic Romans 
till the early part of the present century. 

The notions entertained of manures by almost all 


! farmers, and even by the vast majority of scientific 
j agriculturists, down to the quite modern epoch of 
I agricultural chemistry, were altogether empirical. 
Men observed that the accumulations of the farm-yard, 
when distril)uted over fields and incorporated with the 
soil, produced very important effects upon crops; and 
they continued, from year to year, and from age to age, 
to make and apply these accumulations, without troub¬ 
ling themselves with any inquiry as to their mode of 
action. 

The term manure nowadays signifies any decaying 
material which when added to the soil becomes plant 
food, while the term “fertilizer” is applied to those 
chemical elements, as salt, ashes, etc., which render 
that food available. This distinction, however, is not 
absolutely strict, as all manures act as fertilizers to 
some extent, and all fertilizers supply plant food. 
Under the head of “manure” here we will treat of 
“organic manures.” or decaying vegetable and animal 
substances for enriching the soil. 

The most important article under this head is “barn¬ 
yard” manure, and the first consideration in its man¬ 
agement is to secure it against all waste. The most 
profitable question to the farmer is, “How can I 
produce the most manure on the farm, at the least 
cost.? ’ Its bulk, solubility and peculiar tendency to 
fermentation render it a matter of considerable study 
how to preserve it perfectly and conveniently. A 
part of the droppings of the cattle are necessarily left 
in the pastures, or about the stacks where they feed, 
though it is better, for various reasons, that they should 
never receive their food from the stack. The manure 
thus left in the fields should be beaten up and 
scattered with light, long-handled mallets immediately 
after the grass starts in the spring, and again before 
the rains commence in the autumn. With these 
exceptions, and the slight waste which may occur in 
driving cattle to and from the pasture, all the manure 
should be dropped either in the stables or yards. 
These should be so arranged that cattle may pass from 
one directly into the other; and the yard should, if 
ix)ssible, be furnished with wells, cisterns or running 
water. There is twice the value of manure wasted 
annually on some farms in sending the cattle abroad 
to water, that would be required to provide it for them 
in the yard for 50 years. Many stable yards are 
mistakenly situated upon the brow of a hill, where the 
rains wash nearly all the manure down into the streams 
and carry it off beyond reach. The premises where 
the manure is dropped should be kept as dry as 
possible; and the eaves should project several feet 
beyond the side of the building so as to protect the 
manure thrown out of the stables. The barns and 
sheds should all have eave-troughs to carry off the 
water, which, if saved in a sufficiently capacious 
cistern, would furnish a supply for the cattle. The 
yard should be dishing toward the center, and if on 
sandy or gravelly soil, it should be tightly covered with 
tenacious clay to prevent the leaking and escape of 
liquid manure. The floors of the stable may be so 
I made as to permit the urine to fall on a properly 













MANURE. 


955 


prepared bed of turf under them, where it will be 
retained till removed; or it should be led off by troughs 
into the yard or to a muck heap. 

It is better to feed the straw and coarse fodder, 
which can always be advantageously done by cutting 
and mixing it with meal or roots. When it is not 
thus consumed, it may first be used as litter for the 
cattle; and as it becomes saturated with the drop¬ 
pings it should be thrown into the yard. If the cattle 
are fed under sheds, the whole surface ought to be 
covered with such straw, refuse forage, etc., as can be 
collected; and if there is a.deficiency in these, peat, 
or any turf well filled with the roots of grass, and 
especially the rich wash from the road-side, may be 
substituted. During the winter manure may be allowed 
to accumulate, unless it be more convenient to carry it 
to the fields. When the warm weather approaches, 
a close attention to the manure is necessary. The 
escape of the frost permits circulation of the air 
through it, and the increasing heat of the sun pro¬ 
motes its decomposition. 

Manure intended for garden beds, or for loose, light 
soils, or as a top dressing for meadows or any crops, 
or if needed to kill any noxious seeds incorporated 
with the heap, should be fermented. For hoed crops 
in clay or loamy soil, it should be used in as fresh 
condition as ixissible. Loose soils are still further 
loosened for a time by fermented manure (called also 
“ long” manure), and much of its volatile part is lost 
before it is reduced to mold, while adhesive and com¬ 
pact soils are improved by the coarse vegetables 
which tend to their separation, and all the gases 
which are set free in fermentation are combined and 
firmly held in the soil. 'I'he fermentation of manure 
should go forward when thoroughly blended with all 
the vegetable and liquid fertilizers about the premises, 
including urine, brine, soap-suds, gypsum and coal- 
dust. Ashes should not be added to a manure or 
compost heap, as it sets the ammonia free and allows 
it to escape. Over all these should be placed a good 
coating of turf, peat, or fine mold, which will absorb 
any gases that escape the gypsum, etc. Old mortar 
or effete lime may also be added for the formation of 
nitric acid. If required to hasten decay, and especial¬ 
ly if there be intractable vegetables, as corn-stalks, or 
such as have seeds that ought to be destroyed, they 
may well be moistened and thrown together in layers 
three or four inches thick, and on each a liberal coat¬ 
ing of fresh, unslacked lime reduced to powder. 
'I'his promotes decomposition, and when it is far 
enough advanced, the whole may be sparingly added 
to the general mass, as the lime will by that time 
have become mild. These coarse materials, when 
remote from the cattle-yard, may be buried in furrows 
where the ground will not be disturbed till they are 
entirely rotted; or they may be burned. When thor¬ 
oughly decomposed, the manure heap will have lost 
half its original weight, most of which has escaped as 
water and carbonic acid. It may then be carted 
upon the ground and at once incorporated with it; or 
if intended for a top dressing it should be scattered 


over^it immediately before or during wet weather. 
-The drier the manure, the less the labor of hauling. 
By hauling directly from the stables and plowing 
under, more of the virtues of the manure are retained 
than by any other method. Sun, wind and rain 
waste the virtues of barnyard manure as long as it is 
exposed. 

Tanks for holding liquid manure have long been in 
use. They should be convenient to the stalls and 
yards, and tight drains should convey into them every 
particle of the urine and drainage from the manure. 
In compact clay they may be made by simply ex¬ 
cavating the earth and the sides kept from falling in 
by a rough wall, or by planks supported in an upright 
position by a frame-work or joist. But in all cases 
the cisterns should be closely covered to prevent the 
escape of the ammonia. In warm weather, gypsum 
or charcoal should be thrown in to absorb the 
ammonia. A few' days after the decomposition com¬ 
mences it should be pumped into casks and carried 
out u}X)n the land. If intended for watering plants, 
it must be diluted sufficiently to prevent injury to 
them; but much less dilution is required in wet 
weather than in dry. The stables and troughs lead¬ 
ing to the tank should be frequently washed down 
and sprinkled with gypsum. The sooner this liquid 
is used after proper fermentation, or “ripeness,” as it 
is termed, the greater will be the economy. It will 
save considerable labor to keep the urine above 
ground and mix it at once with the manure; but in 
this case vegetable or earthy absorbents must be 
adequately supplied, and the muck heap ought also 
to be frequently sprinkled with gypsum of charcoal. 
Rich turf, the wash of the road-side, tan-bark or saw¬ 
dust, and all refuse vegetables may be used for this 
purpose, and so placed that the liquid can run iqx)n 
them, or be deix)sited where it can be poured over 
it. ^Vhen fully saturated with the urinary salts, and 
all is properly decomposed, it may be carried out for 
use, or closely covered with earth lill wanted. The 
decomposition is in a great measure arrested by 
covering with compact earth thoroughly trodden dow n. 
This prevents the access of air, which is essential to 
the progress of decomposition. Forty gallons of 
drainage from the stable is reckoned equal in value 
to an ordinary car-man’s load of manure. 

Horse dung is the richest and easiest to decom¬ 
pose; and in large heaps, even in the winter time, 
will decompose so rapidly as to lose a part of its 
value. Next in this respect is sheep dung, which is 
rich and very active. The manure of cattle and 
swine, being of a colder nature, may be thrown in 
with that of the horse and sheep in alternate layers. 
If fresh manure be intermixed with straw and other 
absorbents, as vegetables, peat, turf, etc., constantly 
added, the recent coating will combine w'ith any 
volatile matters which fermentation develops in the 
lower part of the mass. Frequent turning of the 
manures is not advisable, as it facilitates the escape 
of the nutritious gases. There is not so great a differ¬ 
ence in the values of manures from different animals 









956 


MAPLE. 


as in that of the same animal at different times and 
under different circumstances. 

The excrements of fowls are valuable, and should 
be husbanded with economy and care. Dead ani¬ 
mals, the refuse of slaughter houses, woolen rags and 
the waste of woolen manufactories are all rich and 
valuable manures. 

• 

Green manures are vegetable crops plowed under. 
They are sometimes the cheapest, and it depends 
uix)n a variety of circumstances whether it is in any 
given case the best thing to be done. If, for instance, 
all other manures are costly, the system of green 
manuring is a convenient substitute. It should be 
commenced before the land is entirely exhausted, so 
that a good crop can be obtained for plowing under. 
The most popular plant for this purpose is red clover. 
Its power for renewing the soil is so great that crops 
of it may be taken from the ground while it continues 
to enrich the soil. It returns to the soil nineteen 
times as much as it takes out of it. It is customary 
to adopt a three or four years’ course of cropping, in 
which grain, roots, corn, etc., alternate with clover and 
barnyard manures. When clover is raised it may be 
pastured in the fall. In other countries other plants 
are used, but for this country clover is so much better 
that we need not mention them here. The old prac¬ 
tice of “ fallowing,” which consisted in permitting the 
land to produce a crop of weeds and plowing them 
under, is now generally discarded. Naked fallowing 
is sometimes necessary, as it is the best means of kill¬ 
ing out the wire-worm and some other pests. In this 
process not a single weed or blade of grass should be 
allowed to grow. 

Green manuring also renders the soil more porous 
in two ways: first, by the growing roots, and secondly, 
by the decaying plants. Clover roots grow to an im¬ 
mense depth—five feet and over—and bring up nu¬ 
tritious elements to the soil, leaving it there, and the 
leaves collect nutrition from the air and deposit that 
also in the soil. Sometimes it pays to cut down the 
wild herbage of swails and swamps and cart it uix)n 
the land. Buckwheat is also good for green manur¬ 
ing and for killing out‘weeds and grass. Probably 
the best method of killing out blue-grass or witch- 
grass sod, is to turn it over with the plow and sow 
immediately upon it a crop of ly^e; pasture this to 
cows in the latter part of summer, re-plow and sow to 
wheat. When it is desired to follow a wheat crop 
with corn the next season, a good plan is to plow the 
stubble and sow to winter rye, which will furnish some 
fall feed or winter pasturage for sheep. This plan 
works better on sandy and other well-drained soils. 

Cornstalks in the manufacture of manure are much 
better handled by first running them through the cut¬ 
ting machine. The cattle will eat a greater propor¬ 
tion of them, and the remainder will be in good shape 
to spread out upon the fields in the summer and 
plowed under. See Green Manure. 

Hen Manure. The first thing is to provide proper 
reservoirs for the manure. Old barrels are just the 
thing, but strong goods-boxes will do if protected 


with oil or gas tar. Coating them inside and out with 
light crude petroleum will fill the pores with the oil, 
and make them as good as cedar for durability ; but 
if the contents are likely to be moist, gas tar inside 
will be better. There should be one for every ten 
hens. Then fill all but one with road dust, which is 
the very best absorbent you can get; and, if dry, the 
barrels may stand anywhere under shelter without the 
freezing of the contents. If dry earth or dust cannot 
be obtained, the next best is finely pulverized soil, 
which will, of course, contain a good deal of moisture, 
and must be kept in barrels or boxes in the cellar so 
as not to freeze. 

Now, having your barrels all ready, the rest of the 
operation will be simple and easy. All you have to 
do is to place a stratum, say an inch or two, in the 
bottom of one empty barrel, and then throw in the 
cleanings of the hen-house; then another stratum, 
then another layer of cleanings. The thinner each 
layer of the two is, the more perfectly they will be¬ 
come diffused together in standing. The precise quan¬ 
tity of each is not very essential—only you must have 
enough absorbent to hold all the volatile parts of the 
hen manure, of which you may usually judge by the 
odor, which may be corrected by adding more of the 
absorbent. Proceed in this way whth each successive 
barrel. In the spring your barrels will be filled with 
a very powerful and most valuable manure. 

By a little care and timely attention, you will secure 
a supply of manure, the value and quantity of which 
will surprise those who first make the trial. All you 
will have to do in the spring will be to pulverize and 
work over the mass, so that it may be evenly and finely 
applied. 

Several estimates and experiments make the value 
of dry hen manure, in gardening, about $50 per ton; 
each fowl on an average consumes about one bushel 
and three-fourths of corn annually, or a little less 
than a gill and a half a day; and it has been found 
that one hen will yield about a bushel to a bushel and 
a third of manure per year. Various estimates make 
this worth from seventy cents to a dollar for each ani¬ 
mal. It is very easy to save it, by placing the scrap¬ 
ings or cleanings of the hen-house in a barrel with 
thin alternating layers of road dust. 

Maple, an important family of trees. The varieties 
indigenous to the United States are the rock, or sugar, 
or, as it is also called, the hard maple, the red or 
swamp maple, the white or silver maple, and the 
ash-leaved maple or box elder. All of these are more 
or less abundant throughout the United States, and 
some of them are prized for their excellent timber, 
others for saccharine juices and their beauty as 
shade-trees. The bird’s-eye maple is a sport of the / 
sugar maple. There are other members of this family, 
some of which have been imported, and are really of 
little value except as ornamental trees. These are 
the mountain maple, the striped, the Japanese maple, 
the Norway maple, etc. The mountain maple is a 
tall shrub growing in clumps in rich moist woods. 
The striped maple, known also as moosewood, is a 











MAPLE SIRUP—MARIGOLD. 


957 


small, slender tree, with light-green bark, striped with 
dark lines. The Norway is a native of Europe, and 
is more beautiful in foliage than our native varieties. 
We cannot, however, advise its planting, as in general 
our own sugar maple and the red and white varieties 
are preferable. No tree affords a more beautful foliage 
in summer than the sugar maple, and all are magnifi¬ 
cent in their varying foliage after the frost has touched 
their leaves in the autumn. The box-elder, or ash¬ 
leaved maple, is a very rapid grower, not so ornamental 
as the sugar maple, but desirable where rapid growth 
is wanted. The seeds of these trees ripen in Septem¬ 
ber and October, while those of the silver or white 
maple ripen shortly after the leaves attain their full 
size, and should be sown immediately afterwards. 
Should it be desired to keep them through the winter, 
put them in moist sand (not wet) and keep in a cool 
place. 

The sugar maple is a beautiful tree and deserves to 
be more extensively planted for its sugar, its beauty 
and its shade. It is a hardy tree and will easily grow 
in nearly all parts of our country. It usually attains 
about four-fifths of the height of the sycamore. Its 
leaves stand on pretty long footstalks and are broad, 
thin and five-lobed; their edges are cut into minute 
segments; their upper surface is smooth and of a 
lightish-green color, and their under surface is whitish. 
The flowers have a yellowish color and bloom in 
April and May. In the South, however, it will not 
yield as much sugar as in the North. This is owing 
to the absence of a sufficient degree of frost. The 
sugar is made from the sap of the tree in the latter 
part of winter and early in the spring. 

The practice with the sugar maple is to bore two 
auger holes, three-fourths of an inch in diameter and 
half an inch deeper than the bark, in an obliquely 
ascending direction, on the south side of the tree 
at the height of about 18 or 20 inches from the ground, 
in February or March, while the snow is on the 
ground and the cold is still intense, and to insert into 
the holes elder or sumac tubes, partially laid open, 
eight or ten inches in length and one-fourth of an 
inch in diameter, communicating at the lower end 
with troughs of two or three gallons in capacity, for 
the reception of the sap. Four gallons of sap are 
usually sufficient to yield one ix)und of sugar, and 
from eight to sixteen gallons are usually obtained in a 
season from a single tree. The flow of sap is rich and 
copious enough for the manufacturer during about six 
weeks, and it then both declines in quality and dimin¬ 
ishes in quantity. 

For the insect infesting the maple, and their para¬ 
sites, see pages 878 and 886. 

Maple Sirup. The process of making maple 
sirup is fully described under the head of Maple 
Sugar in the article on Sugar. 

Maple Sugar: see Sugar. 

Marble. In common language, marble is the name 
applied to all sorts of polished stone employed in the 
decoration of monuments and public edifices or in 


the construction of private houses; but among the 
materials thus made use of, it is necessary to distin¬ 
guish the true marbles from those stones which have 
no just title to such a designation. In giving a short 
but universal character of marble, it may be said that 
it effervesces with diluted nitric acid and is capable of 
being scratched with fluor, while it easily marks 
gypsum. These properties will separate it at once 
from granites, phorphyries and silicious pudding- 
stones, with which it has been confounded on one 
side, and from the gypseous alabaster on the other. 
From the hard rocks having been formerly included 
under the marbles comes the adage, “hard as marble.” 

• Mare. The mare of almost every variety or breed 
is quite as useful as the gelding. She possesses both 
excellencies and defects which the latter Avants, and 
is in consequence preferred to him by some persons, 
and regarded as greatly inferior to him by others; but, 
on a fair or comprehensive average of useful prop¬ 
erties, she may be pronounced almost exactly his 
equal. She is not, like almost all other mammals, 
either incommoded by bulkiness of udder, or perma¬ 
nently kept down by inferiority of size or inferiority of 
constitutional strength; and she possesses a compar¬ 
atively large breadth of pelvis, and expanse of hind- 
quarter, and power of propelling muscle, which fully 
compensate for the disadvantages directly accruing 
from her sex. 

The mare w’as more celebrated and achieved 
greater feats in the Olympic games than the male 
horse. The Scythians of ancient times preferred the 
mare; and so do the red-skin Arabs of the present 
day. The South Americans, on the other hand, 
almost condemn the mare, and think it a disgrace to 
saddle or ride her; and commonly employ her only 
for breeding and for a few trifling purposes of econ¬ 
omy. Among sportsmen, the prejudice against mares 
has been very strong; but if we look back to the great 
performances on the road against time, we shall find 
that by far the greater number and the most celebra¬ 
ted of them, were by mares; as Flora Temple, Gold¬ 
smith Maid, Lula, American Girl, Maud S. and oth¬ 
ers. They have always been found to endure hunger 
and thirst, and most other privations better: and, 
although, in our climate, horses are seldom put to the 
test in this respect, yet when traveling between the 
tropics in a desert, it must be a valuable considera¬ 
tion. In a race, it is true, mares are put on a par 
with geldings; but it must be admitted they are more 
perfect in their nature, and with the exception of the 
period of genial desire, we conceive them to be more 
than equal to them in any kind of exertion on the 
road and in the field. 

Margin, in stock transactions, the money deposited 
with a broker to protect him against loss by the 
depreciation of stocks held by him for the depositor; 
any allowance made for contingencies; also, gross 
profit or surplus. 

Marigold. There are species of marigold in sev¬ 
eral different families of plants, but the old standard 






MAJiJORAM—MARKING CLOTHES. 


958 


marigold is Calendula, so called because il can be 
made to flower every month in the calendar. Mari¬ 
gold is a corruption of “ Mary’s gold,” because of its 
value as a pot-herb to English cottagers’ wives. It is 
now held in but slight estimation. Some of the double 
varieties are beautiful, and it is easily cultivated. 

Besides the above species of marigold proper there 
are four or five species of wild marigold abounding 
throughout the country, which have very showy flow¬ 
ers, namely; the fig, bur, marsh, fetid, etc. 

Tincture of M.arigold is a good application for 
sores, ulcers and abscesses on stock. It is applied with 
soft cloths saturated or moistened with it, and laid 
over the affected part. It is a new remedy in burns 
and scalds. 

Marjoram, a genus of well known, pungent, and 
gratefully aromatic herbs. The plants are all of easy 
cultivation; the shrubby kinds are increased by cut¬ 
tings or slips; the herbaceous species by dividing at 
the roots. The species generally cultivated are the 
common or pot marjoram, the sweet or summer marjo¬ 
ram and bastard or winter marjoram. A light, dry and 
moderately fertile soil is required for their healthy 
growth; and if it is one that has not been cropped 
for a considerable time, it is the more favorable for 
them. If the soil is wet or rich, they are deficient in 
their essential qualities, and the perennials are una¬ 
ble to withstand severe weather. The sowing is per¬ 
formed either in drUls, six inches apart, or broadcast, 
in either case the seed being buried not more than 
half an inch deep. The tops and leaves of all the 
species are gathered when green, in summer and 
autumn, for use in soups, etc., and dried in July or 
August, just before the flowers open, for winter’s 
supply. 

Marketing. To the farmer the marketing of his 
crops is a most important item. He may be able to 
raise good crops, or well-fatted stock, but fail to real¬ 
ize the greatest profit by his loose, unbusiness*-like 
way of disposing of them. One of the chief requi¬ 
sites is to keep constantly posted as to the market 
prices of the various farm products, the condition of 
such crops throughout the country and the present 
and probable demand. Demand and supply always 
regulate the price of everything. Every farmer should 
note the various changes made in the prices of the 
various products during the different seasons of the 
year. He will find, as a general thing, that they vary 
but little. That at certain seasons, annually, certain 
cereals, vegetables or stock, are higher or lower in 
their value. This would not be so if all consumers 
took advantage of the low market and all producers 
of the high market. This is not done, however. 
Over one half the people make no provisions in sea¬ 
sons of plenty for days of stringency; nor do a vast 
number of farmers sell their produce during the period 
of high markets. This has always been the case, and 
you may rely on its continuing to be. 

There is occasionally a sudden local demand, or 
perhaps it may extend throughout the country, for a 


certain article or line of produce. The price may be 
greatly advanced, but the demand may be only mo¬ 
mentary ; and unless a farmer is posted, unless he 
takes the papers, lie may lose the best opportunity of 
the season to disjxise of his produce. Some years 
ago the price of wool suddenly advanced several 
cents, which of course reading farmers knew as soon 
as any one else did; but in a certain portion of Illi¬ 
nois it was known that a large number of the farmers 
took no paper, and consequently knew nothing of the 
rise. Some shrewd dealers, on the first advices of the 
advance in the price, immediately set off for this dis¬ 
trict and bought up all the wool the farmers had, mak¬ 
ing clear profit of many thousands of dollars a day. 

Another very important feature to be observed, 
besides knowing the best time to do your marketing, 
is to have your produce or stock in the best possible 
marketable shape when offered for sale. Always 
remember that even a good article put upon the mar¬ 
ket in bad shape or condition, will bring no more, and 
often not so much, as a ix)or article in excellent 
shape. This will apply to all produce in all sections. 
Another advantage in having it in an excellent condi¬ 
tion, besides the enhanced price, you will find a read¬ 
ier sale. 

Farmers will find it the safest way, in general, to 
dispose of their produce when they can realize a good 
price. Do not expect in seasons of peace for prod¬ 
uce to reach a price very far beyond what it has 
generally done during the same seasons of previous 
years, when there has been a fair crop throughout the 
country. 

Farmers should be able to grade their produce, and 
to know as well as any commission man or dealer 
exactly what it is worth in the existing market. To 
be a good judge of the quality of stock or grain is of 
the greatest importance to the farmer; it is truly an 
accomplishment worthy his closest attention. Should 
there be no competition in your market, so much 
more the necessity of your knowing the precise money 
value of the article you have to sell. Be posted as 
to what the article is really worth and not misrepre¬ 
sent anything to the buyer. 

One of the commonest and most serious mistakes 
in the agricultural community, is, on witnessing a high 
price for some particular product, to enter the busi¬ 
ness of raising that product; for eight or nine times 
in ten, by the time the farmer has it raised its price 
in the market has gone down to a very low figure; 
and vice versa-. It is therefore safe to stick to your 
favorite line, through all the years. 

We cannot lay down any rules as to the proper 
style of arranging vegetables and other produce for 
the market more than are described in the articles on 
the respective kinds, but always have them in the 
best possible shape. You will be well repaid for the 
little extra labor, both in the increased price and the 
satisfaction of seeing your produce well received by 
the better classes. 

Marking Clothes; see page 929. 










MARL—MARSH. 


959 


Marl, a light, limy clay found as a deposit in some 
lakes and swamps. It is valuable for the enriching 
of those lands which are wanting in such elements, 
especially sandy or gravelly land. 

Marmalade, the pulp of fruit reduced to consis¬ 
tence by boiling with sugar. All acid fruits should 
have about three-fourths of a pound of sugar to one 
ix)und of pulp: others a little less. If too much su¬ 
gar is used they crystallize, or “candy,” and if too lit¬ 
tle, they ferment. Keep in a cool, dry place. Choose 
ripe, sound, juicy fruit, cut into pieces and place in a 
preserving kettle, with layers of sugar, beginning with 
fruit at the bottom. If the fruit is not juicy, add a 
little water. Watch that the fruit does not burn. 
When the mass begins to look clear, and is thick 
when cool (which can be ascertained by cooling a lit¬ 
tle on a plate), it is done and ready for the jar. When 
cold, cover tightly with oiled paper. Marmalades 
and jams should be madewhile making preserves 
and jellies, using the rejected fruit in case of the pre¬ 
serves, and the pulp from the jellies. 

Quince and Crab-apple Marmalade are both 
made in the following manner; Rub the fruit well with 
a rough cloth, cut out the stems and flower end and 
quarter the fruit without removing the core or skin ; 
stew it on the fire with a very little water till soft 
enough to rub through a sieve. Strain the pulp and 
add a jxmnd of sugar to a pound of fruit; set the mix¬ 
ture on the fire and cook it slowly till doi've, which 
1 should be 15 or 2 0 minutes longer. Some stew the 
, skins, cores and seeds separately, and when almost 
cold, jx)ur the juice off into the sliced fruit, which is 
then stewed and stirred until soft; then proceed as 
above. 

Orange Marmalade. Boil the rind for two hours, 
then cut it into fine shreds. Press the peeled oranges 
through a sieve just fine enough to prevent the pass¬ 
age of the seeds and skin. Then, for every five 
oranges add the grated rind and juice of one lemon ; 
put all into the kettle with the sugar, and cook until 
the marmalade is quite solid and thick. Place in 
preserving jars and cover closely. 

Strawberry Marmalade, or jam. To each six 
pounds of strawberries add one pound of ripe cur¬ 
rants and five pounds of sugar; mash the currants in 
a gill of water in a preserving kettle, and boil; add 
the picked strawberries; after a few minutes press 
the mass through a fine sieve into an earthen jar; 
boil the sugar into a thick syrup; add the pulped 
fruit and place over a brisk fire for 20 minutes, stir¬ 
ring continually. Skim off the jam and pour into 
earthen pots to keep. 

Marmalades and jams are also made, by similar 
methods, from most other fruits. “Quince cheese” is 
marmalade boiled down very thick and packed in 
small pots. It thus becomes solid enough to be cut 
into slices like cheese, and is excellent for tea or 
luncheon. 

Marriage. For the etiquette of the marriage 
ceremony, see Wedding, page 407. 


Marrow, the fatty matter in the tubes and cells of 
the bones. It abounds most in the tubes of the long 
bones, and in the spongy tissue of the articular ex¬ 
tremities of the long bones and the short rounded 
bones. It has an oily consistency, and is contained 
in collections of minute vesicles. Its grand office' 
seems to be the lubrication of the bones, and the con¬ 
sequent prevention of dryness and brittleness, d'he 
spinal cord is often called the spinal marrow; and 
the interior and whitish part of the brain is usually 
called medulla, a word synonymous with marrow. 

Marsh, a piece or section of land always or gener¬ 
ally soaked with water. Most marshes render the 
air above and around them exceedingly unhealthful; 
and some very extensive ones are so pestiteious as to 
make the districts in which they lie altogether unin¬ 
habitable. Some forms of disease greatly prevail, and 
the average of human life is comparatively low, in the 
vicinity of such marshes as exhale much gaseous 
produce of organic decomposition; and cattle which 
are depastured on the borders or in the neighborhood 
of even meadow-like marshes, are seldom so healthy 
as cattle which feed on dry or well-drained pastoral 
districts. “Marshes,” remarks an eminent writer, “are 
the ulcers of the earth, which blur the fair face of 
nature, where all should be beauty ; and from these 
infectious sores the languor of death extends far and 
wide over all that should live and flourish.” Some 
of the low, flat, alluvial districts of England, which 
thorough drainage and general georgical improve¬ 
ment have dried from all excess of water, and ren¬ 
dered as salubrious as districts of undulating surface 
or of pastoral heights, were formerly infested, all the 
year round, with fever and ague and other forms of 
disease. 

To Reclaim Marsh Land. If the land consists 
of soft muck, drain by ditching, making the banks of 
the ditch very sloping, say at an angle of 40® to 50^^ 
from a perpendicular, and the ditch about four feet 
deep. It should be narrow at the bottom, for a 
broad-bottomed ditch will not drain as well as one 
with a narrow channel, as it'fills up more readily. 
If the bog is clayey and solid enough to hold tile in 
place, then “tile-drain” it instead of running open 
ditches through it. See Drainage. Be sure to take 
advantage of the heights and depressions of the land, 
and find a proper outlet if possible; otherwise the 
ditches will contain standing water the most of their 
length and fail to drain. It is estimated that nine- 
tenths of the marsh lands of the Northern and Wes¬ 
tern States can be thoroughly drained; and it has 
been found that such land when drained and culti¬ 
vated becomes the best for most agricultural pur¬ 
poses. When neighbors can agree to a system of 
draining and outlets, it saves the expense of employ¬ 
ing commissioners, which sometimes is considerable, 
and incurred for services not very satisfactory. 

The next thing is to cut down all the trees and 
shrubs. Pasture the land, and the stock will keep 
most of the sprouts eaten down and thus cause the 
stumps to rot. The autumn succeeding this treat- 





MARTIN—MA Y-AFFLE. 


960 


jnenjt, during dry weather, burn off the ground. Then, 
by the aid of a little grubbing here and there, the 
ground can be plowed and sowed to rye or buck¬ 
wheat : if very wet ground still, sow to grass. The 
next year the land will be ready for almost any kind 
of crop. Some low grounds, especially in the Lake 
region, are too densely occupied by trees to be re¬ 
claimed without many years of pasturage and many 
burnings, and probably a few tracts of this description 
are not worth reclaiming at all. With the best of 
marsh, much hard work and patience are required, 
but in nearly every case the labor of reducing is 
abundantly remunerative. 

Martin, a group of passerine birds, of the swallow 
tribe. Two species quite closely allied to the common 
or chimney swallow are always called martins: and 
several species, less closely allied to the common 
swallow, and assigned by some naturalists to another 
subgenus, are frequently called martins. 

The common martin, or house martin (Hirundo 
urbica), is a well known bird. Its upper part is black 
and its rump and under part are white. Its total 
length is somewhat upwards of five and one-fourth 
inches. It builds its nest with mud-earth at the 
angles of windows, under the eaves of houses, and in 
other similar situations ; and it has been known, when 
disturbed, to build four times in one year. The 
female lays four or five smooth, white eggs of nine and 
one half lines in length and six lines in breadth, and 
incubates during 13 days, and in many instances 
deserts her young. 

Martingale, the strap connecting the bridle-rein 
with the belly band and passing between the fore-legs, 
to prevent the horse from throwing his head too high, 
or rearing. 

Martynia, or Unicorn Plant. The young ix)ds, 
when sufficiently tender to be easily punctured by the 
finger-nail, are sometimes used for pickles. The plant 
produces large, showy flowers, and is so hardy as to 
run at large in central Illinois. Plant one in a place, 
two by three feet apart. 

Mash, medicated diet for horses and cattle. It is 
commonly made of bran or malt. A bran mash is 
made by pouring enough of boiling water on fresh 
sweet bran to give it the consistency of a soft poultice, 
and by thoroughly stirring the mixture, and covering it 
over, and allowing it to stand until it becomes suf¬ 
ficiently cool for use. No bran mash, even in the 
heat of summer, ought ever to be made with cold 
water. A little oats may be sprinkled on the surface 
of the mash to provoke a squeamish horse to eat; but 
when oats are used in any considerable proportion, or 
as a constituent of the mash itself, they ought to be 
scalded along with the bran. A steaming bran mash, 
designed to steam the horse’s head for strangles, colds, 
and sore throats, or to make him inhale its vapor 
while he eats its substance, may be put hot into the 
manger, but ought never to be put into a nose-bag 
secured to the animal’s head, for in that position it 
impedes respiration. 


Masonry. To measure masonry see page 119. 

Mastiff, the largest of watch-dogs: see page 317. 

Mats. Good door mats of many kinds are to be 
had at dry-goods and furniture stores; but often some 
member of the family—an invalid or a cripple, per¬ 
haps—takes great pleasure in conjuring up little 
conveniences and pieces of ornamental work for the 
house. To prepare sheep-skins for mats, make a 
strong lather with hot water, and let it stand till 
cold; wash the fresh skin in it, carefully squeezing 
out all the dirt from the wool; wash it in cold water 
until all the soap is taken out. Dissolve a pound 
each of salt and alum in two gallons of hot water, 
and put the skin into a tub sufficient to cover it; let 
it soak for 12 hours and hang it over a pole to drain; 
when well drained, stretch it carefully on a board to 
dry, and stretch several times while drjdng; but before 
it is quite dry, sprinkle on the flesh side one ounce 
each of fine pulverized alum and saltpeter, rubbing it 
in well. See whether the wool be firm on the skin, 
and if it is not, let it remain a day or two, then rub 
again with alum; fold the flesh sides together and 
hang in the shade for two or three days, turning them 
over each day till quite dry. Scrape the flesh side 
with a blunt knife, and rub it with pumice or rotten 
stone. In order to dye it any color, its face or woolly 
part is dipped into a bath of the required tint, pre¬ 
pared in the ordinary manner for dyeing wool. The 
washing must again be repeated, to get rid of the 
excess of coloring matter which adheres to it. The 
skin is then dried and trimmed to the proper shape. 

Husk matting is easily made by simply tying the 
husks together, turning the ends all to one side, and 
then clipping them all off to a uniform length. 

Sheepskin rugs, or mats, are cleaned by washing 
with strong soap-suds two or three times, rinsing well 
in cold water after each washing; the last rinsing 
should be in water in which a little bluing is dis¬ 
solved. In drying, the rugs should be shaken and 
turned occasionally. 

To clean straw matting, wash it with weak brine 
and dry it well, or boil a small bag of bran in two 
gallons of water and wash the matting in that water. 

Matting, mat-work; material for mats ; an orna¬ 
mental border of thin-rolled brass placed between the 
plate and glass of a daguerreotype picture, to prevent 
abrasion. 

Maturant (mat'u-rant), a medicine or application 
which promotes suppuration,—expulsion of pus or 
“matter.” 

Maxilla, the cheek or Jaw of an animal of any of 
the higher orders, and the under jaw of an insect. 

May-Apple, or Mandrake. This is a familiar 
herb, growing in woods throughout the United States. 
Its flower is large, rose^shaped, wfliite and fragrant, 
appearing in May, and the fruit, about the shape and 
size of small hen’s eggs, and' edible, ripens the first 
portion of August, about the close of blackberry time. 
The root is poisonous, and hence used in medicine. 









A/A V BEETLE—MEAL. 


961 


where it is known as a cathartic. In small doses, 
continued for some time, it is an alterative. The 
celebrated “ podophyllin ” is the peculiar principle of 
May-apple root, and is employed as a cathartic and a 
laxative, according to quantity taken. The leaves of 
this plant are said also to be ^xiisonous. 

May Beetle, an insect especially injurious to 
meadows and pastures: see page 872. 

Mead, Metheglin, Hydromel, or Bragget. This ' 
is a beverage essentially consisting of fermented 
sweetened water. When made of honey it is called 
metheglin, or hydromel. The fermentation is held in 
the alcoholic stage as long as possible, by bottling or 
tight bunging in the cask. In the course of time the 
fermentation proceeds to the acetic stage, when vine¬ 
gar is formed. To get metheglin in perfection, it must 
remain a year in the wood untouched. It is then to 
be bottled, and kept for at least six months before 
being used, when a very agreeable and potent liquor 
will be obtained. 

These drinks have more alcohol and acid in them 
than has any kind of beer or ale. 

We give the following recipes for making this drink: 

S.A.RSAPARILLA Mead. 3 pounds of sugar, 3 
ounces of tartaric acid, i ounce of cream tartar, i of 
flour, I of essence of sarsaparilla and' 3 quarts of 
water. Strain and bottle it; then let it stand ten days 
before using it. 

To Make Bragget. To 28 pounds of honey add 
8^ gallons of boiling water; mix thoroughly. Boil 
in half a gallon of water the peel of 3 lemons, i ounce 
of ginger, 2 drachms of mace, i drachm of cloves and 
a small bundle of rosemary; strain, and add imme¬ 
diately to the hot mixture; stir the whole together,' 
and set aside in a cask till quite cold. Mix two large 
spoonfuls of fresh yeast with a quart of the liquor; jxjur 
into the cask, and allow it to remain till the fermenta¬ 
tion has taken place, when the cask is to be bunged 
up. 

Meadow, land seeded down to grass suitable for 
either regular or occasional mowing. It is distinguished 
from pasture by its adaption to soiling and haymaking, 
and the latter being used exclusively for grazing, 'bhe 
chief point to be observed in meadows is to select such 
grasses as will afford the largest amount of nutritious 
and palatable hay and which will ripen simultaneously. 
See Grass. The chief hay grasses in the United 
States are: Kentucky blue grass, orchard grass, 
fowl meadow grass, smooth-stalked meadow grass, 
tall fescue, timothy and red-top. When Kentucky 
blue grass ripens in June, the other grasses will ripen 
as follows: orchard grass, June; fowl meadow grass, 
July and August; smooth-stalked meadow grass, July; 
tall fescue, June; timothy, July; red-top, July and 
August. In seeding meadows more are less clover is 
generally sown. If with timothy and red-top as the 
basis, the clover must be allowed to get pretty ripe in 
order that the timothy may be cut when the seeds are 
half formed. Then the red-top will be in its prime, 
and the clover will have thickened at the bottom. 


Blue grass, orchard grass, tall fescue and clover ripen 
so that they may form the meadow; fowl meadow grass 
and red-top ripen nearly enough together so that they 
may be fit for hay at the same time. Clover, timothy, 
blue grass and orchard grass like a strong, rather dry 
soil; red-top will grow in moist soil: so will fowl meadow'. 
grass. 'Fimothy should not be cut close, since the • 
bulb at the top of the ground will be injured. Clover, 
red-top, fowl meadow, smooth-stalked meadow grass 
and blue grass make excellent hay for cattle and 
sheep. For horses timothy, orchard grass and blue 
grass make superior hay, since the hay is clean and 
generally free from dust. In the South, clover, lucern 
blue grass, orchard grass, timothy and red-top do fairly, 
but in the Gulf States the main dependence seems to 
be on crab, crowfoot, Bermuda and gama grass, which 
are extensively sown. 

Permanent meadow lands, if constantly cropped 
without manures, may be exhausted with much greater 
rapidity than pastures, though this depreciation is 
much more gradual than with tillage land. There is 
no greater mistake than to suppose they will keep in 
condition by taking off one annual crop only, and 
either pasturing the aftermath or leaving it to decay 
on the ground. No soils but such as are periodically 
flooded with enriching waters, can long suffer such a 
drain with impunity. They must be renewed with 
the proper manures, or barrenness will ensue. Ashes, 
lime, bones and gypsum (the latter especially to be 
applied to clovers, its good effects not being so 
marked on the grasses), are essential to maintain 
fertility, and to insure the greatest product: animal or 
vegetable manures must also be added. The proper 
manner of applying these fertilizers is by scattering 
them over the surface when the grass is just com¬ 
mencing a vigorous growth in spring, or simultaneously 
with the first rains after mowing. The growing vege¬ 
tation soon buries them under its thick foliage, and 
the refreshing showers wash the soluble matters into 
the roots; and even the gases that would otherwise 
escape are immediately absorbed by the dense leaves 
and stalks which everywhere surround it. The loss 
of any kind of manure is trifling, even in a state of 
active decomposition, when scattered broadcast under 
such circumstances. 

Pasturing Meadows. There is no objection to 
feeding off meadows in early autumn, while the ground 
is dry and the sod firm. The roots of the grass are 
rather benefited than injured by the browsing and the 
land is improved by the droppings from the cattle, 
and more particularly by sheep. But they should 
never be pastured in* spring. It is economy to pur¬ 
chase hay at any price rather than to spring-pasture 
meadows. 

Meal. The ground or pulverized edible portion of 
the grains of wheat, corn, oats, peas or other cereal 
grasses and certain legumes. Flour differs from meal 
in being freed from the coarser parts by being bolted. 
Meal is denominated according to the kind of grain 
which afford it, as oat-meal, corn-meal, rye-meal, 
barley meal, etc. 











MEASLES—ME A T. 


962 


Measles. For several days before the appearance 
of the peculiar eruption of measles, there are certain 
symptoms which often excite a suspicion of the im¬ 
pending disorder. The child labors under a severe 
cold; there are watery discharges from tlie eyes and 
nose ; accompanying these are irregular chills and shiv- 
erings, with general languor and appearance of illness. 
In the course of a day or two there is frecpient sneez¬ 
ing, and a cough is generally heard of a hard, me¬ 
tallic, somewhat croupy character. It will be easily 
observed that these symptoms differ considerably from 
those attending the early stages of scarlatina and 
small-pox; in the former, there is fever, with sore 
throat; in the latter, there are the peculiar and severe 
pains in the back, stomach, and head; but in neither 
is there the hoarse cough, the sneezing, and the dis¬ 
charges from eyes and nose which prevail in measles. 
On the fourth day the rash appears. It is first visible 
around the head, behind the ears, and about the tem¬ 
ples ; it then appears on the rest of the face, then on 
the throat and neck; on the rest of the body a few 
spots, like flea bites, may often at this time be noticed ; 
but the eruption does not reach the hands and feet 
until two days after its appearance on the face. On 
the day after this the rash on the face begins to fade 
away. 

Treatment. When measles are mild and regular, 
which they usually are, and when the child has had 
careful attention, this complaint requires only the 
mildest treatment and simplest remedies. The danger 
is in the consequence of the disease, rather than in 
the disease itself. They may be rendered severe, and 
even dangerous by neglect or improper remedies, as 
the giving of hot and stimulating drinks to hasten the 
eruptions, or confining the child in a hot room, cov¬ 
ered with flannel and blankets during the fever and 
eruptions, and at the same time they are drenched 
with saffron tea, or hot toddy, for the j^urpose of driv¬ 
ing out and keeping out eruptions. These improper 
means may cause inflammation of the lungs, which 
frequently prove fatal. 

Very little medical treatment is necessary in ordi¬ 
nary cases. Cold drinks should be given, both during 
the period of fever and while the eruption lasts. Oc- 
casioucilly some cooling purgative may be given if 
necessary, but in mild cases no other treatment is nec¬ 
essary. In the latter stages of measles the occurrence 
of free purging often occurs. This is usually regarded 
as favorable, and astringents and anodynes should not 
be given to stop it. A kaowledge of this fact is often 
important, as many children have lost their lives by 
such treatment. 

Exclude light froiji the eyes and protect the child 
from exposure to cold air, a current of which might 
drive in the eruption. Never deny the patient cold 
water in abundance. Give light food, and sponge the 
face, chest and hands occasionally with warm water to 
which a little vinegar has been added. This will 
greatly relieve the heat, dryness and itching of the 
skin, which is often distressing at night. 

Measure, in a legal and commercial sense, the 


dimensions of anything bought, sold, or valued. There 
are three kinds of measures: 1st, Linear measure, or 
that which is used for lines, which have only the di¬ 
mension of length, such as roads or distances, either 
on the surface of the earth, or in absolute space. 2d, 
Square measure, or that which is used for surfaces 
which have the dimensions of length and breadth, as 
inland measuring, etc.; and 3d, Solid measure, or that 
which is used for solid bodies, which have the three 
dimensions of length, breadth and thickness, as in the 
measurement of timber, the gauging of vessels, etc. 

All measures, whether linear, sepia re or solid, are 
deducted from some standard measure of a lineal 
kind, either arbitrarily assumed, or related to some in¬ 
variable distance in nature. Arbitrary standards have 
till lately been adopted by all nations, and their meas¬ 
ures have been reduced from the length of some part 
of the human body, as the foot, the cubit, the span, 
the nail, the ulna or arm, the fathom, the pace, and 
the inch or thumb. The modern yard is said to have 
been adjusted by the arm of Henry I of England, in 
iioi ; and it has been conjectured that the old French 
foot had a similar origin. 

We have given the rules for measuring all the dif¬ 
ferent articles that are usually measured under their re¬ 
spective heads. The rules for measuring brick work 
may be found on page 119; for measuring corn, on 
page 273; grindstones, page 606; measuring live cat¬ 
tle to estimate the weight, 189; hay, 649; boards, 
logs, sawed and hewn timber, 948; measuring land, 
912. For the measuring of doses of Medicine, see 
that article. To measure the height of a tree, see 
Tree, and so on : to find the rules for measuring any 
article, see that article in its alphabetical place. 

Meat, the flesh of animals, prepared for human 
food. But the name, in the popular use of it, seldom 
comprises the flesh of fishes, of fowls, or even of 
wild quadrupeds, and is principally confined to beef, 
veal, mutton, lamb’and pork. 

In this article we will treat the relative values of 
the different kinds of all the domesticated animals 
used for food, giving the joints or parts into which 
they are divided, the uses to which each ])art is gener¬ 
ally appropriated. Directions are abso given in se¬ 
lecting the different kinds of fish and ]X)uitry and the 
general principles of cooking and handling meat are 
laid down. 

Beef. Good beef has a fine, smooth, open grain, 
is red in color, and tender to the touch. The fat is 
white rather than yellow, and is moderate in quantity. 
The grain of cow-beef is closer and the fat whiter, 
but the lean is not so brightly red. Ox-beef is pref¬ 
erable to bull-beef, the flesh of the latter having a 
coarser and closer grain, the fat being hard and 
skinny, the lean of a deeper red, and the scent 
stronger. Bull-beef, being dry, tough, and difficult of 
digestion, is not often eaten. Heifer-beef, if well fed, 
is sometimes preferred to that of the ox. In old meat 
there is a horny streak running between the fat and 
lean of the sirloin and ribs'. 










AfEA T. 


963 


In relation to the best cattle for beef, an experi¬ 
enced butcher speaks thus: “I shall present the ex¬ 
perience which has brought me in contact with all sorts 
and sizes, shades and colors of cattle, and not only 
by hundreds, but by thousands, from the poorest, 



1 Sirloin. 

2 Top, or aitch-bone. 

3 Rump. 

4 Buttock, or round. 

5 Mouse buttock. 

6 Verny piece. 

7 Thick flank. 


8 Thin flank, 
g Leg. 

10 P ore rib (5 ribs). 

11 Middle rib (4 ribs). 

12 Chuck rib (3 ribs). 

13 Shoulder or Leg-of- 

mutton piece. 


14 Brisket. 

15 Neck cut or neck 

piece. 

16 Neck. 

17 Shin or shank. 

18 Cheeks or head. 


toughest ‘ old bull,’ used for jerked beef, to feed the 
slaves of the West Indies, to that of the choicest— 
the winners of many hrst prizes—which have been 
so elaborately prepared, both to please the palates of 
rich epicures and lovers of good beef, and also to 
gain the admiration of thousands. I place them in 
their order, as follows : 

” I. Spayed heifer, from four to seven years old. 

“ 2. Steer, or bullock, from four to six years old. 

“ 3. Free martin (or barren heifer), not over eight 
years old. 

“ 4. Ox, from five to eight years old. 

*‘5. Heifer, from three to four years old. 

“ 6. Cow, from three to eight years old. 

“ 6. Stag, from three to eight years old. 

“ 8. Bull, from two to six years old.” 

The best pieces for roasting are the sirloin, tender¬ 
loin and second and third rib cuts. The latter may 
have the bones removed by the butcher and be rolled 


and skewered before roasting, which is much the 
most economical and convenient way of serving. 
The bones may do duty to the soup kettle. Many 
persons think that the sweetness and goodness of 
the meat is impaired by removing the bones before 
cooking, and prefer that they should be taken only 
from the thin end, when that can be folded under. 

'I'he best steaks are near the ribs, five to eight 
inches on the side of the beef, and called “ Porter¬ 
house steak.” The next best comes from the sirloin. 

The whole ham is used for dried beef. The best 
boiling pieces of corned beef comes froiii the brisket. 
Good steaks can be cut from the fore-shoulder. The 
best soup bone is the hind leg. 'Fhe piece called the 
sticking place is usually boiled for mince pies. 

Veal. The calf, after it is slaughtered and dress¬ 
ed, is called veal; but, unlike the ox in its dressing, 
the butchers seldom take off the skin until the day it 
is to be placed in the shop for sale. It is retained on 
the carcass for the purpose of keeping the flesh 
moist, bright and clean. The age of the calf not 
being less than four nor more than six weeks, pro¬ 
duces the best veal if properly fed and in good 
condition. At a less age the flesh is not fit for food, 
as it is flaccid, gelatinous and watery. When calves 
are wholly fed from the cow and range between 



1 Loin, best end. 

2 Loin, thin end. 

3 Fillet. 

4 Hind knuckle. 


Fig. 2. —Joints of a Calf. 


5 Fore knuckle. 

6 Neck, best end. 

7 Neck, scrag end. 

8 Shoulder. 


9 Breast, best end. 

10 Breast, brisket end. 

11 Head. 


the age of four to six weeks, they produce what may 
be called milk veal, being the most white, tender and 
delicate, and the choicest eating of all other veal. 
In spite of the prejudice existing against this 
















































































































































































964 


MEAT. 


animal, it furnishes materials for many dainty dishes. 
From its head to its feet it can be utilized. The loin 
of veal is best for roasting; the leg furnishes the fillet 
and cutlets; the knuckle makes a good soup, while 
from any [wrtion of the fore-quarter may be made 
stews, fricandeaus and soups. 

'riie sweetbreads are especially delicate, that near¬ 
est the heart being the best. The head, if nicely 
cleaned, makes a delicious mock turtle soup. Jt 
should be dressed and cleansed the same as pig’s 
feet, that is, with the skin left on. The feet may be 
cooked with the head, or be made into jelly. The 
tongue is excellent pickled and the brains will make 
the most delicious of sauces. The liver is the best 
of all animal livers, as are the kidneys. 

Pork. The young pig, termed the “ sucking pig” 
or “ roasting pig,” is not changed in name, like the 
full-grown animal, by the fact of slaughtering. Living 
or dead it is named pig, a roaster or a roasting-pig. 
When dressed for choice eating it should not be less 
than three nor more than six weeks old. The skin 
of the roaster should be white (unless it has been a 
six)tted or black-haired pig), plump, hard and well 
cleaned. The flanks, when it is opened, should be 
thick and fat, and it ought to weigh from eight to 
fourteen pounds. Its season is best in the autumn 
and winter months. The name of the half or full- 
grown hog and its varieties when prepared by the 
butcher is changed to pork. When living and of dif¬ 
ferent ages and sexes 
they are known by several 
distinct names; those 
under one year are either 
called pigs, shoats or 
porkers. If the female 
within one year have 
she is known as a 



pigs 

“young sow,” and 
the 


no 

longer by the name of 
shoat, etc. When spay¬ 
ed the animal is known 
as a “spayed sow.” 
Above one year the male 
is named a “ young boar,” 
when aged an “old boar;” 
and when altered a “ bar- 
row,” or “ barrow hog,” or 
“ hog,” and when altered 
late or aged it is called a 
“stag-hog.” The female 
is familarly named “sow,” 
“sow hog,” or “hog.” 
These terms are applied 

z.-Tke7nints or Divisions ailimals. ExpC- 

■which Pigs are di-uieied. rience and information in 

'feettnd“iifn"k"''-4 Fo®e”'i;in': Varieties 

5 Hind loin. 6 Leg, or ham. Whlch Will produce the 

best kind of pork may be placed in the following 
order; i, Barrow pigs or shoats, from three months 
to one year old; 2, hog,, pigs or shoats, from three 
months to six months old; 3, barrow pigs (milk and 


grass fed), three months to one year; 4, sow pigs, 
from three to four months old ; 5, barrow hogs and 
spayed sows, when one year, corn-fed, selected usual¬ 
ly for bacon hogs; 6, sow hogs, ditto, selected usually 
for bacon hogs; 7, stag hogs; 8, boar hogs or boar, 
youngest best. The general apjjearance of the most 
choice ixirk is from an animal, the carcass of which 
will not weigh less than 50 and not more than 120 
pounds. 'Fhe skin should present a thin, transparent 
appearance, approaching white in color. The fat on 
the back should not be less than half an inch thick, 
white and firm, and the lean of a pale reddish color 
and sappy. The skin of the older animals or bacon 
hogs is thicker and coarser, while the lean is of a 
darker color, but equally sweet, juicy and tender. 
Hogs selected for bacon, clear pork, hams, shoulders, 
back fat, or for salted or barrelling pork, are usually 
from 150 }x)unds to 500 pounds. 

The roasting joints of pork are the spare ribs, loin 
and the leg; the other joints are salted. The leg 
may also be cured and boiled. 

Mutton is divided into leg, loin (best end), 
hump and loin, neck (best end), scrag, shoulder and 
breast. The two loins together make a saddle of 
mutton. The leg and neck are boiled, the shoulder 
stewed. 

It is an acknowledged fact that good mutton is 
one of the most nutritious as well as one of the most 
easily digested of meats, and therefore particularly 
well adapted to in¬ 
valids. It is pot the 
most economical, as 
there is a great deal 
of waste in so much 
fat; and lean mutton 
is not good, being 
generally dry and 
tough. In choosing 
mutton particular 
attention should be 
paid to the appear¬ 
ance of the fat. In 
the best it will look 
white and clear, and 
the lean will be firm, 
juicy and dark red. 

If the meat is indif¬ 
ferent the fat will be 
yellow and the flesh 
flabby and coarse¬ 
grained. 

The saddle and 
shoulder of mutton 
are the best for 
roasting; they 



are 


Fig. 4. —The yoints of a Sheep. 


improved by hang- , Leg. 2 Thin end of loin. 3 Best end of 
ing for some days Ipl"/ 4 Neck, best end. 5 Neck, scrag end. 

, ^ 6 bhoulder. 7 Breast. A saddle is the two 

OeiOre cooking, as loins undivided. A chine is the two sides of 
the “sheepy” taste ‘he neck undivided. 

is lost by exposure to a cool, clear air. The leg of 
mutton, unless very tender, is better for boiling, and 




















































































































































Af£A T. 


965 


may be cooked when quite fresh. The leg may also 
be cut for broiling, but although more economical, 
these cutlets are much inferior to chops from the loin 
or ribs. Good broth and stews may be made from 
the breast, scrag or flank, always being careful to re¬ 
move the fat before serving. 

Lamb. Lamb is generally recognized by butchers 
until it reaches the age of about twelve months, when 
it is termed yearling, although at this period the year¬ 
lings are often dressed “lamb fashion.” The size, 
fatness, condition, age and sex are considered best in 
the following order : i. Spring lamb (ewe), from six 
weeks to three months old. 2. Spring lamb (buck). 

3. Wether lamb, three months to eight months old. 

4. Ewe lamb. 5. Wether lamb or yearling, eight 
months to twelve months old. 6. Buck lamb. The 
spring lamb is commonly called house lamb, it is pre¬ 
sumed, from the circumstance of its being born during 
the winter months, when its tender life, if not care¬ 
fully housed, fed and kept warm, would perish, or 

remain dwarfish or become 
sickly. Its flesh is not prized 
for its unseasonable char¬ 
acter, and, although deli¬ 
cate and tender, is quite 
insipid and is not nourish- 
ishing. Lamb is some¬ 
times sold as early as 
March, after which it slow¬ 
ly increases in size and 
quantity; a n d i n the 
months of June, July and 
August it is in full season 
and of fine quality. When 
first brought into market 
lamb is not sold in less 
quantity than a quarter its 
weight, being seldom above 
five or six pounds. 

'bo choose lamb, first 
examine the fat on the 
back, and then that of the 
kidneys, both of which 
should be white, hard and 
of the same color. T.ambs 
are tender creatures. 
Rough handling, cold, 
stormy weather, insuffici¬ 
ent food, and being long driven, produce a feverish 
state, which causes the fat and flesh to be veiny, and 
of a dark red color, and also renders it dry, tough and 
tasteless. The kidney fat of a fine (or inferior) lamb 
should not be raised, stuffed, or blowed, but merely 
its own caul or fat laid on its legs and flanks, to pre¬ 
vent them from drying or burning whilst roasting. 
The carcass of the lamb is first split dovyn the center 
of the back and neck into two sides, which are (piar- 
tered bv leaving two or three ribs on the hind quarter 
of lamb. When large enough, and it is desired by 
the purchaser to be cut or divided, the leg is first cut 
off and prepared for roasting, boiling, or cut into 


chops, etc. Separated from the shoulder the neck 
and breast make a choice dish. Lambs’ frys and 
sweetbreads are generally found in our markets in the 
spring and summer months on dishes, nicely cleaned 
and prepared ready for use. Some sprinkle a little 
parsley to decorate them. They are considered, and 
certainly are, delicate eating, and are therefore much 
sought after. 

How TO Select Meats. Besides the instructions 

above in reference to the qual¬ 
ities of the different kinds of 
meat, the following points in 
selecting should be observed: 

Beef. Good ox-beef has a 
loose grain, red meat, and 
slightly yellowish fat; cow- 
beef has a firmer grain, whiter 
fat and less color. An animal 
old or ill-fed shows a dark red 
color in the lean and the fat is 
hard and skinny. When meat 
rises quickly after the pressure 
with the finger, it is good; 
when slowly, it is poor. If it 
bear a greenish tint and feels 
slippery on the surface, it is 
stale and unfit for food. 

Veal. Good veal is usually 
white, though the dark is often 
good. If the kidney fat is fine 
and white, the meat is proba¬ 
bly good. 

Pork. Good ixjrk has a thin, 
smooth rind, cool to the touch. 
If turning bad a dent with the finger remains. Ker¬ 
nels in the fat show that the hog was ill-fed or 
diseased. 

Alutton. Good mutton is red and firm, the grain 
close and fat white. 

Lamb should be small; of a pale-colored red, and 
fat. 

Vetiison. You can tell as to being “ high” or not, 
by running a skewer into the shoulder, and observing 
the scent on it when withdrawn. The fat should be 
thick and clean. If the cleft of the haunch is smooth 
and close, the animal is young. 

Baco 7 i. If bacon is good the rind is thin, the fat 
firm and pinkish, the lean tender and adhering to the 
bone. Rusty bacon has yellowish streaks in it. 

Hams are tried by sticking a knife or skewer into 
them up to the knuckle; if when drawn out it has a 
nice smell, the ham is good. A bad scent will be per¬ 
ceived if it is tainted. 

As to the identification of diseased and other poor 
meat, the residents of towns and cities are more 
concerned than farmers; but as farmers buy a large 
proportion of the fresh meat they use, it is equally 
important for them also to be able to distinguish good 
meat from bad. Sometimes meat becomes poisoned 
by the animal feeding upon a poisonous substance 
previous to being killed. There are several diseased 



Fig. 5.— The Latnh is divided 
as follows: 

I Leg. 2 Loin. 3 Shoulder. 
4 Breast. $ Ribs. 

3, 4 cr, together. Fore-quarter. 



Fig. 6 —.Joints of a Deer. 
I Haunch. 2 Neck. 

3 Shoulder. 4 Breast. 


















































966 


MEAT. 


conditions which are not apparent in the animal while 
living, and some of these conditions are difficult of 
discernment after death, even by the microscope. 
Scientific physicians are cognizant of many more 
ailments in the human family due to diseased meats 
than the public are aware of. When cattle are over¬ 
driven or otherwise worried, they become feverish and 
their meat becomes diseased and unwholesome. Also, 
anger suddenly converts the secretions of the body 
into |X)isons. When a person bites another or him¬ 
self accidentally and not in anger, the injury is no 
worse than if the wound were made by a piece of 
wood or bone; but if the party biting is highly excited 
by anger, the wound is about as dangerous as the bite 
of a rattlesnake or mad-dog. It is in a measure the 
same with lower animals. Angering them before 
death, even but for a moment, poisons their flesh to 
some extent. Slaughterers generally hasten roughly 
on with their business, not taking pains to be nice 
with their work, either in the selection and slaughter 
of their animals or the trimming of the meat. If they 
can only make it look well until they sell it, they are 
satisfied. They have no object in being more partic¬ 
ular, in a general way, than are their customers, 
many of whom six)il good meat after they get it. 

It is fashionable, especially in cities and among 
those who affect a French taste, to allow all unsalted 
meat to commence decay before it is cooked and 
served; but every hygienist condemns the practice; 
indeed, it seems that common decency alone should 
deter any “white man” from the use of such flesh. 
Perfectly sound, wholesome meat is of course not so 
“tender” as that which has commenced decomposi¬ 
tion. In all sound flesh the muscles are firm and 
elastic, pale for the young animals and darker for the 
older ones. A deep purple color is good evidence 
that the animal died without being bled, and the meat 
is therefore unfit for food. Diseased meat generally 
has a more or less unpleasant or suspicious odor, has 
a wet, flabby, sodden appearance, and the fat looks 
like jelly or wet parchment. The marrow in the leg 
bones is of a light, rosy red color for 24 hours after 
killing. If the marrow is soft, brownish in color, or if 
it shows black points, the animal has been sick and 
putrefaction' has commenced. On slaughtering an 
animal, an inspection of the lungs, liver and spleen 
will often reveal its true condition. 

To Choose Poultry and Game. Turkey. The 
cock bird, when young, has a smooth, black leg with 
a short spur. The eyes are bright and full, and the 
feet supple, when fresh; the absence of these signs 
denotes age and staleness; the hen may be judged by 
the same rules. 

Fowls. The young rooster has a smooth leg and a 
short spur; when fresh the vent is close and dark. 
Hens, when young, have smooth legs and combs; 
when old, these will be rough; a good capon has a 
thick belly and large rump, a poll comb and a swell¬ 
ing breast. 

Geese. In young geese the feet and bill will be 
yellow and free from hair. When they are fresh 


the feet are pliable; but they are stiff when stale. 

Ducks may be selected by the same rules. 

Eigeons, when fresh, have supple feet, and the vent 
will be firm; if discolored they are stale. 

Rabbits. When a rabbit is young and fresh, the 
cleft in the lip is narrow, the body stiff, and the claws 
are smooth and sharp; old and stale ones will be the 
opposite of this. 

Rartrulges. Yellow legs and dark bills are the 
signs by which a young bird may be known : a rigid 
vent when fresh. When this part is green the bird is 
stale. 

Moore Game. Grouse, woodcocks, snipe, quails, 
etc., may be chosen by the rules above given. 

Choose white-legged fowls for boiling, and dark for 
roasting. 

How TO Select Fish. The only rule in selection 
is to get them as fresh from the water as practicable, 
alive if possible, and kill. A fish allowed to die 
slowly is not so good as when killed immediately 
before cooking. 

The eyes of fish, if fresh, are bright, the gills of a 
fine, clear red, the body stiff, and the smell not un¬ 
pleasant. Chloride of soda will restore fish- that is 
not extremely fresh, but it is never so good as when 
it has not been kept. 

The salmon and the cod should have a small head, 
very thick shoulders, and a small tail. The flesh of 
the salmon should be of a bright red color, the scales 
very bright. 

Do not buy herrings, mackerel, unless quite fresh, 
and do not attempt to keep them even till the next 
day. Cod may be kept twenty-four hours. 

Eels should be bought alive. Crabs and lobsters . 
should be heavy and very stiff; if they feel limp they 
are stale. They are often bought alive. Oysters, if 
fresh, will close forcibly on the knife when opened. If 
the shell gapes in the least degree, the oyster is losing 
its freshness. When the fish is dead the shell re¬ 
mains open. 

Cooking, Preserving and Handling Meats. 
There are some general remarks on the various modes 
of cooking, preserving and handling meats that are 
quite essential. We have treated the cooking of 
each particular kind of meat under their respective 
names, but the following are observations or princi¬ 
ples that apply to all meats: 

Meat, to be in perfection should, when the weather 
will admit of it, be kept a number of days. Beef or 
mutton should be kept at least a week in cold weath¬ 
er, and poultry three or four days. It should be kept 
in a cool, airy place, away from the flies, and if there 
is any danger of its spoiling, a little salt should be 
rubbed over it. 

Meat should be wiped with a dry, clean cloth as 
soon as it comes from the butcher’s; fly-blows, if 
found in it, cut out, and in loins the long pipe that 
runs by the bone should be taken out, as it soon 
taints; the kernels also should be removed from 
beef. Never receive bruised joints. 

Meat will keep good for a long time in cold weather, 







A/£A T. 


967 


and, if frozen through, may be kept for months. Fro¬ 
zen meat must be thawed before it is cooked by 
plunging it into cold water or placing it before the fire 
before setting it down to roast. It will never be 
dressed through if this precaution is not taken, not 
even when twice cooked. 

Pepper is a preventive of decay, in a degree; it is 
well, therefore, to pepper hung joints. 

Powdered charcoal is still more remarkable in its 
effect. It will not only keep the meat over which it 
is sprinkled good, but will remove the taint from 
already decayed flesh. 

A piece ot charcoal boiled in the water with “high” 
meat or fowls will render it or them quite sweet. A 
piece of charcoal or powdered charcoal should be 
kept in every larder. Hams, after being smoked, may 
be kept for any length of time packed in jxiwdered 
charcoal. 

To destroy taint in cooking meat. Put your meat 
between layers of charcoal both before basting and 
while basting. You may purify your coals by heat¬ 
ing them red-hot, so as to use the same coals in the 
two operations. 

To sweeten tainted 7 neat. To those that wish to 
sweeten tainted meat, dig a hole eight or ten inches 
deep, and large enough to lay the meat in single lay¬ 
ers; place a thickness of cloth between it and the 
ground, laying the pieces so they will not touch; then 
spread cloth over, tucking it down so the dirt will not 
touch the meat; then cover with dirt quite deep, and 
leave for two or three days ; it will then be sweet. 

To tender meat. Soak it in vinegar and water; if 
a very large piece, for about twelve hours. For ten 
pounds of beef use three quarts of water to three- 
quarters of a pint of vinegar, and soak it for six or 
seven hours. 

Boiling. The best way to boil meat is to put it in 
cold water, and boil it gently, with just water enough 
to cover it, as. it hardens by furious boiling. The 
scum should be taken off as soon as it rises. Do not 
let the meat remain long in the water after it is done, 
as it injures it. The liquor in which all kinds of fresh 
meat is boiled makes a good soup when thickened 
and seasoned. 

Broiling. Cleanliness in this mode of cooking is 
very essential. Keep the gridiron clean between the 
bars, and bright on the top; when it is hot wipe it 
well with,a cloth just before you use it. It is best to 
oil the gridiron with suet, and also heat it before 
putting the meat on. Chalk is sometimes rubbed on 
the gridiron, when fish is to be broiled. It is better to 

O' • 

have a gridiron expressly for fish, otherwise meat is 
often made to taste fishy. Be diligently attentive to 
watch the moment anything is done. Never hasten 
the broiling of anything, lest you spoil it. Broils 
must be brought to the table as hot as possible. 

Roasting. The first preparation for roasting js to 
have the spit properly cleansed. It is well, if possi¬ 
ble, to wash it before it gets cold. 

Have a fire so large as to extend six inches beyond 
the roaster each side. When your meat is thin and 


tender, have a small, brisk fire. When you have a 
large joint to roast, make up a sound, strong fire, 
equally good in all parts. Set the meat, at first, 
some distance from the place where it is to roast, so 
as to have it heat through gradually, and then move 
it up to roast. Allow about fifteen minutes to every 
pound of most kinds of meat in warm weather, but in 
winter twenty minutes. When the meat is nearly 
done stir up the fire to brown it. The meat should 
be basted a good deal, especially the first part of the 
time. A pale brown is the proper color for a roast. 
When the meat is nearly done, the steam from it will 
be drawn towards the fire. Flour thickening in gra¬ 
vies must be wet up in very little water till the lumps 
are out, and then made thin. Strain all gravies. 

Baking is a very cheap and convenient way of 
dressing a dinner for a small family. Legs and loins 
of pork, legs of mutton, fillets of veal, and many other 
joints will bake to great advantage, if the meat be 
good or rather fat; but if poor, no baking will give 
satisfaction. The time of baking depends much upon 
the state of the oven, of which the cook must be the 
judge. The preparation of the articles to be baked 
is much the same as for roasting. 

Brying is a very convenient mode of cookery. To 
make sure that the pan is quite clean, rub a little fat 
over it, and then make it warm, and wipe it out with 
a clean cloth. It is best to fry in lard not salted, and 
this is better than butter. Mutton and beef suet are 
good for frying. The secret in frying is to know 
when the fat is of a proper heat—according to what 
you wish to fry. When the lard seems hot, try it by 
throwing in a bit of bread. To fry fish, potatoes, or 
anything that is watery, your fire must be very clear, 
and the fat very hot. When taking up fried articles, 
drain off the fat on a wire sieve. 

To Cook Poultry. All kinds of poultry and meat 
can be cooked quicker by adding to the water in 
which they are boiled a little vinegar, or a piece of 
lemon. By the use of a little acid there will be a 
considerable saving of fuel, as well as shortening of 
time. Its action is beneficial on old tough meats, 
rendering them quite tender and easy of digestion. 
Tainted meats and fowls will lose their bad taste and 
odor if cooked in this way, and if not used too freely 
no taste of it will be acquired. 

For particulars in cooking the different meats, see 
Bacon, Beef, Fowl, Ham, Mince Meat, Mutton, Pork, 
Rabbit, Turkey, Veal, Venison, Pies and the follow¬ 
ing miscellaneous preparations: 

To Cure Me.at. To one gallon of water add i 
pounds of salt, pound of sugar, ounce of salt¬ 
peter, half an ounce of potash. In this ratio the pickle 
may be increased to any quantity desired. Let these 
be boiled together until all the dirt from the sugar 
rises to the top and is skimmed off. Then throw it 
into a tub to cool, and when cold, pour it over your 
beef or oork, to remain the usual time, say four or five 
weeks. The meat must be well covered with pickle, 
and should not be put down for at least two days 
after killing, during which time it should be slightly 














9^8 


MEDIC—MEDICINE. 


sprinkled with powdered saltpeter, which removes all 
the surface blood, etc., leaving the meat fresh and 
clean. Some omit boiling the pickle, and find it to 
answer well; though the operation of boiling purifies 
the pickle by throwing off the dirt always to be found 
in salt and sugar. If this recipe is properly tried it 
will never l)e abandoned. There is none that sur¬ 
passes it, if so good. 

To Preserve Meat. A process for preserving 
meat in cans is this : Pack the meat, in its raw state, 
into tin cans of any desired size. Solder down the 
lids, the top of each having a small tin tube inserted 
in it, which communicates with the interior of the tin. 
These tubes must next be inserted in the exhauster, 
which is a receptacle connected with a machine 
designated a Torricellian vacuum, an apparatus in 
which the air is exhausted by the action of water. 
The tins are then placed in the cooking-bath, and at 
the proper juncture the vacuum is created, at a tem¬ 
perature varying from i8o° to 228'^. At this stage 
another feature of the invention comes into play. The 
vacuum having been created, a supply of gravy is 
turned on from a receptacle, and the tins filled with 
the fluid. The feed-pipes of the tins are nipped and 
the cases hermetically sealed. By thus filling the 
tins with the gravy the difficulty of collapse, which 
once prevented large tins from being used, is obviated, 
while the whole space of the package is utilized. 

To Pickle Meat. Moist sugar, 2 pounds; bay or 
common salt, 4 pounds ; saltpeter, ixmnd; fresh- 
ground allspice, 2 ounces; water, 6 to 8 quarts. Dis¬ 
solve. Used to pickle meat, to which it imparts a 
fine red color and a superior flavor. 

Medic (med'ic), one name of lucern or alfalfa. 

Medicine, literally, that which heals or cures; in 
common usage, a drug taken into the stomach or 
veins for the pur^xise of curing one of disease. Medi¬ 
cines are weighed by what is called “apothecaries’ 
weight” in the arithmetics. 

The following table will be found a very accurate 
way of measuring quantities and is convenient for the 
household where there are no scales or measures’ 


A pint 
A tumbler 
A tea-cup 
A wine-glass 
A table-sjx)on 
A dessert-spoon 
A tea-spoon 


r 

usually I 
V contains ^ 

I about 

J 


16 ounces. 

10 ounces. 

6 ounces. 

2 ounces. 

4 drams, or ounce. 
2 drams. 

I dram, or 60 drops. 


These quantities refer to ordinary-sized spoons and 
vessels. Some cups hold half as much more, and 
some tablesiX)ons contain 6 drams. Many persons 
keep a medicine-glass, which is graduated so as to 
show the number of snoons it contains. 

Whenever a tea or tablespoon is mentioned, it 
means the same as it should say six)onful; the same 
of cup, in fluid measures; but in dry measures, where 
a six)on or spoonful is mentioned, the design is that 


the spoon should be taken up moderately rounding, 
unless otherwise mentioned. 

A tablespoonful is often mentioned as a measure 
or quantity in a recipe or prescription. By this is 
generally meant a measure or a bulk equal to half an 
ounce of water. By a dessert-spoonful is meant half 
a tablespoonful, and a teaspoonful is equal to a dram 
of water. Drop is a vague measure, because the quan¬ 
tity depends upon the consistency of the liquid and 
the size and shape of the mouth of the bottle. One 
drop is considered by the medical profession to mean 
one grain, 60 drops being a fluid drachm. 

table of doses of medicines. 

Aconite, tincture of, 15 to 20 drops. 

Aloes, powdered, 10 to 15 grains. 

Antimonial wine, i teaspoonful. 

Balsam copaiba, ^ teaspoonful. 

Blue mass, 5 to 10 grains. 

Camphor, 5 to 10 grains. 

Calomel, 5 to 20 grains. 

Castor oil, i to 3 tables^xionfuls. 

Chalk, prepared, 10 to 20 grains. 

Chalk, mercurial, 5 to 20 grains. 

Chloroform, 30 to 60 drops (in syrup). 

Chlorate jxjtash, 15 to 30 grains (in sweetened 
water or lemonade). 

Croton oil, i drop (in pill or liquid). 

Cream tartar, ^ to i teasiX)onful. 

Dover’s jxiwder, 5 to 10 grains. 

Elixir vitriol, 5 to 10 drops. 

Ether, sulphuric, a teaspoonful. 

Epsom salts, i to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Ergot, powder, 10 to 20 grains. 

Essence peppermint, ^ to i teasixionful. 

Hive syrup, ^ to i teaspoonful. 

Hoffman’s anodyne, 3^ teaspoonful. 

Iodide potassa, i to 5 grains. 

Ipecac, powder (emetic), 30 to 50 grains. 

Jalap, powder, 10 to 30 grains. 

Laudanum, 10 to 30 drops. 

Magnesia, calcined, to i teasixionful. 

Morphine, to 3^ grain. 

Number Six, i teaspoonful. 

Oil peppermint, i to 2 drops. 

Opium, powder, i grain. 

Paregoric, i to 3 teas]X)onfuls. 

Pipeline, r to 3 grains. 

Quinine, i to 4 grains. 

Rhubarb, powder, i o to 30 grains. 

Soda, carbonate, 10 to 30 grains. 

Sulphur, ])owder, i teaspoonful. 

Sugar of lead, i to 2 grains. 

Syrup squills, i teaspoonful. 

Syrup ipecac, i teasjxionful (for children). 

Syrup rhubarb, i to 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Spirits nitre, i teasixionful. 

Spirits camphor, ^ a teaspoonful. 

Spirits hartshorn, 10 to 15 drops. 

Spirits lavender (compound), a teas{X)onful. 
Spirits turpentine, 5 to 20 drops. 













MEGRIMS—MERC UR i 


969 


Tartar emetic (emetic), i to 2 grains. 

Tannin, i to 2 grains. 

Tincture arnica, 30 drops to i teaspoonful. 

Tincture assafoetida, ^ a teaspoonful. 

Tincture Cayenne, to i teaspoonful. 

Tincture iodine, ro to 20 drops. 

Tincture iron (muriate), 10 to 30 drops. 

Tincture lobelia, i teasiX)onful. 

Tincture rhubarb, 2 to 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Tincture valerian, i teaspoonful. 

Tincture bark, 2 to 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Tincture ginger, i teaspoonful. 

Tincture kino, ^ to i teaspoonful. 

Wine, colchicum, 10 to 20 drops. 

Wine, ipecac, ^ to i teasix)onful. 

White vitriol (emetic), 40 grains. 

The above doses are for adults; children of 12 years 
may take half the quantity; five years, one-fourth; 
and younger in proportion. 

The dose of medicine, as a general rule, 
may be repeated once in three hours. Liquids should 
be given in a little sweetened water. Powders may 
be mixed in syrup or molasses. 

Rules for Proportioning Doses, Having Re¬ 
ference TO Age and Sex. When for adults (30 to 
50 years old) the dose is i dram, or 60 grains, 20 
years old, it is 40 grains ; 13 years, 30 grains; 7 years, 
20 grains; 4 years, 15 grains; 3 years, 10 grains; 2 
years, 7 to 8 grains; i year, 5 grains. 

For babes under 1 year, the dose should go down 
by months, at about the same rate as by years for 
those over i year. 

Again, for persons in advanced life, say from 60 
years, the dose must begin to lessen about five grains, 
and from that on, 5 grains for each additional 10 years. 
Females, however, need a little less generally than 
males. 

Sex, temperament, constitutional strength and habits 
of individuals must be taken into account. Nor does 
the same rule apply to all medicines. Calomel, for 
instance, is generally borne better by children than 
by adults, while opium affects them more powerfully 
and requires the dose to be diminished. The rule 
must also vary in castor oil, the proportion of which 
cannot be reduced so much. 

Megrims (me'grimz): see page 811. 

Melilot (mel'i-lot), sweet clover; a good honey 
plant, but spreading as a persistent weed. A speci¬ 
men of it drying in a room yields a sweet, fragrant 
odor. See page 252. 

Melon. See Muskmelon and Watermelon. 

Melocotoon (mel o-co-toon), a quince or large 
kind of peach. 

Meningitis (men-in-ji'tis), inflammation of the 
membranes of the brain or spinal cord. 

Mercury, a liquid metal called quicksilver, which 
differs from all other metals in being fluid in the tem¬ 
perature of this climate. It has, however been frozen 


both by the natural cold of high northern latitudes, as 
in Minnesota, and by artificial cold produced by 
mixture of snow and aqua fortis. It is found to con¬ 
geal at 40 degrees below zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. 
Mercury unites with other metals, forming a soft mass 
termed an amalgam. On this property depends the' 
art of gilding, and the art of coating looking-glasses. 
There are but few mines of quicksilver; the greatest 
quantity is procured in Spain. In its metallic state 
it is used as a medicine. There is, however, a prev¬ 
alent idea in the minds of ignorant people that doctors 
and veterinary surgeons give this substance to force a 
passage through the bowels, and that if it fails the 
bowels and stomach will be ruptured or torn. If the 
patient should die, the blame is not unfrequently laid 
on the use of quicksilver by the doctor, when this 
substance was never thought of for any such purpose. 
Quicksilver has no action whatever on the animal sys¬ 
tem, either in health or sickness. 

Mercury with Chai.k, Gray Powder, is used 
in diarrhoea in calves, in doses from ten to fifteen 
grains, given with a little ginger and mixed with 
wheat-flour gruel. 

Bi-chloride of Mercury. See* Corrosive Subli¬ 
mate. 

Nitrate of Mercury Ointment. This is the 
citron or golden ointment, and is a good remedy in 
ringworm. Unfortunately, however, it spoils with long 
keeping, and not being made extemporaneously, it is 
often rancid and of little value. 

Oxide of Mercury, Red Precipitate, is used in the 
treatment of unhealthy sores, in the form of j owder 
and ointment. 

Sulphate of Mercury, Turpeth Minekal. .\ 
medicine of no use and should be expunged from the 
books on horse and cattle diseases. 

Sub-chloride of Mercury, Calomel. A medi¬ 
cine many j^ractitioners never use and will not recom¬ 
mend for internal administration. In the form of the 
black-wash, and sprinkled upon sores, it is a good 
remedy. Calomel is recommended for thrush in the 
feet, and is inserted in the cleft of the frog. 

Mercurial Ointment. This is sold in the drug 
stores. The ointment of mercury is chiefly used in 
skin diseases, as mange in horses and dogs. Equally 
as good a remedy, however, will be found in sulphur 
and its preparations, which are not only more safe, but 
more certain of curing the case. 

Mercurial Poisons. The symptoms when a per¬ 
son is poisoned by corrosive sublimate, calomel, red 
precipitate, vermilion, turpeth mineral, prussiate.of 
mercury, are acid metallic taste; tightness and burn¬ 
ing in the throat; pain in the back part of the mouth, 
stomach, and bowels; anxiety of countenance; nausea; 
and vomiting of bloody and bilious fluids ; profuse 
purging, and difficulty of making water; pulse small, 
hard and quick; skin clammy; icy coldness of the 
hands and feet; and death in 24 or 36 hours. 

Antidote: White of eggs mixed with water; milk; 
flour and water, mixed pretty thick; linseed tea; and 
barley water. Treatment: Give large draughts of 











970 


MESE NTER V— ME TRIG S VS TEM. 


warm water, if you cannot get anything else: strong 
emetic of ipecacuanha, the stomach-pump, a dose of 
castor oil and laudanum. Foment the bowels with 
ixjppy-head fomentations, and apply leeches if the 
belly is very tender. 

Mesentery, a great folded membrane, within the 
abdomen of a vertebrated animal, including the intes¬ 
tines in its folds, retaining them in their places, and 
enclosing within its laminae the nerves and vessels 
which connect the nutrimental evolutions of the intes¬ 
tines with the circulation. This membrane is simply 
a prolongation of the peritoneum; and, though event¬ 
ually pxjssessing many duplicatures, is single in its 
upper part. An inflammation in it is called mesen- 
teritis, and recpiires to be treated in the same manner 
as kindred abdominal inflammations. 

Mesmerism, the art of introducing an extraordinary 
or abnormal state of the nervous system, in which the 
actor claims to control the actions, and communicate 
directly with the mind, of the recipient. The actor, 
however, makes such claim to the recipient rather than 
to the public, in order to obtain and keep control of 
him. Mesmerism is often of great medical service; 
and when it avails, it is of course preferable to dosing 
the system with medical nostrums. 

Mesquite (mes-ke'tay or mes-keet'), a rich, native 
grass in Western Texas. 

Meteorology, the science which treats of the phe¬ 
nomena which occur in the atmosphere,—of their 

causes and effects. See Weather. 

\ 

Metheglin: see Mead. 

Metric System. As this is fully explained in all 
our modern school arithmetics, we will give only a 
condensed view here, with a few practical sugges¬ 
tions. For all the (dozen) irregular tables of weights 
and measures now in use, the “metric” system sub¬ 
stitutes only one, small, symmetrical table, where the 
multiples are all tens or tenths. 


' 

VALUES OF THE ROOT WORDS. 

Name. 

Ab ’n. 

Sym. 

Value. 

meter 

em 

m 

39.3685 inches. 

liter 

el 

1 

61.533 cu. in., or dm cubed. 

gram 

eg 

g 

15*433 grains, or cm of water. 

are 

ar 

a 119.589 sq. yds, or Dm square( 

stere 

es 

s 

36.609 cu. ft., or m cubed. 

tonneau 

ton 

t 

2,203 pounds, nearly. 


VALUES OF THE PREFIXES. 

n-filli- 


m 

.001 

centi- 


c 

.01 

deci- 


d 

.1 

• • • » 

doca- 


D 

I. 

10. 

kect- 


H 

100. 

hil- 


K 

1,000. 

myria- 


M 

10,000. 


Each prefix is attached to each root-word, forming 
Self-explanatory derivatives. A millimeter is there¬ 


fore i,oooth of a meter; a centimeter, looth of a 
meter, a decimeter, one-tenth of a meter; a deca¬ 
meter, lo meters; a hectometer, loo meters, etc.; 
and so on with the other terms. A milliliter is looth 
of a liter; a kiloliter, i,ooo liters, etc. The meter is 
for linear measure, the liter is for liquid measure, the 
gram (or gramme) for weight, the are for surface 
measure, and the stere for cubic measure. The 
“ tonneau” is an unnecessary compromise term which 
some persons use. 

By the adoption of this system the worst half of all 
commercial arithmetic would be done away with, and 
all the irregular and vexatious tables of weights and 
measures, covering several pages of our present arith¬ 
metics, with the many accompanying pages required 
to explain and apply them, would be superseded by 
the following: 

milli- 

centi- meter 

deci- liter 

.... gram 

deca- are 

hecto- stere 

kilo- 
myria- 

Not all of the above will be needed in practice in 
this country, the following terms probably being all 
that will ever come into use here : 


Name. 

em 

centem 

dekem 

kilem 

miliar 

deciar 

hectar 

myriar 

es 

centes 

deceg 

hecteg 

kileg 

ton 

el 

decel 

dekel 

hectel 


Symbol. Prox. Val. 
m 1.09 yard 

cm .4 inch 

Dm 2 rods 

Km yi mile 


ma 

da 

Ha 

Ma 

s 

cs 

dg 

Hg 

Kg 

T 

1 

dl 

D 1 

HI 


I square foot 
Yl square rod 
acres 

square mile 

cubic yards 
Yz cubic foot 

1Y2 grains 
Y/t. ounces 
2.4 pounds 
2,203 l^unds, nearly 
I quart 
.8 gill 
2Y2, gallons 
3.1 bushels 


It is suggested that the most convenient method of 
reading metric quantities may be as thus illustrated : 


7.02 dl=seven decels, nought, two. 

45.817 Dm=forty-five dekems, eight, one, seven. 
.036 Hg=nought, three, six hectegs. 

For the convenience of some we will add— 


I foot==304.8 mm 
I sq. ft.= .93 ma 
I quart= .937 1 , or 936 ml 
I pound= 453 g 













MEXICAN FALCON—MILK. 


971 


Mexican Falcon. One of the most beautiful birds 
met with on our western plains is the Mexican or 
Prairie falcon, known also as the Lanier falcon, 
d'hey have brown feathers on the back, while the 
breast has many long dark s^wts, shaped like arrow 
heads, on a yellowish-white ground. The illustration 
on page 659 shows the shape of bill, head, wings, feet, 
and general contour of the body without further 
description. Its length is about 17 inches, with a 
stretch of wings 41 inches. Its motions are quick, 
though exceedingly graceful, and in its flight it cuts 
the air like an arrow. Like all the Falconidae, or 
diurnal birds of prey, it is alw;ays stern and unrelent¬ 
ing in appearance, and is ever on the look-out to cap¬ 
ture and eat some bird more feeble than itself. They 
are noted for their ferocity and bravery and are never 
loth to attack an enemy much larger and stronger 
than itself. 

Miasm, or Miasma, infection floating in the air. 

Mica, a mineral capable of being cleaved into 
elastic plates of extreme thinness. It is sometimes 
colored, but it is always more or less transparent, and 
is very useful in lanterns, doors of stoves, etc. 

Mice. 'I'o destroy, see Rats. For field-mice, see 
Moles. 

Middleman. As the term implies, this means the 
man between the producer and the consumer. He is 
a non-producer and non-consumer, yet realizes profits 
on goods others produce and consume, because he 
carries from one to the other. 

Midge, a minute insect infesting wheat and goose¬ 
berries. The wheat midge is treated under the head of 
Wheat. The gooseberry midge injures gooseberries 
by depositing its egg in the fruit, and the larva, or 
grub, having hatched, feeds inside, and causes the 
gooseberry to present a prematurely ripe appearance, 
to turn red and then drop from the bush. It is recom¬ 
mended to pick all fallen fruit from the ground and 
burn immediately, as, although this may not be the 
means of freeing the bushes the same season, the ber¬ 
ries being already destroyed or infected, the follow¬ 
ing year there will be scarcely any midges to attack 
the crop. 

Midriff (mid'riff), the Diaphragm, which see. 

Migratory, migrating or moving to the North or 
South with the seasons, as is done by numerous birds 
and fishes. 

Milch, furnishing milk: applied only to beasts, as 
milch cows. 

Mildew, a thin, whitish, powdery or cobweb-like 
coating, consisting of minute fungi and found on vari¬ 
ous diseased and decaying substances. Almost any 
organic substance kept in confined moist air at a 
summer temperature, will become covered with 
mildew. 

Often people are greatly troubled and perplexed by 
mildew from damp closets, and we therefore give the 


following receipts for removing it from goods of vari¬ 
ous kinds; 

For Removing Mildew. Dissolve chlorate of lime 
in sufficient water to cover the goods; put in the goods, 
let stand a few minutes, ring out and spread in the 
sun; repeat two or three times and the mildew will" 
entirely disappear; then take up, wash and boil, and 
you will not only find the mildew removed, but your 
clothes nicely bleached. 

To take Mildew out of Muslin. Soak several da) S 
in sour milk, then wash, and dry in hot sun. Repeat 
if necessary. During the summer washing is made 
much easier by soaking clothes in sour milk, taking 
care to wring out of milk and soak in water over night. 

Mildew can be taken out with bar-soap and jx)w- 
dered chalk. Wet the cloth, rub on the mixture, and 
lay it in the sun. 

Preventive. By putting an earthen bowl or deep 
plate full of quicklime into the closet, the lime will ab¬ 
sorb the dampness and also sweeten and disinfect the 
place. Rats, mice and many bugs that are apt to 
congregate in damp places have a dislike to lime. As 
often as the lime becomes slacked throw it on the 
compost heap if in the country, or into the ash-barrel 
if in the city. 

Mile. The statute mile is 5,280 feet, or 1,760 
yards. The geographical or nautical mile is 2,^29 
yards, or 6,087 feet. Some authorities give it as a 
little less. 

Milfoil, yarrow; a tansy-like weed common in old 
pastures, meadows and waste places. 

Milk, a whitish, opaque fluid, composed of a fatty 
substance, which forms butter, a caseous substance, 
which forms cheese, and a watery element, known as 
serum or whey, in cheese-making. Milk is obtained 
only from the class of animals called mammalia, and 
is intended by nature for the nourishment of their 
young. The milk of each animal is distinguished by 
some peculiarities, but that of the cow is of vastly 
more importance to us in this part of the world, and 
of course will receive our greatest attention. To this 
animal we are indebted for three of the most useful 
articles of food,—milk, butter and cheese. 

The butter nfatter in pure milk varies in amount 
from about two and a half to six and a half per cent., 
the clieesy element from three to ten per cent., and 
the serous matter, or whey, from 80 to 90 per cent. 
To the unassisted eye milk looks of a perfectly uni¬ 
form nature and consistence throughout. It contains, 
however, myriads of minute globules of very unequal 
size which under a microscope will be seen floating in 
the vvatery matter. These are enveloped in a delicate 
film of cheesy matter and are so minute that they will 
pass through the finest filter-paper. (See Flecks in 
Milk, page 477.) Milk readily mixes with water 
although of less specific gravity or weight, dts 
average specific gravity is 1,025, that of water being 
one. The various elements of milk being of different 
specific gravities, changes begin to take place in it as 
soon as it is at rest. The butter material being oily 











972 


MILK. 


and lighter than the remainder of the fluid, rises to the 
top and forms cream, while the heavier serous matter 
or whey sinks to the bottom. At a high temperature 
acidity soon sets in and hastens this separation of the 
whey from the other constituents. It is consequently 
easy to distinguish the three principal elements of 
milk. The strength of milk is imparted to it by the 
caseous or cheesy element; its richness by the buttery 
or oily substance, and its sweetness by the sugar of 
milk which it contains. 

1 he proportions of these elements vary consider¬ 
ably according to the breed of the animal, the food, the 
length of time after calving, etc. The first of these 
(piestions will be found fully treated under the head 
of Cows. The udder of the cow is divided into what 
may be termed sections or compartments, of which 
there are four. The two teats of the hind sections 
give, as a rule, more milk than the teats of the front 


practice. In order to render the flow of milk richer 
and more uniform, cows are sometimes spayed, or 
castrated, as described on page 283. A moist climate 
is held to be much more favorable to the production 
of milk than a dry one; consequently in very dry sea¬ 
sons the quantity of milk yielded by the cow will be 
smaller than in moist, mild seasons, though the milk 
will be richer in quality. In summer, milk is richer in 
cheesy matter and less buttery than in winter, hiven 
when feeding is precisely the same, milk is whiter in 
winter than in summer. The milk of the same cow 
is at certain seasons bluer than at others. This is 
often noticed in exceedingly hot weather. The first 
milk drawn from the cow is the poorest; the quality 
progressively improves until the last drop. 

Milk which is carried to a considerable distance, so 
as to be much agitated, and cooled before it is put 
into pans to settle for cream, never throws up so much, 



Arran^^ement/or Steaming Milk Cans, 


sections. Milk is one of the most sensitive of all 
fluids to external influences. The action of many of 
these is not well understood. Even in the cow her¬ 
self it is probable that the milk of the various divis¬ 
ions of the udder differs to some extent in quality. 
It is quite certain that marked differences both in 
comixisition and quality are noticeable in the milk of 
different cows, even when fed on the same food. It 
is conceded by all conversant with the subject that 
the effect of food upon the quality and quantity of 
the milk is more direct aod powerful than anything 
else. This is natural, inasmuch as the food is the 
source from which all the secretions of the body are 
derived. The great importance of this portion of our 
subject is at once manifest. As usual in such cases, 
there is some difference of opinion among authorities 
as to the best and most profitable method of feeding 
milch-cows. But there are certain leading jx)ints 
upon which there is tolerable unanimity of view and 


I nor so rich cream, as if the same milk had been put 
into pans directly after it was milked, 
j When exix)sed to heat milk boils at 199'’, water 
i boiling at 2 [2*^; and in the boiling a curd of caseous 
matter is partly coagulated, rising to the surface in 
form of a i)ellicle or thin skin ; if this be removed it 
is soon succeeded by another, and the effect would go 
on till the residuum would have a watery appearance 
and be incapable of furnishing any more such pellicle. 

The accompanying illustration represents a very 
convenient arrangement for washing, steaming and 
drying milk cans, covers, pans, etc. A is a tank con¬ 
taining water which is heated by steam and conveyed 
from the boiler through the pipe A n,. After being 
washed in this, the cans are inverted and placed on 
the table over the pipes e and d. Steam is then 
turned into them until they become heated, when 
they are removed and placed right side up. Then 
being hot, all moisture on the inside evaporates and 

































































973 


MILK, CONDENSED—MILK EE VER. 


passes off with the steam, leaving them perfectly dry 
and sweet. Covers, small cans, pans, etc., may be 
steamed by piling them on the table and placing a 
blanket or box over them. 

We very fully treat of the selection, feeding, care 
and management of milk cows in the article on Cow, 
and the proper mode of milking and training the calf 
in the same article and in the article Milking. Cream, 
Butter, Dairy and Cheese are treated under their re¬ 
spective heads. 

Milk of Various Animals. There is consider¬ 
able difference in the milk of various animals. 

The milk of the human subject is much thinner 
than cow’s milk and contains more saccharine matter. 
It yields much cream, but no butter can be procured 
from it by agitation. 

Asses’ milk comes the nearest to human milk of 
any other; it has, likewise, more saccharine matter 
than milk from the cow, and is thinner, with a larger 
proportion of curd. It is considered as the lightest 
and easiest to digest of any; hence it is a popular 
remedy in consumption, but is apt to cause diarrhoea 
in very delicate persons, if taken in too great a quan¬ 
tity. Artificial asses’ milk may be prepared by dis¬ 
solving two ounces of sugar of milk in a pint of 
cow’s, milk. Or the following preparations are used 
freely as substitutes for asses’ milk, and may be ad¬ 
ministered in cases of consumption and general de¬ 
bility, a teacupful three or four times a day, either 
plain or with a spoonful of rum. Mix the whites of 
two eggs with three-fourths pint new cow’s milk, and 
one ounce sugar; add three-fourths ounce syrup of 
toll!. 

Goat's milk is something thicker and richer than 
cow’s milk. It has a peculiar aroma, contains a great 
deal of curd, and makes excellent cheese; also afford¬ 
ing butter, which is whiter than that from the cow, 
and is said to keep longer. The milk of the goat is 
much used in Spain, Italy, and the south of France. 

Ewe's 7nilk has the appearance of cow’s milk. It 
affords a larger quantity of cream, forming a soft and 
very fusible butter. Its curd is very soft and unctu¬ 
ous, and when mixed with that of the cow, it gives it 
a rich appearance. It makes excellent cheese, and 
in greater quantity than any other milk, but contains 
the least sugar of any. 

Mare's ynilk contains more sugar than that of the 
ewe, and hence it is much used in Tartary for making 
a fermented liquor. It contains scarcely any butter. 

Carnel's milk is used only in Africa. 

Buffalo's milk in India; it is nearly 

the same with that of the cow, but rather thinner. 

To Keep Milk Sweet. A teaspoonful of fine 
salt or horse-radish in a pan of milk will keep it 
sweet for several days. Milk can be kept a year or 
more as sweet as when taken from the cow by the 
following method: Procure bottles, which must be 
perfectly clean, sweet, and dry; draw the milk from 
the cow into the bottles, and as they are filled, imme¬ 
diately cork them well, with pack-thread or wire. 
Then spread a little straw in the bottom of a boiler. 


• * • 

on which place the bottles, with straw between them, 
until the boiler contains a sufficient quantity. Fill it 
up with cold water, and as soon as it begins to boil 
draw the fire and let the whole cool gradually. When 
quite cold, take out the bottles and pack them in 
sawdust in hampers, and stow them away in the 
coolest place in the house. 

To Deodorize Milk. It frequently occurs in the 
spring, when the farmers are feeding the cows on 
ruta-bagas, or turnips, that the milk becomes so 
strongly impregnated by their disagreeable taste and 
odors as to be unfit for butter-making. To obviate 
this, put a pinch of finely pulverized saltpeter into 
every gallon of cream; a little saltpeter worked into 
butter that has become sour, or rancid, will render it 
sweet and palatable. 

Milk for Infants. When it becomes necessary 
to feed infants on milk other than that of the mother, 
the greatest care should be taken to always have it 
pure and fresh. Goat’s milk being much more like 
human milk than that of the cow, is preferable; but 
when this cannot be had some directions for the prei> 
aration of cow’s milk become necessary. First, assure 
yourself of the perfect health of the cows, as far as 
practicable, and then get the milk from different ones, 
night and morning. Add to it a little loaf-sugar and 
about one-third or one-fourth of water. The water 
should be hot and the sugar dissolved in it; then pour 
it slowly into the milk, and allow it to simmer a little 
over the fire. Throw it away if scorched in the least. 
This should be done morning and evening. The cup 
and spoon used to feed the infant should never be 
used for any other purjxise whatever, and should be 
immediately scalded after using. 

For milk for infants six months old, take one pint 
of milk and one pint of water, boil it and add one 
tablespoonful of flour. Dissolve the flour first in half 
a teacupful of water; it must be strained in gradually, 
and boiled hard twenty minutes. As the child grows 
older, one-third water. If properly made, it is the 
most nutritious, at the same time the most delicate 
food that can be given to young children. 

Milk, Condensed. This is milk from which the 
water has been driven off by evaporation and to 
which sugar has been added. It is, therefore, really 
preserved milk. The following is a process : The milk 
is strained into a receiving vat from which it pass¬ 
es through a second strainer and into the heating 
cans. These are set in water, the milk in them heat¬ 
ed to 90® and passed through another strainer into a 
large wooden vat, at the bottom of which there is a 
copper steam coil. Here the milk is heated to nearly 
the boiling point. A pound and a quarter of the best 
white sugar is added for every gallon of milk, after 
which the milk is drawn off into a cylindrical copper 
vacuum pan provided’with a coil of copper pipe and 
a jacket underneath for steam. Here the milk is 
subjected to steam heat for three hours, and is then 
drawn off into cans, and stirred until the temperature 
is reduced a little below 7o'’. It is then emptied into 











974 


MILK—MILKING. 


drawing cans provided with faucets, and drawn off 
into smaller cans as required. 

Milk Fever. In the human subject this usually 
occurs about the third day after delivery. No medi¬ 
cal treatment is rec^uired except to keep the bowls free 
and to draw the breasts when they are full. For milk 
fever in cows, see page 209. 

Milking. Few things exert a greater or more 
lasting influence on the productiveness of the cow 
than the method of milking. A slow, careless 
milker will soon dry up the best cow in the world, 
as is well-known to every observant farmer. The 
construction of the udder, which will be found de- 
scriljcd in the proper place, w’ill readily account for 
thi.s. Cleanliness of the most scrupulous kind is 
absolutely essential in a good milker. Without 
this, the milk is in constant danger of .spoiling. 
The udder, the hands of the milker and every 
utensil employed should be carefully washed before 
the milking begins. As elsewhere frequently 
stated, the pails should be well scalded with boiling 

► water. The form 
of pail represented 
by Fig. I, is one of 
the best inventions of the 
age in the dairy line. It 
is a pail, milk-stool, and 
strainer, all combined into one 
apparatus. The milker sits on 
ithe pail and milks into the fun- 
supported by a 

andStratnery combined, rubber tube, (lUcl SO CtUlllOt be 

broken by a kick from the cow, or by other acci¬ 
dent. Such a milk pail, also, cannot be kicked over 
by the cow while it is in proper use by the milker. 
The funnel can be fixed higher or lower, to suit 
diflerent cows. The milk is thoroughly protected 
from dirt, and even from the foul odors common to 
the barn-yard. 

jMore’s pyramklal 
milk-strainer (Fig. 
2) is probably the 
most perfect for the 
purpose of straining 
milk. The bowl is 
seamless, and the 
bottom is easily de¬ 
tached, by a turn or 
two, for cleaning, as 
shown in the cut. 
The whole appara¬ 
tus is neatly finished 
and easily kept from 
rusting. 

The milker should 
begin gently and 

Fig. 2. — More's Pyramuial MUk Stramer. gradually, b U t 

should increase the speed of his movements stead¬ 




ily until the udder is emptied. The vessel used to 
receive the milk should be large' enough to hold it 
all, so that there be no need of changing the pail. 
It the milking be in any way interrupted, cows 
not intiequently bold back their milk. Extreme 
care should be taken to strip the udder to the last 
drop, and to do it quickly. Any slowness or care¬ 
lessness, has a direct efl'ect on the yield of the cow. 


I 



Fig. 3. —Graduated Milk Testinsr Tubes 

Milk left in the udder either becomes caked, or is 
re-absorbed into the system, and tends to diminish 
the milk-giving quality of the cow'. Especially is 
thoroughly dry milking necessary in the case of 
young cows with their first calf. The mode of 
milking, and the length of time they can be made 
to hold out, will influence their milking qualities 
ever after. The greatest development of their 
milk-glands will largely depend iq^on the manner 
in which they are milked after their first calf. At 
this period they should have the most milk-produc¬ 
ing food. Gentleness is especially to be exercised 
in their regard; by coaxing and caressing they may 
be brought up gentle and quiet. On the other 
band, nothing tends to dry up a young cow 
more than harshness or cruelty. The same is true 
of older cows. The longer the young cow, with 
her first and second calf, can he made to hold out, 
the greater the prospect of confirming her in this 
habit. She should be induced, if possible, by the 
use of juicy, sweet food, to hold out even up to the 
time of calving, if it be deemed desirable to milk 
her so long, and she may acquire this habit for life. 
Some of the best cows develop their finest quali¬ 
ties slowly, so that the full yield of a cow must not 
be expected the first year after calving. No cow 
is fully developed until her fifth or sixth year. 
Attention to the above points cannot be too 
strongly insisted upon. There is in milch cows a 
constant tendency to dry up which must be guarded 
against with the greatest care until the habit of 
yielding a large and constant quantitv has become 
fixed in them. 

It is unnecessary to dwell here in detail upon the 






























































































MILKING—MIL LE T. 


075 


best method of carrying milk to market. Practice 
in this regard varies according to locality, climate, 
and the distance which the milk has to be carried. 

It is to the vlairyman’s interest to watch the im¬ 
provements made and to adopt them. 

. The specific gravity of milk, as before stated, is 
somewhat greater than that of water, but it vaides 
considerably in different cows and in dififerent 
yields of the same cow. The richer the milk is 
in cream, the less will be its specific gravity. Salt 
fed to the caw will, within a few hours, make the 
specific gravity vary from one to three per cent. 
Thick milk throws up much less of the cream it 
actually contains than thinner milk. The addi¬ 
tion of water will largely increase the yield of 
cream, but at the expense of the milk left behind. 

Cows are usuall}'^ milked twice a day, in the 
early morning and in the evening. Milking but 
once a day of course lessens the quantity of the 
yield, but increases its richness. For some weeks 
after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows 
ought, undoubtedly, to be milked, if possible, three 
times a day. In young cows, this practice, after 
calving, develops the udder and the milk veins. 
Frequent milking increases the secretion of th3 
fluid, and should never be neglected, either in the 
case of young cows, or of very large milkers, 
at the height of the flow, which will last for two 
or three months after calving. The greater gentle¬ 
ness of women renders them better adapted than 
men for milking. If possible, the same person 
should always milk the same cow, and should not 
be changed unless there are urgent reasons for it. [ 
The milk of every cow added to the dairyman’s 
stock should be tested, so as to determine the milk¬ 
giving qualities of each, which will be found to 
vary very considerably. It is needless to say that 
the poorest milk-producers should be weeded out 
of the stock and replaced by better ones. 


Milk-pans, ok Coolers. The material of 
which milk-pans for dairy use are generally made, 
is either tin or earthenware. The main objection 

to the former 
is the trouble' 
of keeping 
them clean; to 
the latter their 
liability to 
break, and 
their weight. 
The lead con¬ 
tained in the 
glaze of many 
kinds of earth¬ 
enware, upon 
which the acid 
of milk acts, 
is a serious ob¬ 
jection. When 
glazed with 
salt, they un- 
d o u b t e d 1 y 
form the best, 
although not 
the handiest, 
coolers. Much 
diversity of 
opinion exists 
with regard to 



the best form 
prefer a very 
introduced by 



Fig. 4.— Milk- Testing Tudes. 

By the testing tubes represented by Fig. 4 the 
milk furnished by each patron is sampled, and the 
tube reserved for his particular use. The gradu¬ 
ated tubes represented by Fig. 3 on preceding page, 
are for m(u e general use. 


Fig. 5. —Crane for Hoisting Milk. 

of tin milk-pan or cooler. Some 
shallow form, others the forms 
Cooley and Hardin, which are deep, for which see 
article on Butter. 

Milk-teeth, the fore teeth of a foal, which come 
at the age of about three months, and are cast 
within two or three years. Also, the first set of 
teeth in a child, 20 in number, consisting of tbe four 
front teeth in each jaw, the two jDairs of canines (or 
“ eye-teeth ”) and two pairs of grinders (“ double 
teeth”). 

Milkweed. A well-known weed, of several 
species, the milky juice of which is supposed to be 
semi-poisonous. 

Millet. I n its growth and manner of bearing 
its seeds, the millet strongly resembles a minia¬ 
ture broom-corn. It reaches a height of two and 
a half to four feet, with a profusion of stalks and 
leav es, which constitute excellent forage for cattle. 
From 80 to 100 bushels of seed per acre have 
been raised, and with straw equivalent to one and 
Ea half or two tons of hay; but an average crop 
may be estimated at about one-third this quantity. 
Owing to the great waste during the ripening of 
the seed, from the shelling of the earliest of it 
before the last is matured, and the frequent depre¬ 
dations of birds which are fond of it, millet is 
more profitably cut when the first seeds have be- 


(2 










































































































































976 


MILT—MOLE. 


gun to ripen, and harvested for fodder. It is cured 
like hay, and on good land yields from two to four 
tons per acre. All cattle relish it, and it is fully 
equal to good hay. 

Millet requires a dry, rich and well pulverized soil. 
It will grow on thin soil, but best repays on the fertile. 
It should be sown broadcast or in drills, from May first 
to July first, according to latitude, climate, soil, etc. 
If for hay, and sown broadcast, 40 quarts per acre 
will be required; if sown in drills for the grain, eight 
quarts of seed will suffice. It will ripen in 60 to 75 
days, with favorable weather. When designed for 
fodder, the nearer it can approach to ripening, with¬ 
out waste in harvesting, the more valuable will be 
the crop. See page 598. 

Milt, the spleen; also the “soft roe” of fishes, or 
the spermatic part of the males. 

Mince Meat. Three pounds of raisins, stoned; 

3 pounds of currants; 3 pounds of beef suet, chopped 
fine; i jx)und of bread crumbs; ^ pound of mixed 
candied peel; i pounds of fillet of beef, previously 
cooked. Salt, sugar, spices and ginger to taste. Each 
ingredient to be chopped up separately and very fine. 
Mix all well together, and take especial care that the 
beef is well mixed with the other ingredients. Moisten 
with a bottle of brandy and stir occasionally. 

Excellent mince meat is made as follows:* Two 
pounds currants; 5 pounds peeled and cored apples; 
2 pounds lean boiled beef; i pound beef suet; ^ 
pounds citron; pounds coffee sugar; 3 pounds of 
raisins; 2 tablespoonfuls cinnamon; i nutmeg, and i 
tablespoonful each of mace, cloves and allspice, i 
pint wine, cider and brandy. Wash the currants, dry 
and pick them, stone the raisins, remove the skin and 
sinews from the beef and chop each ingredient up 
separately and very fine; place as soon as done in a 
large pan, set on the stove, let it just come to a boil, 
mix thoroughly, pack in jars, keep in a cool place. 

Lemon Mince Meat. Take i large lemon; 3 large 
apples ; 4 ounces of beef suet; pound of currants; 

4 ounces of white sugar; i ounce of candied orange 
and citron. Chop up the apples and beef suet; mix 
them with the currants and sugar; then squeeze the 
juice from a large lemon into a cup; boil the lemon 
thus squeezed till tender enough to beat to a mash ; 
add to it the mince meat; pour over it the juice of 
the lemon and add the citron chopped fine. 

Minim, in apothecaries’ measure, is about one 
drop. 

Minnow, a small and well known fresh-water fish 
of the carp family. It seldom exceeds three inches 
in length and is usually seen much smaller. It equals 
many of the most famous fish in the delicate flavor of 
its flesh. It is extensively used by anglers as bait. 

Mint-julep, a drink consisting of brandy, sugar 
and pounded ice, flavored with sprigs of mint. 

Mirrors, To Clean. Take a newspaper, fold it 
small, dip it in a basin of clear, cold water. When 


thoroughly wet, squeeze it out as you do a s^xjuge, 
then rub it pretty hard all over the surface of the 
glass, taking care that it is not so wet as to run down 
in streams; in fact, the paper must only be completely 
moistened or dampened all through. Let it rest a 
few minutes, then go over the glass with a piece of 
fresh, dry newspaper, till it looks clear and bright. 
The insides of windows may be cleaned in the same 
way; also spectacle glasses, lamp glasses, etc. 

Mite. The mite family comprises very small, often 
microscopic, spider-like insects, some of which are 
found almost everywhere, both on animals and plants 
as well as decaying substances, as parasites. Thus 
we have the itch mite, flour mite, etc. 

Moire Antique (mwor an-teek'), a silken cloth with 
a clouded, mottled or watered appearance, made for 
ladies’ dresses. 

Molar, one of the grinding or “ double” teeth. In 
man there are 12 of these, counting the “wisdom” 
teeth, which are generally developed when the indi¬ 
vidual is 18 to 2 1 years of age. 

Molasses, the uncrystallizable part of the saccha¬ 
rine juice, either naturally so or rendered uncrystalliz¬ 
able through the process of heating. When fermented 
it yields rum by distillation. See Cane. 

Mold: see Mildew. 

Mole. I. A well-known species of burrowing ani¬ 
mal with a very soft fur. 2. A spot, mark or small, 
permanent protuberance on the human body, from 
which one or more hairs sometimes grow. 3. A plow 
of peculiar construction, for forming underground 
drains. This word has several other meanings, but 
they are of no practical interest to the non-profes¬ 
sional man. 

To Remove Flesh Moles. Apply muriatic acid; 
use the end of a broom straw, and apply to the mole 
until it sinks perfectly flat; only one application, well 
applied, being necessary; it will be sore for over a 
week, and will come off in a small scab, and soon heal 
over. 

Meadow Mole. The common ground mole or 
“ meadow mole,” as this little animal is often called, 
is of interest from a zoological point of view, but in 
this article we will deal only with the practical side 
of the subject in its relations to agiiculture and horti¬ 
culture. The mole is both useful and hurtful. When 
his services more than counterbalance the injury he 
commits, he should be left unmolested. On the other 
hand, when he becomes, as he often does, an intoler¬ 
able nuisance, he may be more or less successfully 
dealt with in the manner we will proceed to describe. 

It is very annoying to see a handsome lawn cov¬ 
ered with unsightly ridges plowed by the noses and 
paws of these little depredators; but the knowledge 
that they are the natural enemies of the numerous 
worms and grubs that sometimes make fearful war 
upon the roots of growing young crops, renders it often 
difficult to decide whether the moles are to be w’el- 









MOLINE—MOR TA GE. 


977 


coined as allies or combated with such means as are 
available. 

The mole is a purely carnivorous animal and never 
does any damage to plant life except in pursuit of his 
prey. He may break and disturb the tender roots of 
young plants, but he does not devour them, and he is 
often wrongly blamed for injury which has been com¬ 
mitted by the insect depredators he has caught and 
devoured. 

The held mouse, on the contrary, does devour 
tender, succulent roots, and the mole is too often 
charged with the damage thus sustained by farmers, 
in addition to that really due to his burrowings. 

The simplest form of trap, and one that will prove 
effectual in catching these little animals if skillfully 
employed, is the jar mole trap shown in the accom¬ 
panying illustration. A glass or stoneware jar is sunk 



Mole Trap. 

into the ground under the runs as indicated in the 
engraving. The moles, while running along, fall into 
the jar, and the vertical slippery sides of the jar pre¬ 
vent their getting out again. Field mice are also 
frequently caught in these traps, which leads to the 
suspicion that they are the authors of much of the mis¬ 
chief attributed to moles, whose burrows form con¬ 
venient avenues for the intruders. 

Moline (mo'lin), the crossed iron that supports 
the upper mill-stone. 

MoUebart (mol'ly-bart), an agricultural imple¬ 
ment used in Flanders, consisting of a large shovel, 
drawn by a horse and guided by a man. 

Molting, the periodical shedding of the plumage 
of birds and the hair of quadrupeds. 

The molting of birds occurs twice a year, and is 
either total or partial. A total molt generally takes 
place once a year, and a partial molt accompanies 
the change of tints in the plumage whicjr certain 
species undergo at the season of breeding. A new 
plumage is developed at every molt; and, according 
to the species and the season, it^ either may or may 1 
not have the same tints as the old plumage. The j 
winter plumage of some species is always different in 
color from the summer plumage. 

The horse retains the hair of his mane and tail in 
a perennial way, but sheds all his other hair twice a 
year. His fine, short coat of summer would be of 
insufficient service to him in winter, and his heavy 
long coat of winter would be oppressive to him in 


summer; and therefore, like all other animals which 
need a similar change, he receives from the beneficence 
of his Creator a regular change of clothing in beauti¬ 
ful adaptation to his wants and comfort. But as he 
lives in a somewhat artificial state, he experiences, 
some suffering and requires some special attention 
from his keeper during the progress of the change. 
He experiences excited action in the vessels of the 
skin, and is in consequence slightly feverish, and 
becomes chilled, thirsty, irtitable and weak. He 
suffers more at the autumnal than at the vernal molt¬ 
ing, for the production of the long, heavy coat of 
winter makes greater demands upon his system than 
the production of the short, light one of summer. The 
curry-comb ought to be sparingly applied during 
molting, lest it should too rapidly force off the old 
coat before the new one be duly produced. 

Momentum, or Impetus, the force of a moving 
j body. 

Monger, a trader or dealer. 

I Monkey, in mechanics, an apparatus for disengag- 
j ing and securing again the ram of a pile engine. 

Monkey-wrench, one which has an adjustable 
jaw, worked by a screw. 

Moon Blindness, a disease in the eyes of horses. 
It is treated on page 778 under the head of Specific 
Ophthalmia. 

Moose, the largest of the deer genus. They in¬ 
habit the northern [xjrtion of the United States and 
live in swampy places. 

Moose Elm, the red elm. 

Moose-wood, the striped maple; see Maple. 

Morass, a peaty marsh, so soft and spongy and 
saturated with water as not to be able to bear animals 
on its surface. 

Mordant, any substance, as alum or copperas, that 
gives fixity to dyes, rendering them indelible or fast. 
It is requisite in the case of every dye which of itself 
merely stains cloth and can be washed out with 
water. It possesses an affinity for both the dye and 
the cloth. 

Morel (mor el), an edible mushroom, brown, egg- 
shaped, and growing in the shade of trees in June. 

Morello, a variety of cherry which is hardy in the 
Northern States, the fruit being large, juicy and 
purple, or almost black when ripe: see Cherry. 

Morgan Horse: see page 696. 

Morphine, an alkaloid obtained from opium and 
possessing the narcotic and sedative jxrwers of that 
substance; see Opium. 

Mortgage, a conveyance or transfer of real or per¬ 
sonal property to secure the grantee or assignee the 
payment of some debt, or the performance of some 
agreement, with a condition or understanding that, in 
case the debt is paid or the undertaking is per- 


























978 


MOR TIFICA T/ON—AfO TH. 


formed, within a certain time, and in the specified man¬ 
ner, the conveyance or assignment shall be void and 
the land or personal jjroperty revert to, or rather still 
belongs to, the mortgagor. Although the title to the 
property named appears to pass to the mortgagee by 
such a deed, the law of this country holds that it does 
not; that the mortgage is merely a security and not a sale 
and the mortgagor retains the title and control of the 
land, subject to the mortgagee, until a decree of court 
“forecloses ” or shuts out his “equity of redemption” 
or right to redeem the land by paying the mortgage 
after it becomes due. 

Blank forms of mortgages are so easily obtained, 
being on sale in every hamlet throughout the Union, 
we deem it quite unnecessary to give them here. We 
wish to make a few practical observations upon the 
principle of mortgaging property. In general it is 
very hazardous to place a mortgage over a farm, and 
the circumstances should, indeed, be most extra¬ 
ordinarily pressing that would induce a farmer to 
cover his only piece of property with a mortgage. 
Golden visions of wealth gained in a certain specula¬ 
tion may induce him to mortgage his farm to secure 
the necessary funds in order to carry out his scheme. 
Profits in speculative business are so uncertain that 
nineteen times out of twenty he will be disappointed 
and cripple himself financially and perhaps lose his 
farm. 

It has been said of a mortgage on the farm that it 
is in many respects worse than a cancer on the body. 
Everything then which should go to nourish and 
strengthen the one goes to the other, and both body 
and farm grow haggard and are lost if the affliction 
be not removed. No wonder it is termed “ mortgage ” 
or “dead pledge.” It usually kills the land while the 
mortgagor holds jxjssession by eating its profits in 
interest. 

_ Could we present in tabular form, so that a single 
view would cover all, the statistics of financial ruin 
caused by mortgages and other process of securing 
debts instead of paying them, or better still, never 
making them, it would cause many a farmer to stop 
before he rushes into the mire from which so many 
never get out. 

Mortification: see Gangrene. 

Mosaic (mo-za'ik), inlaid work, in which the effect 
of painting is produced by the use of pieces of colored 
stone or bother hard substance, natural or artificial. 
'Fhe figures are generally geometrical and symmetrical, 
and the blocks containing them constitute expensive 
ornamentation in walks, walls and other structures. 

Mosquitoes, To Clear a Room of, take of gum 
camphor a piece about Yi the size of an egg, and 
evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel, and holding 
it oyer a lamp or candle, taking care that it does not 
ignite. The smoke will soon fill the room and expel 
the mosquitoes. 

To Keep Away Mosquitoes. Dip a piece of 
sponge or flannel in camphorated spirits, and make it 
fast to the top of the bed-stead. A decoction of penny¬ 


royal, or some of the bruised leaves, rubbed on the 
exposed parts, will effectually keep off these trouble¬ 
some insects. 

For remedy for mosquito bites, see Insect Bites, 
page 894. 

Moth. These numerous and beautiful insects, 
which are seldom seen except at night, were included 
by Linnaeus in the genus Phalmia. Since his time, 
however, naturalists have divided them into an im¬ 
mense number of different groups. Of the moth 
family the genus Tinea are those most destructive, in 
their larva state they devouring almost every kind of 
substances. The winged moth enter through the 
cracks into the closets, drawers, chests, or get under 
the edges of carpets, or into the folds of curtains and 
garments and dejx)sit their eggs, which hatch into 
caterpillars in about 15 days, and immediately begin to 
gnaw the substances within reach and cover them¬ 
selves with the fragments, shaping them into hollow 
rolls and lining them with silk. They generally live 
in these rolls through the summer, enlarging them as 
they grow, and carrying on their work of destruction, 
but in the autumn become torpid, change to pupas 
in the spring, and in 20 days come forth winged 
moths, which in turn lay their eggs for a new brood. 
The various species are all noxious, and however bril¬ 
liant the perfect insects may be they should be de¬ 
stroyed wherever found. 

To Secure Goods from Moths. The destruction 
caused by these little pests can be counted only by 
millions yearly, and they are the plague of every 
housekeeper. Unless you can hermetically seal a 
cask or box, you can scarcely keep the miller out, as 
she will crawl through a good sized pin-hole. There¬ 
fore something offensive must be used, and perhaps 
there is nothing so effective and cheap as petroleum 
paper; or even the common tar roofing paper will an¬ 
swer. Buy your paper in rolls, cut in sections long 
enough to cover the inside, the bottom and the sides, 
and lap over on the top of the box. All of the inside 
of the box must be covered, and on the inside of this 
again place wrapping paper to prevent the contact of 
nice clothing with the petroleum paper. Use a large 
box—no matter about being very tight, as the paper 
will cover the holes—and pack in all your woolens 
and furs, filling it full. Bring the paper up which 
has been hanging over the sides of the box, and let it 
cover the whole so that the miller cannot enter with¬ 
out crawling over the petroleum paper, which she will 
never do. Nail on the cover of your box and your 
clothing is safe for three years, if you want to leave it 
that long. It is much cheaper and does not evajxjrate 
like camphor, and the carbolic acid in it seems to act 
like an antiseptic on the animal fiber of the wool, to 
preserve and make it healthful. 

To Keep Moths from Carpets. Moths will work 
in carpets in rooms that are kept warm in the winter 
as well as the summer. A sure method of removing 
the pests is to pour strong alum water on the floor to 
the distance of half a yard around the edges before 
















979 


MO THER—MUCK. 


laying the carpets. Then once or twice during the 
season sprinkle dry salt over the carpet before sweep¬ 
ing. Insects do not like salt, and sufficient adheres 
to the carpet to prevent them alighting upon it. 

To Secure Woolens from Moths. Carefully 
shake and brush woolens early in the spring, so as to 
be certain that no eggs are in them; then sew them 
up in cotton or linen wrappers, putting a piece of 
camphor gum, tied up in a bit of muslin, into each 
bundle, or into the chests and closets where the arti¬ 
cles are to lie. No moth will approach while the 
smell of the camphor continues. When the gum is 
evaporated it must be renewed. 

To preserve furs from moth see page 551. 

Mother, of vinegar and other liquors, a thick slimy 
substance of a fungoid nature, different from either 
the scum or the dregs. 

Motorpathy (mo-tor-pa-thy), movement cure. See 
Hygiene. 

Moult. See Molting. 

Mouse-piece, the piece of beef cut from the part 
next below the round, or from the lower part of the 
latter: called also “mouse buttock.” 

Mouse. See Rat. 

Mousselin (moos-leen ), muslin. 

Mouth. For scald mouth and inflammation of the 
mouth of the horse, see page 811. 

An excellent wash for common sore mouth is 
a solution of chlorate of potash. Make a strong solu¬ 
tion, wash the sore and swallow a little occasionally. 
A few of the crystals of chlorate of potash put in the 
mouth and left to dissolve will prove very effective 
and is a very mild remedy. Yellow root (goldenseal) 
is very effective in cases of sore mouth. Take some 
of the root in the mouth and chew, or put some of 
the powder on the sores. A mild cathartic should 
be taken. 

Mow (mou), a pile of hay or sheaves of grain de¬ 
posited in a barn; also, the place in a barn where hay 
or grain in the sheaf is stowed. To “mow-burn” is to 
heat and ferment in the mow, as hay when housed too 
green or wet. 

Mower, a machine for cutting grass and clover. 
This is one of the most useful machines upon the 
farm. It is also at present one of the most common. 
I’hey are so widely and universally distributed through¬ 
out the country, and their use and care so thoroughly 
understood that we need give but a reference to them. 
The competition in the manufacture and sale of the 
various patterns is so brisk that a farmer need not 
be at a loss in his selection. As to the general care of 
the machine we refer the reader to page 864, under 
the head of Implements. 

Mowing, the cutting down of grain, grass or weeds, 
either with a scythe or mower. Before the days of 
mowing machines the art of mowing with the scythe 
was difficult to attain to a high degree. This imple¬ 


ment is seldom used at present, except in corners of 
fences, or on very rocky or stumpy land. 

Mucilage: see Glue. 

Muck. A mass of decom[X)sing matter, consisting _ 
largely of dead vegetable substances, and very suit¬ 
able for manuring purposes. 

Swamp muck is formed by the imperfect decompo¬ 
sition of vegetable matter. It consists of the more or 
less completely decomposed remains of countless gen¬ 
erations of marshy plants, mosses, grasses and sedges, 
together with the materials which have been washed 
in, or blown in from the surrounding land. It is the 
product of cool and moist situations. In moist and 
cool climates the decomposition of vegetable materi¬ 
als is slow, while the growth of the plants furnishing 
this mateiial is rapid. In tropical countries, in conse¬ 
quence of the rapidity of decomjDosition of vegetable 
matter, no deposit of pblit occurs except in cool moun¬ 
tainous elevations. 

In consequence of the vaiyfing conditions under 
which this vegetable decomposition may proceed, there 
may be found in the same bed three well-marked 
varieties of muck: First, we find mossy materials 
which have undergone little change, having the origi¬ 
nal plant structure very perfectly preserved, of a brown 
color, and when dry very light and spongy, like com¬ 
pressed hay. This substance is of no value as a ma¬ 
nure, not having reached such a stage of decomposi¬ 
tion as to develop any valuable qualities. Second, we 
have material which has. decomposed so completely 
that only traces of the original vegetable structure can 
be detected. The material is a solid, unctuous mass, 
which cuts like soft clay or old cheese, and may be 
termed cheesy muck. It is of a dark brown or black 
color, and usually the darker the color the better the 
quality, because this darker color shows that it has 
combined with some alkaline substance by which its 
quality is improved. This cheesy muck is usually 
formed by decomposition of vegetable matter under 
water. When this cheesy muck is dried it shrinks in 
volume, forming a hard, coaly mass, and may remain 
exposed to the weather for years without much change. 
Third, when this cheesy muck has been exposed to 
the air so as to be thoroughly acted on by the. frost, 
we find a dark brown or black powdery mass, which 
is not to be distinguished from the vegetable matter 
or mould of soils. It is this which is of so much value 
to the farmer, and is the only kind of muck which is 
fit for immediate application to the soil, or for any use 
except to form composts with fermentable manures or 
with alkaline substances. It must be borne in mind, 
however, that the cheesy muck, thrown on the land 
under such circumstances that it will be thoroughly 
frozen before it dries out, will thereby be changed to 
this powdery muck. The action of the frost and 
weather on muck must be considered as almost indis¬ 
pensable for the successful use of it as a manure. 

How TO Use Muck. If the bog is near the barn¬ 
yard, draw the muck immediately to it; otherwise 
deposit it with wheelbarrows in ridges not more than 










980 


MUCUS—MULCH. 


two feet deep on the most convenient bank; let it 
drain and dry until after the fall harvest, and then 
gradually draw it into the yards to be worked over by 
domestic animals; dump it upon the drier portions of 
the yard, around a basin which should let nothing 
escape. The following May it will be in the best con- . 
dition to apply to the crops. All the manure made 
during the winter should be spread over that which 
lies in the yard, and afterward new muck drawn in, to 
be worked over by the animals, and so on. Or, apply 
ashes, salt and lime to the muck-heaps, letting them 
stand a full year, and it will be good for use. 

Muck may be used to deodorize and preserve in an 
inoffensive form the manural matter derived from dead 
animals. When a dead animal is properly covered 
with muck, no offensive gases escape and all the 
manural matters are preserved. 

Mucus, the viscid, ropy sefretions of the mucous 
membrane. This is the membrane which lines the 
mouth, nostrils, exterior of the eyes* lungs, stomach, 
intestines, bladder and urinary apparatus. Mucus is 
a substance generally liquid, and appears to be em¬ 
ployed by nature for the purpose of lubricating mov¬ 
able parts, or protecting them from the action of 
other substances. 

Muflan, a light, spongy cake, circular and flat; also, 
an earthen table plate of moderate size. 

Corn Muffins. Two cups yellow Indian meal, 
one cup flour, three eggs, four tablespoonfuls of sugar, 
and a little salt, a piece of lard or butter the size of an 
egg, one teaspoonful saleratus and two of cream tar¬ 
tar. The cream tartar must be put in dry with the 
flour, and the saleratus mixed with a little warm wa¬ 
ter and put in last of all; mix all together with milk 
as thick as i)ound-cake batter. Pour in corn-muffin 
pans and bake in a hot oven. 

Brown Flour Muffins. One quart tepid water, 
half cup yeast, one tablespoonful of Indian meal, two 
of molasses, two pints Graham flour, one pint wheat, 
one teaspoonful of soda about half an hour before 
baking—as thick as soft gingerbread ; bake half an 
hour, or in greased rings on a griddle. 

Flour Muffins. One-half cup of butter, one- 
half cup of sugar, two cups of milk, three teaspoon¬ 
fuls of yeast powder rubbed thoroughly into a scant 
quart of flour, and a little salt; bake in muffin rings. 

Rice Muffins. Take one cup of cold boiled rice, 
one pint of flour, two eggs, one quart of milk, one ta¬ 
blespoonful of butter, and one teaspoonful of salt; 
beat very hard and bake quickly. 

Hominy Muffins. Take two cups of fine hominy, 
boiled and cold; beat it smooth; stir in three cups 
of sour milk, half a cup of melted butter, two tea¬ 
spoonfuls of salt, two tablespoonfuls of white sugar; 
then add three eggs well beaten, one teaspoonful of 
soda dissolved in hot water, and one large cup of 
flour; bake quickly. 

Oatmeal Muffins. Put a cup and a half of oat¬ 
meal and half a cup of corn meal to soak in two cups 
of sour milk for an hour or more. Add two eggs, a 


tablespoonful of sugar, a teasixionful of salt and a 
half teaspoon of soda dissolved in a tablespoonful 
of hot water. Heat the muffin tins and grease them 
well. Bake in a quick oven. 

Mulberry. 'Fhe red mulberry, the only native 
species of mulberry in the United States, is a tree na¬ 
tive in our western forests, having a leaf like that of 
an elm, and ripening in July, bearing a fruit like a 
long blackberry, which is very' delicious to the taste, 
though it is very subject to worms. It is • rarely 
picked from the tree, as it falls as soon as ripe; and 
it is therefore the custom, with cultivated trees, to 
keep the surface of the ground underneath in a short 
turf, so that the fruit may be gathered from clean 
grass. 

Several varieties are cultivated in the older coun¬ 
tries, but none in the northwestern portion of the 
United States. In Europe the Black is the leading 
variety, and in the eastern portion of America the 
Ever-bearing and the Johnson are the principal kinds 
in cultivation. Several varieties of the white mulberry 
are cultivated for silk. 

The Russian mulberry was first brought to this 
country by the Russian Mennonites, a few years ago. 
In Russia the fruit is used as we use raspberries and 
blackberries. The tree is, as near as we can learn, a 
cross between the black mulberry and the native 
Russian variety. It grows very large, frequently 
reaching a height of 50 feet. The timber is hard and 
durable and the fence posts made from it have the 
lasting qualities of catalpa or red cedar. A part of 
the trees have beautiful cut leaves, and some of them 
have as many as twelve lobes. The bark is grayish 
white, branches drooping. The Russians also use it 
as a hedge plant, and it stands shearing as well as 
any tree on the list. It also grows as readily from 
cuttings as cottonwood or willow. The tree is per¬ 
fectly hardy. Mercury 30® below zero and not even 
the twigs injured. 

The best soil for the mulberry is a deep, rich, sandy 
loam. The tree requires little or no pruning, and is 
of very easy culture. It is usually propagated by 
cuttings three feet long, planted half their depth in 
the ground in the spring. Cuttings made of pieces 
of the roots will also send up shoots, which will grow 
well. 

Mulch, the placing of straw, leaves, or other litter 
around the roots of trees. Covering the soil with a 
mulch is valuable in many ways, besides the decay 
of the material placed upon the ground, of the added 
fertility of the manure or straw. A certain amount of 
moisture must be retained in the soil to allow the 
fibrous roots to feed to the best advantage. If there is 
more than the required amount of water, the soil is 
too cold for the best results, and the air is excluded 
by the water to an extent that prevents or retards 
chemical action. When ammonia escapes from de¬ 
caying vegetation or from the soil and passes into the 
atmosphere, it does not chemically unite with other 
substances, but simply remains suspended, to be 












MULE. 


981 


brought to the earth by the first rain. If the soil be 
covered by a heavy mulch this atmospheric ammonia 
is retained and hoarded for plant food. 

A heavy mulch breaks the force of the rains, and 
prevents them from compacting the soil. It also pro¬ 
tects the surface from freezing as readily as when ex¬ 
posed, and thus keeps it longer open to the action of 
the air and moisture. 

The throwing out of winter grain is often prevent¬ 
ed, because this is generally due to the frequent 
- freezing and thawing of the surface soil. When wet 
surface soil freezes, it is raised up, and the young 
plants growing in are raised with it; when the frost is 
thawed out, the soil falls back to its original position, 
while parts of the crown or root of the crop remain 
elevated. The next freeze takes hold lower down 
and lifts them again, and the next thaw' leaves them 
higher up, until frequently in the spring a crown 
of clover or wheat stands three inches out of the 
ground. 

Mulching prevents the rapid freezing or thawing, 
so the changes are not so frequent. It also prevents 
the baking of the soil. 

Mule, the offspring of the male ass and the female 
horse. The offspring of the male horse and the fe¬ 
male ass is the hinny. We refer the reader to the ar¬ 
ticle on Hinny, where the difference between the mule 
and hinny and their respective peculiarities are dis¬ 
cussed. Mules are incapable of reproduction, as with 
• few exceptions all hybrids are. They are more high¬ 
ly esteemed and generally used in the South than in 
the North. 'Fhey are more hardy in constitution, 
more muscular in proportion to their weight and more 
patient than horses. They are also less subject to 
disease, longer-lived, require less care and attention, 
and can subsist on less food. They are especially 
adapted to hard and rough roads, being , very sure¬ 
footed. Indeed there is no more useful or willing 
animal than the mule, and perhaps no other domestic 
animal has received so little attention and been so 
greatly abused. Popular opinion of his nature has not 
been favorable, and he has therefore had to labor and 
plod through life against the prejudices of the people. 
Still, both in peace and in war, he has been the great 
friend of man, serving him well and faithfully. Could 
he tell man what he most needed it would be kind 
treatment. 

The mule is not naturally vicious, as is supposed, 
and wholly incapable of appreciating kindly treat¬ 
ment. His heels are his means of defense, and are 
dangerous to those who wantonly provoke him and 
place themselves in his way. His long ears are sensi¬ 
tive and by roughly handling them his combative¬ 
ness is easily arohsed, and distrust is awakened to 
that degree that renders him almost, unmanageable. 
Yet he may be so raised and trained as to make him 
gentle, obedient, even affectionate. One thing should 
always be observed, however,in dealing with him,and 
that is to keep out of the way of his heels, which he 
throws out as instinctively when startled, irritated or 


approached by a stranger as a cat thrusts out her 
paws. 

The mule was known and much used by the 
ancients, but what prompted his production must 
forever remain a mystery. He was found useful in 
making long journeys, climbing mountains and cross-" 
ing deserts, and when food and water were scarce 
and horses would have perished. He was used by 
men of rank, and even rulers, in ancient times, as 
beasts of burthen. They were employed to draw 
the carriages of Roman ladies, and within the present 
century the coaches of the Spanish nobility have 
been drawn by them. 

Breeding. The mule is a hybrid and cannot breed 
either with its own or other classes of animals; conse¬ 
quently it is necessary to breed asses, or import them, 
to keep up the stock of mules. It has been a pre¬ 
vailing custom to use anything in the shape of an 
ass, no matter how inferior, for breeding purposes. 
The mares generally recommended for mule breeding 
are big, homely ones. This is all wrong. To raise 
good mules it is just as important to have good 
parents as it is in breeding any kind of animals. To 
produce a good, well-proportioned mule, a good, com¬ 
pact and serviceable mare must be bred to a well- 
marked, well-built and excellent jack. It is of greater 
importance, however, to have a good jack than an 
excellent mare. A blooded mare should be used for 
breeding horses if anything. Her offspring, coupled 
with a jack, would not be nearly so valuable as if put 
to a good stallion. Besides, the connection with the 
jack will likely prevent her from ever giving birth to 
a pure colt. If bred to a stallion after having pro¬ 
duced a mule, the mare will be almost sure to have a 
colt marked, to quite a degree, like the ass. A bad 
temper in a mare, or any tendency toward a vicious 
disposition, should wholly disqualify her for breeding 
mules. The Norman blood is perhaps the best to be 
sought in the mare. 

Care of the Colt. When fully matured the 
mule is a remarkably healthy and hardy animal, but 
in his earliest years is quite tender and timid. While 
young he requires as good care and as much atten¬ 
tion as does the horse colt. He does not require as 
much corn and oats as the common colt, but he 
should have abundance of good hay, plenty of fresh 
water and ample shelter. If castration is to be per¬ 
formed it should be done before the mule is six 
months old, and it will generally be better to do it as 
early as the fourth month. The operation requires as 
much care and skill as it does for the horse colt. 
This is described on page 707. 

Breaking. The mule does not require as complete 
a course of training as the horse, because its range of 
work is more limited; but so far as it does go it should 
be thorough. In breaking the mule most persons are 
apt to get out of patience with him; but patience is 
the most essential thing in breaking the mule. He 
is an unnatural animal, and hence more timid than 
the horse and more difficult to be made to understand 
what you want; but when he does and has confidence 







982 


MU LEY—MUSH. 


in you, you will have but little difficulty in making 
him perform his duties. Begin early to handle him 
and do so often. Teach him to lead, to be tied up 
and to have things put upon his back and to feed 
from the hand. Never spring at him, nor yell at him, 
never jerk him, never strike him with a club. Show 
him that you are friendly and have no desire to hurt 
him. In this way the young mule may be taught 
almost as readily as the horse. 

Mules seem generally to be born kickers. It makes 
no difference how they are bred, the moment they are 
able to stand up, and you touch them, they will kick. 
In beginning to break them, therefore, kicking is the 
first thing to guard against and overcome. This is 
most easily remedied by kind treatment. Harsh 
treatment will invariably make him worse. Observ¬ 
ing these and the statements made on breaking 
horses in the article on the Horse, the mule may be 
subdued and made useful. 

General Observations. It has been said that 
the mule never scares or runs away. This is not true. 
He is not so apt to get frightened and run away as 
the horse is, but any one who has had long experience 
with them knows that they will both get frightened 
and run away. They do not, however, lose all their 
sense when they get frightened, and run away as the 
horse does. Bring a mule back after he has run 
away, and in most cases he will not want to do it 
again. A horse that has once run away, however, is 
never safe afterward. 

Avoid spotted or dapple mules; they are the very 
poorest animals you can get. They cannot stand 
hard work; and once they get diseased and begin to 
lose strength, there is no saving them. Many of the 
snow-white mules are of the same description, and 
about as useless. Mules with the white muzzle, or, as 
some term it, white-nose white, and with white rays 
around the eyes, are also of but little account as work 
mules. They can stand no hardship of any kind. In 
purchasing mules, you must look well to the age, form, 
height, eyes, size of bone and muscle and disposition; 
for these are of more importance than his color. Get 
these right and you will have a good animal. 

If any gentleman wants to purchase a mule for the 
saddle, let him get one bred closer after the mare than 
the jack. They are more docile, handle easier, and 
are more tractable, and will do what you want with 
less trouble than the other. If possible, also, get mare 
mules; they are much more safe and trusty under the 
saddle, and less liable to get stubborn. They are also 
better than a horse mule for team purposes. 

Diseases. The mule is not so susceptible to dis¬ 
ease as the horse; but in those he is afflicted with he 
does not materially differ from the nobler animal. He, 
however, suffers less from them, owing to lack of 
sensibility. For diagnosing diseases and treatment, 
see Diseases in the article on Horse. 

Muley, hornless; applied to cattle—as the polled 
cattle; also a stiff, long saw, not stretched in a gate, 
and moved much more rapidly than an ordinary gate 
saw. 


Mull, to soften or bring down in spirit; or to heat, 
sweeten and spice, as to mull ale, wine, etc. 

Mullet, a genus or family of fishes. 

Mumps, an enlargement of the glands of the 
neck; an affection confined almost exclusively to 
children, and contagious in its nature. The swell¬ 
ing generally takes place near the angle of the lower 
jaw, and where it is articulated with the upper jaw, 
and sometimes causes such an enlargement that the 
distended gland hangs down like a bag. In general, 
however, the glands are only partially distended, 
though by their pressure on the tonsils they cause 
both difficulty of swallowing and partial deafness. 
Mumps is generally attended with a degree of inflam¬ 
matory fever, and when severe, is accompanied with 
shortness of breathing, hot skin and other febrile 
symptoms. The attack generally reaches its height 
in four days and then declines. Sometimes the 
swelling suddenly disappears, as in gout, and makes 
its appearance upon some other part of the body; 
this is regarded as an unfavorable symptom. 

Treatment. This is very simple and consists of a 
mild diet and gentle laxatives, occasional hot foment¬ 
ations and wearing a piece of flannel around the 
throat. 

Murrain, an infectious and fatal disease among 
cattle, much prevalent in ancient times. It was one 
of the plagues of Egypt before the exodus of the Isra¬ 
elites. Visitations of plagues or murrain upon cattle 
are mentioned and described by Homer, Hippocrates, 
Plutarch, Livy and Virgil. Even in modern times 
epidemics have spread through Europe destroying 
almost all the cattle. The term murrain has largely 
gone out of use, new names being substituted, accor¬ 
ding to the precise form of the disease. -See page 210. 

Mush, “Indian meal boiled in water.”— Webster. 
But the terms “oatmeal mush,” “Graham mush,” “rye 
mush,” etc., are so common among educated people 
that we presume Webster’s definition a little deficient. 
Again, he gives no idea as to the proixirtions of meal 
and water, distinguishing the article from gruel or por¬ 
ridge. In this article we will regard mush as a 
“dish made of meal or flour and water, not as solid as 
bread on the one hand, and thicker than porridge on 
the other.” 

General recipe: Bring the water to boiling and then 
gradually stir in the meal or flour, avoiding the forma¬ 
tion of lumps. 

Corn-Meal Mush. In addition to the general 
direction just given, boil for an hour or more,—either 
over a hot fire and by constant stirring, to prevent 
burning, or over a slow fire, without stirring. The 
former method is probably the best, as the slightly 
scorched portion is stirred from the bottom of the 
vessel through the mass, giving it the parched or 
spicy flavor of well-baked corn bread. 

One of the most popular articles of food is fried or 
browned mush. With a smooth, sharp case-knife, 
kept wet with cold water, cut cold mush into slices 














MUSHROOM—MU SKMELON. 


983 


one-fourth of an inch thick, and brown on a buttered 
griddle. Eat while hot. 

Oatmeal Mush. Mix a cup of medium oatmeal 
with a teaspoon of salt and a cup of cold water. 
Put three cups of water in a double boiler; if you 
have none use a tin pail set in a kettle of boiling 
water. When the pint of water boils briskly stir in 
the moistened oatmeal; let it cook for five minutes, 
then stir again, after which take out the spoon, put on 
the cover and cook for an hour; two hours will make 
_it all the better. The double boiler, or a substitute 
for one, is a necessity in making oatmeal porridge; 
to be good it must be cooked a long time, and should 
never be stirred after beginning to boil until it is done, 
for stirring while cooking makes oatmeal gummy. 
The steamed oats which come put up in packages 
recjuire only a few minutes cooking, but cost double 
as much as the oatmeal which is sold by the pound. 
When wanted for an early breakfast it is a good plan 
to cook the porridge at supper time in a small stone 
jar set in a kettle of water. Put a cover or plate on 
top and leave the jar in the hot water all night. If 
left on the back of the stove it will be just right for 
breakfast. Serve with rich milk or cream and sugar 
if desired. It is of special importance that oatmeal 
be fresh. After its manufacture it becomes bitter very 
rapidly. 

Graham Mush. After stirring the flour into the 
boiling water, let it stand over a moderate heat with¬ 
out stirring for a few minutes, and it is done. Per¬ 
haps the most palatable form of this dish is to eat it 
when about lukewarm, or nearly cold, with sweet 
cream or rich milk. This “ pudding ” also can be 
sliced and fried (dr browned) like corn-meal mush. 

Rye Mush, is similarly made. 

Other mushes generally go by other names, as, 
blanc mange, Iceland moss pudding, manioc and 
tapioca puddings, etc. 

Mushroom, a well-known esculent species of fun¬ 
gus. Mushrooms are eaten by every civilized nation, 
when fresh. 'Phe difficulty in obtaining non-{X)ison- 
ous kinds, and the distressing and sometimes fatal 
effects of eating poisonous fungi, deter many persons 
from using them at all. 

When a fungus is pleasant in flavor and odor, con¬ 
sider it wholesome; if, on the contrary, it have an 
offensive smell, a bitter, astringent, or styptic taste, or 
even if it leave an unpleasant flavor in the mouth, it 
should not be considered fit for food. The color, fig¬ 
ure and texture of these fungi do not afford any char¬ 
acters on which we can safely rely; yet it may be 
remarked, that in color, the pure yellow, gold color, 
bluish-pale, dark or luster brown, wine-red, or the 
violet, belong to many that are esculent; whilst the 
pale or sulphur-yellow, bright or blood-red, and the 
greenish 'belong to the few but poisonous. The safe 
kinds have most frequently a compact, brittle texture; 
the flesh is white; they grow more readily in open 
places, such as dry pastures and waste lands, than in 
places humid or shaded by wood. In general, those 


should be suspected which grow in caverns and sub¬ 
terraneous passages, or on animal matter undergoing 
putrefaction, as well as those whose flesh is soft or 
watery. 

d'o Stew Mushrooms. Peel and put them in milk 
and water, and let them soak for half an hour; then - 
put them in a saucepair covered very close; shake 
them every now and then. Let them stew on a trivet 
for half an hour; then add a small crust of well- 
toasted bread, a small blade of mace, and a quarter 
of a pint of cream. Next, take out the mace, and put 
the crust into the middle of the dish. If the cream 
does not thicken it sufficiently, add the yolk of an egg 
and half a teaspoonful of vinegar before it is used. 

Mushroom Pudding. Rub into half a pound of 
bread-crumbs two ounces of butter, adding pepper and 
salt, with sufficient water to render the bread moist; 
cut up and add to these one pint of small mushrooms; 
line the basin with your paste, put in the above, cover 
with a paste, tie it up in.a cloth, and boil for an hour 
and a half. 

Canned Mushrooms in Sauce. About half a can 
with two beefsteaks. Drain the mushrooms froir their 
liquor and fry (saute) in a small frying-pan with a 
little butter. Add pepper and salt. When they have 
acquired a slight color draw them to one side of the 
pan, put in a heaiiing teaspoonful of flour and rub it 
smooth in the hot butter, still keeping the pan over 
the fire, and when the flour has become slightly 
browned pour in the mushroom liquor gradually and 
a few spoonfuls of water. Shake in the mushrooms, 
let all boil up, squeeze in the juice of a quarter of a 
lemon and pour over the beefsteak in the dish. 

Muskmelon. This very valuable member of the 
Cucumber family was originally introduced into 
Europe from Asia by the Romans, and very early 
found its way to our own shores. It is grown to its 
greatest perfection in Persia and Arabia, where it is 
used as common food. The flesh of this fruit is very 
delicious, being succulent, cool and highly flavored. 

Cultivation. Select a warm, light soil, which is 
indeed better than cold, rich soil; but a rich, warm 

soil is best; thor¬ 
oughly work the 
soil, manure with 
a rich compost, 
and have the hills 
six feet apart; do 
not excavate hills, 
but work the 
m a n u r e just 
under the sur¬ 
face, as the roots 
Fig. 1_ Extra Early Cantaloupe. of all viiics natur¬ 

ally Seek Warmth; pinch the terminals of the more 
vigorous vines occasionally. In planting put a dozen 
or more seeds to the hill, allowing for freezing or bugs, 
but do not leave more than two to the hill. Sprink¬ 
ling the young plants occasionally with air-slaked lime 
or plaster will guard them against insects. Hoe often 













984 


MUSLIN—MU S TARD. 


until the vines touch. In regions so cool as to render 
the crop doubtful, tlie seeds should be planted in pots 



Fig. 2. —Pineapple Cantaloupe. 

in hot-beds about a month ahead, and the plants set 
out in hills about the first corn-hoeing time. Very 
often, covering with hand-glasses or wire-gauze boxes 
will be necessary to guard them against insects or 
frosts. The striped bugs must be chased away bv 
throwing dust at them. 

Varieties. Christiana. Remarkable for early 
maturity. 

Silfs Hybrid, Salmon color, flesh rich, sweet and 
delicious. 

Torrey's. Green-fleshed, large, earlier than Cas- 
saba. 

Shaw s Golden Superb. Small, but superb in 
quality. 

Skillmans Fine-Netted. Early and of delicious 
flavor. 

Early Nutmeg. Green-fleshed; highly scented. 

Long Yellow. Large, sweet, productive; a well- 
known sort. 

Green Citron. Green-fleshed; sweet, melting and 
rich-flavored. 

Ward's Nectar. Early, exceedingly prolific, sweet, 
rich and green-fleshed. 

Early Jenny Lind. An early sort; a favorite with 
gardeners. 

New White Japan. Flesh greenish white; early 
and prolific; sweet, delicious. 

Pineapple. Oval, rough-netted, thick-fleshed, juicy 
and sweet. 

Prolific Nutmeg. Hardy, medium size, flesh thick, 
green, and of fine flavor. 

Cassaba, or Persian. Large, oblong, flesh yellow¬ 
ish green, rich and sweet. 

Munroe's Little Heath. Very prolific and hardy; 
large ribs, pale-netted, scarlet flesh, flne flavor. 

Long Valparaiso. Large and of fine quality. 

Colorado. Extra fine, large and sweet. 

Promising new varieties are the Persian, Bay View, 
Chicago Nutmeg, Surprise, Log-of-Wood, Algiers Can¬ 
taloupe, Silver-Netted, Hardy Ridge, Improved Can¬ 
taloupe. 

The cantaloupe is a class of favorite kinds. It 
derived its name from a place near Rome where it 
was first cultivated in Europe. It is a native of 
Armenia. The nutmeg melon is also a popular 
variety. In many markets the names cantaloupe and 


nutmeg are used more generally than that of musk- 
melon , and even sometimes to designate other than 
their respective Varieties of muskmelon. 

Muskmelon Butter. Take very ripe melons, so 
ripe as to be soft; cut them in two once and take out 
the seeds ; then scrape the melon from the rind with 
a knife, and to every 4 gallons of melon take 5 pounds 
of light-brown sugar; put into a kettle and boil the 
same as apple butter; when cooked enough, season, 
while hot, with lemon to suit the taste. 

Muslin, thin, cotton cloth. To wash Muslins, see 
page 930. 

Must, the expressed juice of the grape before fer¬ 
mentation; also, sour moldiness; fustiness. 

Mustang Ponies: see page 699. 

Mustard. This is a hardy and easily cultivated salad 
plant. The chief varieties are the black, the white or 
yellow and the Chinese. 

Table Mustard. Mix 3 spoonfuls of ground 
mustard with 2 of salt and 9 of water. Mix to a 
smooth paste, add 6 spoonfuls more of water, and 
mix. 

French Mustard. Take pound of best yellow 
mustard, pour over it ^ pint each of water and vine¬ 
gar; add a pinch of salt and a piece of calamus root the 
size of a pea; put it on the fire and when it boils add 

1 tablespoonful of flour; let it boil twenty minutes, 
stirring it constantly. Just before taking it off stir in 
a teaspoonful of sugar or honey. When cool, put it 
into bottles and cork tightly. 

Mustard Plaster. Mustard seed is a very power¬ 
ful stimulant and rubefacient. When moistened and 
applied to the surface it occasions great irritation. It 
is, however, not necessary to produce blistering to 
prove its good effects in this way. The following is 
an excellent mode of making a mustard plaster for 
chronic inflammation, colds, sore throats, inflamma¬ 
tions of the lungs, liver and bowels, sprains, etc.: 
Take i part, by measure, of mustard; 5 parts flour 
and 5 of Indian meal. Mix the mustard in a little 
hot water, and when smooth, add about 2 parts boil¬ 
ing water, and when all is dissolved stir in the flour 
and then the meal, thoroughly, adding more boiling 
water if necessary. Spread on a thick cloth double 
folded to retain heat and moisture. Cover with mos¬ 
quito netting or lace, and nothing closer, sew around 
the edges; apply to the painful spot; fasten with 
bandages and wear till dry, or for 24 hours, and then 
put on a fresh one. Continue to renew these for r or 

2 weeks. When the skin becomes too tender add 
I more spoonful of flour and meal each. When these 
plasters can no longer be borne, use powdered ginger 
instead of mustard, and then finish with plain Indian 
meal poultice alone. 

Another: In making a mustard plaster use only 
the white of an egg (no water); a mixture is thus 
formed which will draw perfectly, but which will not 
blister or break the skin. It is especially suited for 
young and tender skin. 













MUTTON. 


985 


Veterinary Uses. In veterinary practice mustard 
is used as an irritant on the body where the Spanisli 
fly would be improper and dangerous. On the belly 
and over the loins are the usual jilaces where mustard 
is applied. In lumbago and sprains of the back and 
loins and in pain in the bowels mustard is useful. The 
mode of application of mustard is as follows: If the 
hair of the part be long cut it off, then foment the 
part with warm water and immediately rub into the 
the parts a handful of the best flour of mustard. This 
is more effectual than laying a paste or ix)ultice with¬ 
out rubbing. , 

Mutton, the flesh of sheep when slaughtered 
and dressed. 

The recent increasing demand for good mutton in 
the United States has led to the extensive imjxirta- 
tion of sheep particularly adapted for food. Flocks 
of these breeds are now found nearly all over the 
country. The wool of the mutton sheep is also 
eagerly sought for, being more abundant on the heavy 
classes, though of coarser quality. For superior 
mutton qualities, the South Down stands pre-eminent 
everywhere, though this supremacy is vigorously dis¬ 
puted by the breeders of the Black-face of Scotland, 
the Cheviot of the border and the Exmoor of the 
Somerset hills. But in their desire to grow fine mut¬ 
ton sheep, the farmers and breeders of this country 
have not lost sight of the valuable wool qualities, and 
those breeds which combine the best qualities as the 
producers of both mutton and wool are receiving the 
most attention. Hence, in the West, the Cotswold is 
the general favorite, for its large size, the length and 
quality of its fleece, hardihood, tendency to fatten and 
its rich though somewhat coarse meat. In the blue- 
grass regions the Lincoln is receiving preference for 
his long, lustrous wool and great size. In the hilly- 
countries devoted to sheep husbandry, the Merino 
and South Down with their crosses are used, though 
the mutton of the Merino is of a very inferior quality 
and quantity. * One of the features of this breed of 
sheep, which compensates .in a measure for their lack 
of mutton qualities, is the possibility of keeping them 
in large droves, without injury, while none of the long- 
wool classes can be profitably kept in flocks of 100, 
and even smaller, are better. The quality and flavor 
of mutton depends not only on the breed of sheep 
but on the pasturage and feed. High, dry pasture 
lands of a limestone nature, will make much better 
mutton than the rich, damp soil of the Western 
prairie, or the production of a lengthened stall feed¬ 
ing on roots. Sheep stall fed will make fine and 
heavy meat if ground meal is partially substituted for 
roots and a dry, well-ventilated shed is used. Mut¬ 
ton as food is considered as highly nutritious, light 
and easy of digestion, but the meat of the male has a 
strong, sheepy, disagreeable flavor and is usually 
tough. The meat of the ewe is good if under two 
years old, but after that, especially if not well fatted, 
it is inclined to become coarse and tough. The mut¬ 
ton of the wether is most esteemed, next to that of 
lambs. See page 964. The flesh of the lamb is 


mild, tender and Juicy, and at its best when the 
animal is well fatted on its mother’s milk, and is from 
six to ten months old. Between the “lamb” and 
“mutton” period in its growth it is not so fine-flavor¬ 
ed, and as mutton it does not reach its fullest color 
and flavor till five years old. Good mutton is dark 
colored and marble-like. See pages 964-5. The 
quality of mutton is improved for cooking by hanging 
up in the air as long as it can be kept without taint, 
and it will keep longer than the flesh of any domestic 
animal. Of the long-wools, the Leicester is consider¬ 
ed by English breeders to possess the finest fattening 
qualities, maturing early and easily and affording 
meat of great weight and prime quality. The Lin¬ 
coln is one of the largest breeds and posesses good 
mutton qualities; the Cotswold are of a hardy consti¬ 
tution, mature well and make excellent mutton, 
though rather fat. They are probably the best 
adapted of any long-wool breeds to the West. The 
carcass of a good Cotswold lamb should weigh, at 
eight or ten months, 100 pounds or more, and a full- 
grown, well fatted animal may be made to weigh 200 
pounds of dressed meat. Under heavy feeding the 
mutton sheep takes flesh easily, and like the hog, 
develops heavy layers of fat on the ribs. 

The middle-wools do not become so grossly fat as 
the mutton breeds but are of a finer flavor, good 
weights of carcass being from 70 to 100 jxiunds. Of 
these the South Downs, Hampshire Downs, Shroji- 
shire Downs and Oxfordshire Downs have been im¬ 
ported into this country to a considerable extent. 
The Haihpshire Downs incline to the greatest weight 
and the South Downs to the finest quality. 

The terms “ long-wools,” and “ mutton sheep,” as 
applied to the different breeds, are synonymous, and 
in quality of mutton, rank second to the middle- 
wools, while the fine-wools—Merinoes, etc.,-—are in¬ 
ferior in quality of mutton, probably owing to their 
thick, greasy, strong smelling coat, and their want of 
a tendency to fatten. However good the natural 
qualities of the sheep for mutton, the flavor of the 
meat depends to a great extent on external circum¬ 
stances, those which are fattened exclusively on 
good sheep pastures, yielding the choicest meat, and 
those fed on grain, or grain with a light supply of 
roots, being better than those fattened exclusively on 
roots. Fattening in a close and crowded pen also 
has a tendency to give the meat a rank taste. Much 
also depends on the manner of killing-and dressing; 
the sheep should be kept from food for some hours 
before it is slaughtered, and it should be hung up to 
dress, and pains taken to prevent the wool or outside 
of the skin from touching the meat, and the hand 
which is used to crowd the pelt off should be first 
carefully washed. To kill a sheep, lay it on its side 
on a bench and pass a common, sharp butcher knife 
through the neck, close to the lower jaw, holding the 
edge of the knife against the neck bone, so as to sever 
both jugular veins. Hold him still until dead, to pre¬ 
vent him mopping the blood with his wool. Split the 
skin along the windpipe, to the breast but not over it; 









986 


MUTTON. 


now skin the brisket by splitting the skin on both 
sides 111 a triangular form, taking hold of the apex and 
pounding lightly with the handle of the knife. The 
next step is to skin the hocks, insert the gambrel and 
hang up the body, and run the knife up into the chest, 
resting its back on the windpipe and cutting outward 
to the center of the breast-bone, to let any blood that 
may have accumulated in the chest pass off without 
staining the neck which is not yet skinned. Skin a 
fore leg, and then pass up the side, splitting the skin 
on the belly only as fast as required, and separating 
It from the flesh, by holding it firmly in the one hand, 
while the flesh is crowded away from it by the closed 
fingers of the other, 1 he knife will be necessary at 
the flank, but the hind leg and ham are best skinned 
by crowding the fist upwards and backwards. When 
one side is completed and the pelt fastened back so 
It cannot fall on and stain the meat, go over the other 
s'.de in the same manner. Remove the bowels with¬ 
out breaking, and then cut out the brisket and take 
out the heart and lungs, and rinse out with clean cold 
water, without the use oi a cloth, and you have a 
clean carcass. See Sheep; also Mutton and Lamb, 
on pages 964-5. 

Mutton, To Cook, We very fully treated of the 
distinguishing features of the different cuts of mutton, 
and the best way of selecting, on pages 964-5. Here 
we give only the methods of serving in various palat¬ 
able and ix)pular dishes. 

Roast Shouldc)' of Mutton. Fake out the bone and 
fill the space with a stuffing made of bread crumbs, 
salt pork chopped fine, pepper, salt and sage, or sweet 
marjoram. Time, a quarter of an hour to each pound. 

Stewed Leg of Mutton. Make a stuffing of finely 
chopped beef suet, bread crumbs, an onion chop[)ed 
finely, pepper, salt, and a little ground clove. Make 
incisions in the leg, and stuff it well; tie a little bun¬ 
dle of basil and parsley together; lay in the bottom of 
the ix)t, and on it place the mutton ; just cover with 
water, and stew slowly for two hours; when tender, 
take out the mutton and add to the liquor a large 
sjKionful of flour, made smooth with a little water; 
stir it well, and in five minutes take it off and strain 
it; pour it back into the pot, and add a wineglassful 
of catsup and lay the mutton in till it is served. 

Mutton Chops can be either broiled or fried plain, 
or with eggs and crumbs. 

Stuffed Leg of Mutton. Boil two large white onions 
until tender, then chop fine; add bread crumbs and I 


sage to taste, a little salt and pepper; then slit the 
sinewy part of the leg and insert the stuffing and 
roast. 

Mutton Cutlets. Take a piece of the best end of 
a neck of mutton, saw off the bones short, remove 
the gristle and fat, cut the cutlets about one-third of 
an inch in thickness, shape and trim them neatly; 
beat them with a cutlet bat dipped in water; pepper, 
salt and broil them over a brisk fire. 

Irish Stew. Put two pounds of mutton cutlets or 
chops, and four pounds good potatoes, peeled and 
sliced, in alternate layers in a large saucepan or stew- 
pan, season to taste with pepper and salt, and a finely 
shred onion ; add a pint of cold water, and simmer 
gently for two hours. Serve very hot. 

Cold Mutton Broiled. Cut in thick slices cold 
boiled leg of mutton ; it should not be cooked too 
much or it will fall into pieces; salt and pepper it and 
then broil. Serve very hot, and add a thick sauce 
flavored with fresh tomatoes, or tomato sauce. 

To Fry Lamb Steaks. Dip each piece into well- 
beaten egg, cover with bread crumbs or corn meal, 
and fry in butter or new lard. Serve with mashed 
potatoes and boiled rice. Phicken the gravy with 
flour and butter, adding a little lemon juice, and pour 
it hot upon the steaks, and place the rice in spoonfuls 
around the dish to garnish it. 

of Lamb. Boil it in water to cover it; when 
half done add two cups of milk to the water, with a 
large spoonful of salt. It should be served with 
spinach and caper sauce. Time, about one hour and 
a quarter. 

To Roast Lamb. The hind quarter of a lamb usually 
weighs from seven to ten pounds; this will take about 
two hours to roast. Wash it well, put it into the pan, 
salt it and dredge with flour; put some w’ater in the 
pan, have a brisk fire and baste it frequently while 
roasting. Serve with mint sauce. 

To Roast the Fore Quarter of Lamb. An hour and 
a half to roast this piece; it is considered by some 
the best roasting piece ; it should be frequently basted. 
To make the gravy take all the drippings, add a very 
little water, salt and flour, and give it one boil. 

Mint Sauce, to serve with roast Jamb. Take a bunch 
of green mint and chop it very fine with a knife; add 
a teacup of sugar, and a teacup of sharp vineear. 
Stir this up, and send it to the table in a gravy tureen 
or sauce-boat. 

















N 



AG, a small horse, suitable for the saddle, 
or for a variety of kinds of light labor. 

Nail, the flattened claw on the toe or fin¬ 
ger of an animal. It is similar in chemical 
comix)sition to horn. 

In-growing Toe Nails. We give the fol¬ 
lowing two e.Kcellent remedies for this painful 
affliction: 

Cut a notch about the shape of a V in the end of 
the nail, about one quarter the width of the nail dis¬ 
tant from the in-growing side. Cut down as nearly to 
the quick as possible, and one-third the length of the 
nail. The pressure of the boot or shoe will tend to 
close the opening you Imve made in the nail, and 
this soon affords relief. Allow the in-growing portion 
of the nail to grow without cutting it, until it gets be¬ 
yond the flesh. 

Another: Lift up the corner of the nail; put un¬ 
derneath a bit of cotton wool; keep it under for a 
time, wearing shoes tight on the instep and loose at 
the toes, with low heels. Short, wide shoes, or high- 
heeled shoes or boots cause this trouble, as well as 
corns and bunions. Laced shoes are the best, as 
buttoned shoes stretch, and let the foot down into 
the toe when walking. Keep the corners of the nails 
well cut down, and a cure will soon be effected, but 
never if the toes press against the shoe in walking. 

To Whiten the Finger Nails. Take 2 drams 
of dilute sulphuric acid, i dram of the tincture of 
myrrh, 4 ounces of spring water, and mix them in a 
bottle. After washing the hand, dip the fingers in a 
little of the mixture, and it will give a delicate ap¬ 
pearance to the hand. Rings, with stones or pearls 
in them, should always be removed from the hands. 


Nankeen, a species of cloth made from cotton. It 
was originally a Chinese manufacture only, and, it 
is said, derived its pale salmon-colored tint from the 
natural color of a kind of cotton grown in that country. 


Naphtha, a highly inflammable fluid characterized 
by a strong, empyreumatic, peculiar odor, and gener¬ 
ally a light yellow color, but is rendered colorless by 
being carefully and thoroughly rectified. It burns 
with a white flame, emitting much smoke ; it boils in 
platinum vessels at 158^ Fahrenheit; it continues 
liquid down to zero; it has, when highly rectified, a 
specific gravity of 0.753 at 61® Fahrenheit; it is 
insoluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol; and it 
combines, in all proportions, with petroleum and oils. 
It exhibits some observable varieties of composition 


and appearance and even undergoes some slight 
change by being kept in exposure to the air. Most 
kinds of it are believed to be quite destitute of o.xy- 
gen; and almost all are devoid of power to tarnish ixjt- 
assium, a substance possessing most powerful affinity 
for oxygen. The normal comixjsition of naphtha is 
supposed to be six equivalents of carbon and six of 
hydrogen. Natural naphtha occurs abundantly on the 
shores of the Caspian and in some parts of Italy ; and 
artificial naphtha, as obtained by distilling coal tar, 
has, of late years, become so general an article of 
commerce as to be almost everywhere well known. 

Narcotic, a medicine which induces stupefaction 
or deadens the power of sensation. Narcotics are 
supposed to act directly on the nerves and the brain, 
and indirectly on the vascular system; and they at 
first excite or stimulate, but afterwards, and very 
rapidly and for a very long time, produce a sedative 
effect. They are useful medicines in certain condi¬ 
tions and stages of disease, but they cannot be safely 
administered to a horse, far less to a human being, 
without the guidance of such high skill and science 
as few but professional men possess; and in all cases 
they act upon the healthy system, or in frequently re¬ 
peated doses, as downright poisons, depressing the 
vital forces, wasting the nervous energy, and producing 
some of the worst forms of both chronic and mental 
disease; and need only to be given in sufficiently 
large doses to cause almost immediate death. Two 
of the most common kind of them are tobacco and 
opium; and the myriads of infatuated men who daily 
use the former are just as suicidal and not by any 
means so cleanly as the thousands who use the latter 
in Turkey and China. Two other chief narcotics 
and at the same time virulent ^xiisons, are digitalis 
and hellebore. See Opium. 

Poison by Narcotics. The effects of poisoning by 
narcotic substances as opium, thornapple, hemlock, 
etc., are faintness, nausea, vomiting, stupor, delirium, 
and death. Treahnent: G.ve emetics, large draughts 
of fluids, tickle the throat, apply smelling-salts to the 
nose, dash cold water over the face and chest, apply 
mustard poultices, and above all, endeavor to lOuse 
the patient by walking between two persons ; and if 
possible by electricity; and give 40 drops of sal-vola¬ 
tile in strong coffee every half hour. 

Nasal Gleet: see page 792. 

Nasal Polypus: see page 812. 

Nasturtium or Indian Cress, a highly ornamental 










988 


NA TJ VE CA T TLE—NE UR A L GIA ., 


plant, whose leaves are used for salad and seed-pods 
lor pickles. Sow in May in drills an inch deep and 
three feet apart, or in hills four feet apart each way, 
and either brush them like peas, or plant them near a 
fence or hedge upon which they can run. The dwarf 
kind, however, does not need this latter treatment. 
I he principal varieties are: the tall dark, which has 
crimson flowers; the tall yellow, which has rich yellow 
flowers; and the dwarf. 

Native Cattle: see page 178. 

Natural, according to nature ; normal, according to 
rule, or the requirements of perfection; artificial, made 
by man or animal. Hence, disease is natural, in the 
philosophical sense, but not normal; and bird’s nests 
and human habitations are both natural and artificial; 
but to products of art neither the term normal nor ab¬ 
normal applies. The term “ natural ” is often used in 
the sense of normal. 

Navicular Bone. This bone, in the lower part of 
the horse’s limb, is situated behind and beneath the 
pastern bone, and above the heel of the coffin-bone, 
andforms a joint with these bones, and acts as a most 
important part in sustaining the junction between the 
pastern and the foot. 

Navicular Joint Lameness: see page 812. 

Near. The “ near ” side of a team is the left side, 
and the near horse or ox is the left one of the team. 
The term originated in the fashion of guiding a team 
at the right of the driver when the latter is walking, 
in which case the left animal is near the driver, and 
the other one “ off” from him. 

Neat Cattle, all cattle of the ox species. See 
Cattle. 

Neat’s-foot Oil, the oil obtained by boiling feet 
of cattle. 

Nectarine. This is what some scientists would 
call a sub-species of peach, a nectarine tree some- 
tirnes bearing peaches as well as nectarines. Indeed, it 
is impossible to distinguish a nectarine tree from a 
peach tree; but the fruit is smaller, perfectly smooth 
without down, and it is one of the most wax-like and 
exquisite of all productions for dessert. In flavor it 
is perhaps scarcely so rich as the finest peach, but it 
has more piquancy, partaking of the peach-leaf flavor. 
The nectarine is a shy bearer in this country and its 
fruit is generally destroyed by the curculio. For the 
production of the largest fruit the branches should be 
shortened in annually. The culture is in all respects 
similar to that of the peach, which see. 

The four best varieties of the nectarine for cultiva¬ 
tion in the North are the following: 

Boston. Large and handsome; ripens in Septem¬ 
ber; bright yellow, with a very deep red cheek, shaded 
off by a slight mottling of red; flesh yellow to the 
stone, sweet but not rich, with a pleasant and peculiar 
flavor; separates from the stone, which is small and 
ix)inted. 


Elriige. Medium size, greenish yellow, with a dark 
red cheek; flesh pale green to the stone, or slightly 
stained there with pale red; juicy and liigh flavored, 
melting; stone oval, rough, and of a pale color; sepa¬ 
rates from the stone. Ripens in September. 

Hunt's Tawny. Medium size, a prominent swollen 
point at the top and one side of the suture enlarged; 
pale orange with a dark red cheek, mottled with ' 
numerous russety specks; flesh deep orange, juicy, 
melting, rich and good, separates from the stone; 
ripens Aug. 5 to 15. Tree an abundant bearer. 

Red Roman. Large, roundish, a little flattened at 
the top, greenish yellow, with a brownish, muddy red 
cheek; flesh firm, greenish yellow, deep red at the 
stone, juicy, with a rich, high vinous flavor; clings to 
the stone ; ripens in September ; tree healthy and pro¬ 
ductive ; leaves with kidney-shaped glands ; flowers 
large. 

Nerves, tubular cords of the same substance as 
that which composes the brain and spinal marrow. 
They extend from one or other of the nerve centers 
to every part of the body. They convey impressions 
from and to the brain, preside over the functions of 
the different organs and regulate motion and the 
senses. When the nerves become affected it requires 
longer time, and is far more difficult to restore than 
any other portion of the animal. Those persons with ' 
nervous constitutions, which are characterized by great 
excitability of the nervous system and extreme sensi¬ 
bility to external impressions, should adopt a nutri¬ 
tious and not too stimulating diet. Easily digested 
food should be taken. We cannot even attempt to 
treat the long train of afflictions to which the nerves 
are subject, directly and indirectly, more than is done 
under the heads of respective diseases. As a nerve 
stimulant nux vomica is the most powerful and ex¬ 
hilarating. This is the great nerve stimulant of most 
physicians. Put from 3 to 5 drops in a tumbler of 
water and take of this a teaspoonful every two or 
three hours. Owing to the slowness with which the 
nerves are built up this must be continued for a con¬ 
siderable length of time. American valerian is a 
most excellent agency for quieting nervous irritability. 

It can be given in a powdered root, teaspoonful doses, 
or from 3 to 5 grains of the extract. 

Nervines, medicines relieving pain without produc¬ 
ing narcotism. 

Nervousness: see Nerves. 

Net, a textile fabric of netted meshes, for catching 
fish, ensnaring rabbits, ensnaring birds, protecting 
fruit trees from the depredations of birds* and several 
other purposes. Nets for fishing are exceedingly var¬ 
ious in form and size, and require to be minutely 
adapted to the several methods of fishing, and in 
some instances to the capture of particular species of 
fish. 

Neuralgia, simply pain in the nerves, attended 
with neither swelling nor inflammation. The most 
general seat of neuralgic affliction is in the face and 















NE URO TOM Y—NITER. 


989 


head. The pain then shoots from the mouth to the 
eyes, often to the ears and over the cheek, palate, 
teeth and jaws. The pain follows the course of some 
particular nerve, and at times is of the most excru¬ 
ciating character. 

Treatment. Constipation is often the cause; first 
give a gentle aperient; then make a bean poultice of 
common white beans; boil and mash, spread on thin 
cotton; this will retain the heat a long time. Hot 
oatmeal gruel heats the system quickly and thor¬ 
oughly, and is very beneficial in cases of colds, 
neuralgia or rheumatism. Another: Prepare horse¬ 
radish, by grating and mixing in vinegar, the same 
as for table purposes, and apply to the temple where 
the head or face is affected, or on the wrist, when the 
pain is in the arm or shoulder. 

Neurotomy (nu-rot'o-my), the dividing of the 
nerves in any extreme part of an animal, in order to 
destroy the pain of severe or laming disease in the 
region with which they communicate. It is usually 
performed in navicular diseases, when other treatment 
has failed. 

Nicking, a barbarous operation on horses’ tails, 
intended to make them maintain a cocked or elevated 
position. It was formerly much more fashionable, 
and accompanied with far more cruelties, and per¬ 
formed in a far more sweeping and unrelenting man¬ 
ner than at present; but still it is too common and 
too savage, and reflects disgrace both on the taste and 
the morality of multitudes of persons who have to do 
with horses. The depressing muscles of the horse’s 
tail, in a natural state, are stronger than the erecting 
ones, and the fitful purpose of reversing this order, so 
as to give the erecting muscles the ascendancy of 
power and make the tail be more or less curved out¬ 
ward or elevated is all the apology which the jockeys 
and farriers and horse-breeders have to offer for 
inflicting this great torture u^x^n the most useful of the 
domesticated animals. * 

The horse about to be nicked is either cast or held 
fast with the side-line; several deep cross-cuts are 
made in the under side of the tail after it has been 
docked. A cord is usually fastened to the hair of the 
tail and carried over a pulley attached to the ceiling, 
and thus kept drawn up over the back by a weight 
until the wounds heal. This they will do by granu¬ 
lation filling up the spaces, thus making the nicking 
complete. Thus keeping the wounds open for so long 
is a much worse horror than the nicking itself. 

So violent and prolonged is the pain inflicted, that, 
in rare cases lock-jaw and death have been the con¬ 
sequence. A woman who dies from trying to make 
an “insect” of herself by tight-lacing, and ahorse 
which dies from being made a monster by means of 
docking and nicking, are both victims to savagely per¬ 
verted taste, but the former kills herself and the latter 
is killed by his master. See Dock. 

Nightmare. This distressing complaint comes on 
with a sense of great weight on the chest, and a 
dreaming of something very frightful and horrible,— 


bad persons, specters of various shapes, wild beasts, 
infuriated animals in pursuit, and which the patient 
cannot escape, though apparently he makes, or tries 
to make the greatest efforts to escape; he attempts to 
cry out, but generally in vain. The sensation is very 
distressing and painful. Sometimes the uneasiness 
continues after he awakes, so as to prevent his turn¬ 
ing or moving in bed for some time. 

Nightmare arises from distension of the stomach; 
from indigestible matter in the stomach of heavy 
supper-eaters, which, pressing up the diaphragm, im¬ 
pedes respiration, and renders it short or convulsed; 
hence people are most subject to it after a heavy 
supper, and when they lie on the back. It rarely 
occurs in any other position. Those subject to it 
should therefore avoid sleeping in a bed which is 
hollow in the center, as this induces the sleeper to lie 
on his back. The pillow should be moderate in 
thickness, so that the head should not be raised too 
high. 

Nightshade, an order of plants, many of which 
are familiar and some useful, as common or black 
nightshade, deadly nightshade, Irish potato, tomato, 
egg plant, jimson weed, tobacco, red or Cayenne pep¬ 
per, apple of Peru, bittersweet, henbane, belladonna, 
ground cherry, horse nettle, matrimony vine, etc. 
Although some of these plants are remarkably differ¬ 
ent from others in the list, some being articles of food 
and some being poisonous, they all do have a nature 
in common. They are placed together in one family 
by botanists on account of similarity in the structure 
of their seed vessels. The plan and internal appear¬ 
ance of their flowers are also remarkably alike. The 
common nightshade, bearing black berries the size of 
small currants, is not poisonous. The true, medicinal 
bittersweet of this order is not the climbing “ bitter¬ 
sweet,” well known as a wild vine throughout the 
country. The horse nettle is also called ball nettle, 
or bull nettle, and is a pestilent weed. 

Night Soil, human excrement. A most valuable 
manure. 

Night Sweats. These sweats come on during 
sleep and are the result of general debility or weak¬ 
ness, and occur mostly with consumptives. To relieve 
night sweats, dissolve 15 grains sulphate of quinine in 
Yz ounce essence of tansy, Y. ounce alcohol, Y ounce 
water, and 30 drops muriatic acid. A teaspoonful 
to be taken two or three times during the day and at 
bedtime. In connection with this remedy, cold sage 
tea is recommended to be used freely as a drink. 

Nippers, the four teeth in the front part of a 
horse’s mouth, two in the upper jaw and two in the 
under. See page 681. The name nippers is also 
given to some kind of pincers. 

Niter, or Saltpeter, is both a natural and an arti¬ 
ficial product. It is found in this country and in In¬ 
dia in abundance, and is manufactured largely in 
Europe, especially Germany. Medicinally, niter is 
considered refrigerant, diuretic and diaphoretic, and is 








990 


NITRA TES—NO TE. 


known to be a powerful antiseptic. It has long been 
used by veterinarians as a diuretic, and as a febrifuge 
in low fevers. Cheaper and better medicines are 
daily in use for this purpose. Niter is not a cheap 
medicine, nor yet is it an indispensable one. The 
days are long since past when emetic tartar, niter 
and digitalis were the remedies used in all cases of 
inflammation, irritation and fever. This formula has 
in its day deceived many a man, and has been the 
means whereby many thousands of valuable animals 
have been lost. Wherever niter is indicated, sulphite 
of soda will answer. A bundle of fresh cut grass 
given to a horse will have a better and more soothing 
effect than niter. 

Poison by Niter, This sometimes occurs. In 
such cases the symptoms are, heartburn, nausea, vio¬ 
lent vomiting, purging, convulsions, difficult breathing, 
violent pain in the bowels, kidney and bladder, with 
bloody urine. The treatment consists in the speedy 
removal of the poison from the stomach, and the 
administration of gum arabic, slippery elm, etc., in 
drinks. Laudanum to allay the pain and irritation 
and cordials to sustain the system. No antidote is 
known. 

Nitrates, the salts of nitric acid. Some of them 
have an important connection with the soil, and play 
an important part with the chemistry of vegetation; and 
both these and others, as well as nitric acid itself, 
possess considerable value in medicine and arts. 

Nitrogen, or Azote, an elementary gaseous body. 
When pure it is colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, 
neither combustible nor capable of supporting com¬ 
bustion or respiration. It is fatal to life when inhaled 
in an unmixed state. It forms about 79 per cent, of 
air. 

Nocturnal, relating to the night. Many birds and 
insects are termed nocturnal because they prev onlv 
at night. 

Norman Horses: see page 697. 

Nose, the organ of smell and one of the pieces 
of the complicated and wonderful mechanism of 
respiration. It combines the two offices of smelling 
and inhaling in order that the properties of the air 
and effluvia of bodies may at all times be even invol¬ 
untarily brought under cognizance ; and like the eye, 
the ear, the mouth and every other coniplex part of 
the animal organization, it affords countless and 
glorious indications of the wisdom and goodness of 
the Creator. 

Carnivorous animals have but a dull sense of the 
smell of vegetable bodies, and exhibit a lamellar 
structure in the gauzily osteons cells over which the 
substance of the olfactory nerves is spread; while 
herbivorous animals, which require to exercise a nice 
and searching discrimination between the parts of 
herbage which are wholesome and the parts which 
are unwholesome, have a very keen sense of the 
smell of vegetables, and exhibit a spiral and con¬ 
voluted structure, and therefore a vastly extended 


3-ggregate surface in the cells or supporting framework 
of the outspread olfactory nerves. 

Bleeding of the Nose. This is often a trouble¬ 
some complaint with many persons. Males are more 
subject to it than females. It generally occurs.in per¬ 
sons predisposed or who are subject to it, and is 
brought on by violent exertion, bending the body with 
the head downward, or picking the nose. It often 
occurs without warning, but is often preceded by 
giddiness, flushed face and itching in the nostrils. It 
is often the result of habitual costiveness. 

Treahnoit. Usually cold water applied to the 
back of the neck and face, and taken up the nostrils, 
will stop the flow. By pressing the artery that passes 
over the middle of the lower jaw-bone, or a little back, 
iqwn the side on which the bleeding occurs, and which 
is indicated by a slight depression in the bone, relief 
will be afforded. _ This stops the supi)ly of blood. 
Strong salt water inhaled through the nostrils is often 
beneficial. If the bleeding is caused by costiveness, 
the bowels should be moved. 

Nose-bag, a bag containing grain attached to the 
head of a horse in such manner as to permit him to 
eat its contents. It also means a bag used for steam¬ 
ing horses with a cold, as illustrated by Fig. 48, page 
769- 

Notary, or Notary Public, a person appointed by 
the governor of a State to certify oaths, de])ositions, 
deeds, notes, marriages, etc. His certificate (or at¬ 
testation and seal), affixed to a document renders it 
authentic as evidence in the courts, but does not 
affect the correctness or incorrectness of the document 
itself. 

Note, of hand, or promissory note, is a written or 
printed promise to pay a specified sum at a specified 
time tor value received, and may be with or without 
interest. ^The “face of a note” is the amount specified. 
If it is drawn to the payee or order, or bearer, it is 
negotiable. In those States where the rate of interest 
IS not fixed by law, the rate should be specified, but 
elsewhere it is unnecessary to specify the rate. If the 
interest is to be paid semi-annually it should be so 
stated. The words “value received” should not be 
omitted. If a note is made jiayable to your order, and 
you wish to retain it, withhold the endorsement on 
the back, so that if the note be lost or stolen you will 
not suffer harm, for it has no value except to yourself 
until you endorse it. If any one else endorses your 
name ujion it it is a forgery. But if a note is endorsed 
and is lost or stolen, and comes into the hands of a 
third person for a valuable consideration, who holds 
It innocently (that is, believes the person from whom 
he received it was the rightful owner), it is no longer 
yours, in law, but his. If you part with a note pay¬ 
able to your Older, and do not wish to guarantee it, 
endorse it and write over your name the words, “With¬ 
out recourse to me.” Without those words over your 
name, you would be JioMen for a time, and by a timely 
protest your responsibility would be perpetuated. 




















NURSERY. 


991 


Nursery, a field or farm where trees or plants are 
propagated and cultivated until they are of sufficient 
size for transplanting where they are to permanently 
remain. We very fully treat of the manner of pro¬ 
pagating all kinds of trees and plants under their re¬ 
spective heads; and as the nursery business is gener¬ 
ally carried on by experts or professional nurserymen 
and not by farmers, we need say but little on the 
subject of propagating in the nursery. We treat of 
the care and management of trees in general in the 
article Orchard. It will scarcely justify the farmer to 
raise his own nursery stock, since he Can purchase 
his trees and plants much cheaper than he can grow 
the seedlings and graft or bud them. The same may 
also be said of ornamental trees. When, however, 
large numbers of forest trees, or where groves or 
wind-breaks are to be planted, it is certainly better 
that the trees be bought when quite young and plant¬ 
ed in nursery rows to remain there until of sufficient 
size to permanently transplant. 

Thus, seedling conifers from four to twelve inches 
high, and deciduous trees one or two years old, and 
nursery stock either recent grafts or of one year’s 
growth, may be ordered and planted out, the ever¬ 
greens in rows two feet apart and pretty thick in the 
rows. As they begin to crowd each other in the row, 
take out every other one until they stand two by two 
feet. Then take out every other row, and again 
every other plant in the remaining rows. Those left 
will make specimen plants for various ornamental 
purposes. Deciduous seedlings should be planted 
four feet apart, as to the rows, by twelve inches in the 
row, thinning out as may be necessary, as heretofore 
directed. Eventually they may stand sixteen by 
sixteen feet, and these may be allowed to grow up in¬ 
to a grove, or the wind-break may be planted thickly 
and thinned out as necessary, leaving enough to 
stand for permanent growth. The idea in all this is 
that trees and plants while young can be cultivated 
and taken care of more economically in compact 
bodies than when planted out at the distances at which 
they are finally to stand. One plant will also sup¬ 
port and act as a nurse to another if not too much 
crowded. The pruning, pinching, and training is 
more easily performed, and they may stand in the 
home nursery much longer and be transplanted far 
more safely than direct from the commercial nursery 
rooms, and for the reason that they will not have to 
be carried long distances. Thus, by buying quite 
young stock (maiden trees) they may stand until 
quite of large size, four or five years for apples and 
l)ears, three to four years for plums and cherries, and 
be safely transplanted with an abundance of fibrous 
roots, especially if they have been root-pruned the 
June previous to being finally transplanted. This is 
done by thrusting a sharp spade deeply down to cut the 
leading roots at a distance of eighteen inches to two 
feet from the stem of the tree, according to size. 
Thus, they will be found the succeeding spring to be 
furnished with an abundance of fibrous roots. It 
would be better that this root-pruning be done two 
6s 


years before the final transplanting, when the roots 
may be cut from fifteen to eighteen inches from the 
stems of the trees. Thus, a five or six year old tree 
may be transplanted and with ordinary care will 
scarcely be checked in growth. 

The object in pruning nursery trees should be to 
develop them in every part, to produce a stout, 
stocky, sturdy little tree, one that may be turned out 
upon the bleak prairie and be able to withstand the 
blasts. To produce this result, the leaves should 
never be stripped from the shoots to make them ex¬ 
tend their growth, for the sake of making more leaves; 
the nurseryman should know the value of leaves, 
as constituting the great evaporating surface that 
plays the most important part in causing the 
ascent of the crude sap, and also in its elaboration 
after it' has been taken up into the organization of the 
plant. Leaves should be carefully preserved, and in 
the trimming, which is necessary, this should be borne 
in mind. To make vigorous, stocky trees, the side 
branches should be encouraged rather than pruned 
off. The tops may sometimes need to be pinched, to 
force out the laterals, and to encourage their growth; 
if two shoots start together as rivals, one of them 
should be topped or cut back, or twisted and broken, 
but not cut off at its origin, unless there be plenty of 
lateral branches or twigs to furnish the tree. When 
these become too long, they may be spurred-in, either 
in the fall and winter when cutting grafts, or in the 
summer, during the growing season. Whenever it 
becomes necessary to trim off any of these laterals, it 
is best to do it at mid-summer, as the healing of the 
wounds made at this period is very rapid. Heading 
off the nursery trees is to force them to branch uni¬ 
formly the second year, to form their heads at the 
right place; this is to be done toward spring, and is 
applicable especially to those varieties that are prone 
to make a single shoot the first year without branch¬ 
ing, and which have not been pinched in or headed 
during the previous summer to force out side branch¬ 
es. Cherries, plums, and pears, and some apples, are 
very apt to make this kind of growth. The age of 
trees for planting depends so much upon the views of 
planters that the nurseryman can not always control 
the period at which he shall clear a block of trees. 
Peaches should always be removed at one year from 
the bud. Plums and dwarf pears will be ready to go 
off at two years from the bud or graft; so with apples 
and cherries. But many persons, purchasers and 
sellers, prefer larger trees, and they recommend that 
the trees should remain one, two, or even three years 
longer in the nursery. 

Nursery Agents deserve a notice in this connec¬ 
tion. In pioneer districts this class of vampires drive 
a lucrative business, as every settler is anxious to get 
an orchard and has been too busy to post himself on 
the nursery business, and he is too easily wrought 
upon by wily and unprincipled traveling peddlers; 
but in course of time these farmers have some expe¬ 
rience with these swindlers, become more wealthy and 
more informed about the wicked ways of the world 





992 


NUTMEG—NUX VOMICA. 


generally, and therefore proof against the old-time 
frauds. They have orchards, too, from the stock of 
reliable nurserymen and from various friends, and 
therefore are not in haste to order trees by or through 
strangers. They can afford to deliberate and adopt a 
safe course in the renewal of their stock. Manv also 
become independent, being able to do their own plant¬ 
ing, grafting, etc. 

In view of the shameless abuses of the itinerant 
agency system, many nurserymen employ no traveling 
canvassers at all, and so advertise; while a few—as 
honest men, too, as the other class—proceed on the 
principle of making special efforts to find trade, and 
send out men “on the road.” And, of course, there 
are some nurserymen who are not as reliable as they 
should be. 

The question of suppressing the irresponsible fruit- 
tree agency business has often come up in the horticul¬ 
tural conventions, but up to the latest no scheme has 
been settled upon except popular education in these 
matters. No education, however, can supersede the 
necessity of carrying out business principles in busi¬ 
ness matters,—the necessity of writing down with ink 
every detail as to the conditions of the contract. It 
is best to deal with the nearest nurseryman of good 
reputation, and if he is too distant for personal visits 
to your orchard, contract with him for partial payments. 

On the other hand, many if not most farmers are 
careless or incompetent in the proper cultivation of 
trees, and inculpate the faithful nurseryman for fail¬ 
ures he should charge to himself. It is really best, 
therefore, for nurserymen to undertake to stock only 
that amount of territory around them which they can 
inspect and for which they can become personally 
responsible; then both parties can be satisfied. 
Nurserymen, therefore, will be such only on a com¬ 
paratively small scale. 

Nursery agents generally resort to one or more of 
the following expediencies: Exhibition of highly 
colored or exaggerated pictures of the fruit they 
pretend to introduce; canned fruit of picked speci¬ 
mens of a superior kind, represented to be the aver¬ 
age of the variety he pretends to introduce; charging 
double price, and asking only half cash in hand, pre¬ 
tending to have the endorsement of well known nurs¬ 
erymen and horticulturists, etc., etc. If every farmer 
and farmer’s wife would only follow the simple busi¬ 
ness rule, not to take a stranger’s word for anything, 
but have every condition of the bargain plainly writ¬ 
ten down and signed, risking nothing, no fraud could 
be practiced by traveling agents. It is not within the 
constitutional bounds of legislation to prohibit busi¬ 
ness men from traveling to sell their stock; and so 
long as there are people to be “gulled” there will be 
unprincipled persons to “gull” them. 

Nutmeg. The nutmeg is the seed of the Myris- 
tica moschata. There are two kinds of nutmeg, 
distinguished as the male and female, the former large 
and oblong, the latter soft and round. The females 
have the most aroma and fragrancy, the males are 
spongy. The nutmeg itself is enclosed in a hard 


shell. Mace is the soft fleshy coat which envelopes it. 
It is inferior to and cheaper than the nutmeg, in the 
place of which it is often used. By pressure nutmegs 
yield a fatty oil used in medicine. Nutmegs yield by 
distillation a very fine essential oil, which is very 
grateful, and possesses the flavor of the spice in per¬ 
fection, two drops being nearly equal to a pound of 
the powder. 

Nutmeg Melon: see Muskmelon. 

Nuts, botanically, the fruit of a tree or shrub, con¬ 
sisting of a hard shell enclosing the germ_ and its 
envelopes called the kernel. Thus, hickories, wal¬ 
nuts and oaks bear nuts. The seeds of the cherry, 
peach, etc., are termed pits or stones, and those of the 
apple, orange, etc., are pips. Thus, nuts are kernels 
contained directly in a more or less hard shell; pits 
(or drupes) are nuts enveloped in a pulpy pericarp or 
fleshy covering; pip fruits are those fleshy fruits con¬ 
taining the seeds directly in the pulp, or else in scaly 
compartments in the middle of the fruit. 

Nux Vomica, SxRVCHNrA, an alkaline principle 
from the seeds of an East India tree; solid, crystal¬ 
lized, inodorous, bitter and excessively poisonous. It 
is a very popular remedy among many physicians as 
a nerve stimulant and tonic, generally being given in 
from a fraction of a drop to five drops of a tincture. 
A few drops (from three to six) are put in a tumbler 
of water, and a teaspoonful of the solution given 
every hour or so. 

Nux vomica is a valuable agent in the cure of dis¬ 
eases in all animals. The jx)wdered nut is uncertain 
in its effects; therefore only the tincture and alkaloid 
should be used. It is used when the nerves are 
weak, just as aconite is used when the nerves are 
strong and excited. The one medicine is used in 
depression and the other in diseases of exalted symp¬ 
toms. Paralysis or palsy is the loss of power in the 
motive nerves of the part affected. Therefore, nux 
vomica is used in twitching of the muscles of all ani¬ 
mals, and in glass-eye in the horse, depending upon 
the want of nervous energy in the optic, or nerve of 
vision. For horses and cattle, the dose is from lo 
to 2 0 drops of the tincture, repeated three or four 
times a day. 

Strychnine, Dose. To horses and cattle, give 
one grain, once a day, gradually increasing the dose 
until three grains are given in the day. To get the 
full benefit from it it will have to be given for a week 
or two, if the animal has not got well by that time. 

In the use of strychnine, care and good judgment 
must be exercised, for it must be remembered that 
however useful a drug or medicine may be, its abuse 
is readily accomplished. Strychnine should be admin¬ 
istered in feed, if the animal will eat it; if not, give 
it in gruel in the form of a drench. Twelve grains is 
the dose required to kill a full-grown horse. 

Poison by Nux Vomica. Evacuate the stomach 
with stomach pumps or emetics and give bromine 
chlorine, iodine, prussic acid, prussiate of potassa or 
chloroform. See Poisons. 











o. 





AK. There are 22 species, with an indefinite 
number of varieties by hybridizing of this 
magnificent tree, such as Black oak. White 
oak. Chestnut oak. Pin oak. Willow oak. Red 
Dak, Scarlet oak, Spanish oak, Post oak, etc., 
stc. These all differ, not only in the formation 
of their leaves and fruit, but there is a marked 
difference in their manner of growth, and the 
wood of each possesses its own peculiar properties. 

Some of the varie¬ 
ties are quite small, 
growing only tothe 
height of two or 
three feet, but by 
far the largest 
number are lofty 
trees with wide¬ 
spread branches. 

Some species of 
oak retain their 
foliage during the 
winter, as the Live 
oak. This tree in¬ 
habits the Southern 
ViG . \.— sta ^ Beetie . (Lucanus Dama.) States, where it Oc¬ 
casionally grows to a considerable size. It is prob¬ 
ably the most valuable wood known for ship-building, 
on account of its great durability. In South Carolina 
the Live oaks are often hung with, the graceful fes¬ 
toons of a beautiful moss, which dangles from their 
branches in pendant masses of several yards in 
length. Of all the varieties of the oak, the black 
and white are with us the most abundant and most use¬ 
ful. These oaks often attain a great size, and live to a 
very advanced age. 

A timber or piece of 
black oak will rot 
upon the inside first 
while the exterior 
may be hard and 
sound. On the 
other hand, the white 
oak always com¬ 
mences decay first 
iqxDn the outside, re¬ 
maining sound upon the inside. It: will last ten to 
twenty times as long as the black oak in places of ex¬ 
posure, and is used for a greater variety of purposes 
than any other wood. 

Oak Insects. The oaks are subject to the attacks 


Fig. 


2. —Parellel Lon/^born. 
parallelum.) 


(F.Iaphidion 


of various insects, including the leaves, the inner 
bark and young wood; and they also bore into the solid 
wbod. They are described in the insect article on 
pages 872, 876 and 885. 


Oak Bark. 
This is a good 
astringen t in 
veterinary prac¬ 
tice for outward 
use or for sores 
which d i s- 
charge or run 
matter. The 
bark is boiled: 
half an ounce 
to a pint of water. This decoction is an excellent 
remedy for drying up the moisture of greasy heels, so 
troublesome in horses. In diarrhoea in calves, given 
in four-drachm doses, much good will result. 



Fig. 3. — Oak Tree Curculio, 


Oak Apple, spongy excrescences found on oak 
trees; when hard they are called gall-nuts. These 
are fully treated under head of Gall-fly. 

Oatmeal at the present day seems to comprise 
every grade of prepared oats, from coarse-cut grains 
to the finest flour, both cooked and uncooked. The 
uncooked groats require slow boiling for several 
hours, while the steam-cooked and crushed require 
scarcely anything more than hot water jxjured upon 
them to prepare them for eating. See Bread, Mush 
and Pudding. Oatmeal in all its forms is popular in 
some countries as an ingredient of a beverage. Either 
raw or cooked, a spoonful of it is put into a glass of 
cold water, which may be drank almost immediately.^ 
This is both a demulcent (mucilaginous) and a nutri¬ 
tious drink, and is a favorite among the laboring 
classes of England and Scotland. 

The so-called “ oatmeal ” crackers of the groceries 
in this country may be made of almost any kind of 
flour. A few groats are mixed in with the dough, 
apparently with the foolish purpose of making the 
uninitiated believe the crackers are made out of gen¬ 
uine oatmeal. These crackers are probably as good 
as common crackers, but the consumer soon cloys 
upon them. 

The use of oatmeal in the United States has be¬ 
come popular within a few years. Fifteen years ago 
nearly all that we used came from Canada, where 
they raise a superior grade of oats for the purpose of 





















994 


OA TS—OIL-CLOTHS. 


manufacture into table food; then Mr. Schumacher, 
at Akron, O., began to make it ixjpular, and lately 
there have been established factories in nearly every 
State in the Union, which, as before intimated, man¬ 
ufacture every grade of “oatmeal,” both cooked and 
uncooked, from groats .to fine flour. 

Oatmeal should always^be used as fresh as ix)ssible, 
as by standing it soon becomes bitter. 

Oats, a member of the order of grasses, probably 
ranking next to Indian corn in importance as a 
cereal product in the United States. It is extensively 
used as feed for horses and cattle, and is rapidly be¬ 
coming a favorite food for man. It is much easier 
of culture than wheat, and can be grown on soil that 
would scarcely produce a good crop of any other 
grain. Exactly where the oat came from is not known, 
probably, however, from central Asia. It was known 
to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who perhaps de¬ 
rived their knowledge of it from the Celts, Germans 
and other natives of Northern Europe. 

Cultivation. Oats are cultivated through a wide 
range of latitude, and on a greater variety of soil than 
any other grain. The average yield on good soils is 
30 to 40 bushels per acre, and on the richest, when 
well cultivated, it has exceeded 70 bushels. It is 
exposed to fewer injuries than other grain, being 
seldom affected by rust, smut or insects. The wire- 
worm is most destructive to it, especially when sown 
on fresh sod. The most effectual mode of extirpating 
these and other troublesome insects, is to turn the 
sod over late in the fall, so that they may be frozen 
to death. Deep plowing in the spring may cover 
them up so thoroughly that not many of them will 
find their way to the surface in time to do much 
injury. 

Oats will thrive on almost any kind of soil that is 
not very wet. Standing water is death to the plant. 
'I'hey follow corn or potatoes very well. No green 
liarnyard manure should be applied to the land, but 
fertilizers will not injure the crop. Well-rotted com¬ 
post may be harrowed in with profit. On many soils 
two or three bushels of salt per acre may be used. 
When sown on sod it should never be omitted. 

Sow early, and at the rate of two to four bushels 
per acre. I'hey may occupy a turf, or follow any of 
the well-manured hoed crops. It is not necessary to 
steep for smut as for wheat, unless the grain were 
hulled. Harrow and roll well and the work of culti¬ 
vation is done. 

Oats frequently ripen unevenly, and if a large 
proportion is backward, the proper time for cutting 
will be as soon as the grain in the latest may be rub¬ 
bed out of the straw by hand. Oats are sufficiently 
ripe for harvesting after they have passed into the 
milk state and are easily compressed between the 
thumb and finger. The lower part of the stalk will 
then be yellowish, having ceased to draw nutriment 
from the soil. Oats may be stacked or stowed away 
in the barn like wheat. 

Varieties. The Common White is the most cul¬ 
tivated in the United States, being hardy and a good 


bearer, weighing 32 to 35 jxiunds ber bushel. In 
some places the Black oats are preferable. The 
Somerset, the Bohemian, the Houghton, the White 
Schonen, the Early Yellow and the Canada and 
other kinds have local success, and many have been 
tried in this country with very little success. I he 
popular kinds in the Old World are, besides the 
Wdiite and the Black, the Red, the Poland, the Black 
Poland, the P'riesland or Dutch, the Potato, the 
Georgian, the Siberian, Tartarian or Horse-mane, the 
Whnter. the Hopetown, the Dyock and the* Skinless. 

Off. The “off” animal in a team is’ the one on 
the right side: see Near. 

Oil. This substance in its purest state consists of 
carbon, hydrogen and a small proportion of oxygen, 
and its distinctive characteristics are, that it is greasy 
and insoluble in water, not uniting with it by itself. 
Oils are divided into two great classes, expressed or 
fiked oils and volatile or essential oils. The former 
is so-called because they do not boil or become 
volatilized, and do not inflame until they are heated 
to 600®. When nearly to this point they give out a 
vapor which is very inflammable; in fact, the oil dots 
not ignite until it is brought into a state of vajior. 
On this account wicks are necessary to enable the oil 
in lamps to burn. Through them a small quantity is 
exposed to a high temperature, when it ignites. 'I’he 
volatile or essential oils are treated in the article 
Essential Oil. 

Fluid oils are obtained both from animal and 
vegetable substances. When obtained from the 
animal in the solid state they are called fat and 
tallow. Fish oil is generally fluid. Fixed vegetable 
oil occurs in plants, associated with mucilage, some¬ 
times in the fruits, as in nuts; occasionally in the 
pulp surrounding the seeds, as in the olive; but most 
frequently in the seed themselves, as linseed, rape- 
seed, etc. The degree of cold at which oils congeal 
or become solid varies extremely. 

Oil-cakes, the remains of seeds after the oil has 
been expressed. Especially does this refer to the 
remains of linseed after the oil has been pressed out. 
Several of the oil cakes are remarkablj- rich and 
nutritive, and are used for fattening cattle. Hemp, 
rape, mustard and other cakes make excellent manure. 

Oil-cloths. In buying an oil-cIoth for a floor en¬ 
deavor to obtain one that was manufactured several 
years before, as the longer it has been made previous 
to use, the better it will wear, the paint having be¬ 
come hard and durable. An oil-cloth which has 
been made within the year is scarcely worth the buy¬ 
ing, as the paint will be defaced in a very little time, 
it requiring a long while to season. An oil cloth 
should never be scrubbed with a brush, but after 
being first swept, it should be cleaned by washing 
with a large, soft cloth and lukewarm or cold water. 
On no account use soap, or take water that is hot, as 
either of these will certainly bring off the paint. 
When it has dried you may sjxinge it over with milk. 












0/NTMENr—OLEOMARGARINE. 


995 


which will brighten and preserve the color, and then 
wipe it with a dry, soft cloth. 

Ointment is a composition of animal fat or fixed 
oil with other substances, for external uses; it differs 
from liniment and salves in consistence only, being 
thicker than the latter and thinner than the former. 
When it contains a large proportion of wax, and of a 
consistence between that of ointment and plaster, it 
is called cerate. Ointments are not only used to de¬ 
fend wounds from the action of the cold air, but also 
to assuage pain and inflammation, to produce, a 
healthy discharge from ulcers, and often as an exter¬ 
nal dressing, to retain on the part such other applica¬ 
tions as may be necessary to destroy fungus, etc. 

We give several recipes for making many of the 
best ointments known. In preparing ointment 
observe the following: Their solidity should not ex¬ 
ceed that of good butter at ordinary temperature of 
the atmosphere. When the active ingredients are 
powdered substances, nothing can be more suitable 
to form the mass of the ointment than good lard, free 
from salt; but when they are fluid, prepared suet, or 
a mixture of suet and lard, will be necessary to give a 
proper consistency to the compound. In some few 
instances wax is required for this purpose. 

Ointment for Old Sores. Red precipitate, ^ 
ounce; sugar of lead, ounce; burnt alum, i ounce; 
white vitriol, ^ ounce or a little less; all to be very 
finely pulverized; have mutton tallow made warm, 
^ jxjund; stir all in, and stir until cool. 

Neuralgia Ointment. 'Fake 2 drachms each of 
cyanide of potassium and chloroform, and make into 
a salve with i ounce lard, for external application. 

Belladonna Anodyne Ointment. Mix 3 drachms 
fresh and good extract of belladonna, drachm 
powdered opium and 3 drachms lard. For neuralgia, 
etc., apply with friction for 6 to 8 minutes. 

Ointment for Piles. Triturate 8 grains of mor¬ 
phia in I ounce melted spermaceti ointment, until the 
morphia is dissolved; then add drachms of galls 
in im[)alpable powder, 12 to 15 drops essential oil of 
almonds, and stir until the mass is cool. 

Itch Ointment. Washed sulphur, ounces; 
chloride of lime, 2 drachms; hog’s lard, 4 ounces. 
Mix and make into an ointment. 

Foot-rot Ointment. Lard and Venice turpentine, 
4 ounces of each; melt and add i ounce blue vitriol. 
Good for cows or sheep. 

Cracked-Hoof Ointment. Tar and tallow, equal 
parts, melted together, 

Egyptian Ointment. A detergent application for 
foul ulcers, etc. Mix by heat and agitation, to parts 
verdigris, i part calcined alum, 14 parts strong vine¬ 
gar, and 32 [jarts thick purified honey. 

Tar Ointment. Tar and mutton suet, equal 
parts; melt together and stir till cold. This is an 
excellent remedy for scald-head and'ringworm. 

Magnetic Ointment. Lard, raisins cut in pieces 
and fine-cut tobacco, equal weights; simmer well 
together, then strain and press out all from the dregs. 
This is an excellent ointment for salt-rheum and 


other skin diseases. It is also good for piles, bruises 
and cuts. 

Okra, or Gumbo. A plant of the mallows fam¬ 
ily, the young pods of which are used in soups. For 
the extreme North sow in hot-bed, and transplant to - 
rich mellow soil, one foot apart, thinning to two feet 
apart in the row, the larger kinds to three feet apart. 
The varieties are. Early Dwarf: white, small and 
round; pods smooth; most desirable; and the Long 
Green,—jx)ds long and green, later and more 
productive. 

Okra Gumbo is made by taking two quarts of 
ripe tomatoes and one quart of okra cut in rings; 
put them over the fire with about three quarts of wa¬ 
ter and let the mixture come to a boil; take one 
chicken ; cut it up and fry brown, with plenty of 
gravy ; put it in with the okra and tomatoes; add 
several small onions chopped fine; salt and pepper 
to taste; a little corn and Lima beans are an im¬ 
provement, if you have them. Let all simmer gently 
for several hours. To be served with a tablespoonful 
of boiled rice and green garden pepper cut fine to 
each soup plate. 

Oleomargarine (o-le-o-mar ga-rin), a preparation 
made from tallow, which, with cocoanut,olive and palm 
oil and salt, as flavoring, and annatto as coloring, is 
used for butter, and for adulterating butter and 
cheese. This is quite extensively sold in cities for 
butter. In many of them, however, laws are enacted 
prohibiting its sale under any other than its real 
name. (See page 137). 

To Detect Oleo.margarine. Prof. Thomas Tay¬ 
lor, microscopist to the United States Department of 
Agriculture, gives the following practical tests for de¬ 
tecting oleomargarine: 

“As a result of some recent chemical experiments 
I have discovered a very valuable and economical 
test, which may be easily employed by dealers and 
housekeepers in the detection of oleomargarine. The 
test is a very simple one, and consists in combining a 
small jxjrtion of the sanqfle to be tested with the acid 
in the proportion of one grain of the substance to 
two drops of the sulphuric acid, the color which the 
mixture assumes determining its character. 

“ When pure butter is combined with the sulphuric 
acid in the above proportions it changes immediately 
to an opaque whitish yellow. Within five minutes a 
change in color, beginning at the edge, takes place, 
and it becomes a very pale shade of scarlet. In thirty 
minutes the color deepens perceptibly. Fresh oleo¬ 
margarine, made from beef fat, when treated with sul¬ 
phuric acid, becomes at first a transparent amber 
color. In the course of about twenty minutes the 
color changes to a deep crimson. 

“When beef oleomargarine is stale or decomposing 
it turns under the acid treatment quickly to a deep 
transparent amber, and changes in less than twenty 
minutes to a dark opaque brown. 

“ Fresh oleomargarine with a lard basis, when first 
treated, changes quickly to a transparent amber, per- 









996 


OLIVE—ONION. 


haps a shade paler than in the case of the stale beef 
oleomargarine. The color changes in the course of 
half an hour to deep brown. 

“Fresh oleomargarine having a vegetable basis, 
such as peanut or cocoa fat, on the application of the 
acid changes in color to a very pale, transparent am¬ 
ber, and in about thirty minutes changes to pale pink 
tinges with violet. 

“In cases where butter is mixed with oleomargarine 
in quantity the tint will change corresponding to the 
proportions. 

“ With a little experiment any one may quickly be¬ 
come an expert in distinguishing butter from the ole¬ 
omargarines by the process described above. 

“As sulphuric acid corrodes most animal and vege¬ 
table substances, acting quickly and destructively, it 
is necessary to use it with care. It should be kept 
in a small vial with a glass stopper. When experi¬ 
menting with it a small, solid glass rod should always 
be used for mixing purposes and other manipulation. 
No metallic or wooden implements should be 
employed.” 

Olive. The olive tree is interesting from historical 
recollections. It was the leaf of this tree, brought in¬ 
to the ark by the dove, that gave the first evidence of 
the waters of the deluge having abated, since which 
time it has been employed as an emblem of peace. 
The olive {Olea Europcea) is extensively cultivated in 
Southern Europe for the oil obtained from its fruit. 
It has also been successfully cultivated on the coasts 
of Alabama, Florida, South Carolina and Georgia, but 
to no great extent. It is a low branchy, evergreen 
tree, from 20 to 30 feet high, with stiff, narrow, 
bluish-green leaves. It is extremely hardy and will 
grow in soil scarcely fit for any other production, if 
only dry. The fruit is smooth and oval, about three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter, being about the size 
of a small plum. When ripe it is of a deep violet 
color. It is rather bitter, but has a pulp replete with 
a bland oil. Olives are chiefly cultivated for the 
oil which they produce, and which, in the countries 
where they grow, form a necessary article in the 
culinary art as butter with us. It is quite extensive¬ 
ly used by many in this country as a salad oil. The 
fruit is also pick led. 

Omelet, a kind of pancake or fritter, made chiefly 
of eggs. We add some excellent recipes for making 
omelet of various styles. 

Simple O.melet. Take four eggs and beat as light 
as possible. For every egg add a tablespoonful of 
milk. Put a piece of butter in the omelet pan, and 
when hot pour in the mixture. With a fork scrape 
the egg very lightly toward the center of the pan as it 
cooks, and when done fold it together with a pan¬ 
cake turner. 

Green-Corn Omelet. Take twelve ears of green 
corn; five eggs; salt and pepper to suit the taste; 
split the middle of each row of corn, and then scrape 
from the cobs. 

Oyster Omelet. Cook 15 oysters rare done in a 


little saucepan, with a spoonful of milk, scrap of 
butter, and thickening to make white sauce of the 
liquor. Break 4 eggs in a bowl, put in a spoonful of 
milk and beat. Add a pinch of salt. Shake a table¬ 
spoonful of melted lard about in the large omelet fry¬ 
ing-pan, and before it gets very hot pour in the omelet 
and let it cook rather slowly. Loosen the edges with 
a knife when it is nearly cooked enough to shake. 
When the omelet is nearly done in the center place 
the oysters with a spoon in the hollow middle and 
pull over the further edge to cover them in. Slide 
on the dish, smooth side up. Garnish with parsley 
and lemon. 

Egg and Oyster Omelet. Beat up four eggs, 
and season to suit; chop up six large oysters, make a 
batter of half a cup of flour and half a pint of milk; 
mix the whole together, stir well, and fiy^ slowly, 
adding by the teaspoonful. 

Omnivorous, eating both animal and vegetable 
food. Most birds are omnivorous, are as also the 
swine, bear, etc. 


Onion. The onion was cultivated in very remote 
times, having been known to the ancient Egyptians, 
who worshiped it under some mystic significande 
2,000 years before the Christian era. Herodotus tells us 
that in his time there was an inscription on the great 
pyramid stating that a sum amounting to 1,600 
talents had been expended for this vegetable 
consumed by the workmen during the process 
of its erection. The onion was a favorite vege¬ 
table with the ancient Greeks and Romans, and 
has been cultivated all over the world. It is very 
nutritive, and is much more succulent and of a milder 
flavor in southern countries than in northern cli¬ 
mates, Onions are wholesome employed in anyway. 
When young they are eaten as a salad. They are 
also eaten raw, being served with salt, pepper and 
vinegar; they are boiled, roasted and pickled, and 
also served in many ways in combination with other 
food. Indeed, the onion forms one of the essential 
productions of the kitchen garden, but the odor which 
they give the breath is a great objection to their use. 
By chewing a little parsley this may be removed. 



^CULTIVATION. 
More than all other 
garden vegetables on¬ 
ions have to be plant¬ 
ed early in the spring, 
for very few varieties 
will germinate and 
grow in hot weather. 
Select ground which is 
mellow and enriched 
with old manure; old 
onion ground is bet¬ 
ter, be it ever so old. 
Plow it four or five 
inches deep, roll and 
harrow when diy% mark off in drills about 14 inches 
apart and sow the seed, covering them very' shallow. 


Fu;. I. —Silver Skin. 













pFIUM. 


When up thin to three or to six inches apart, accord¬ 
ing to the size of the 
varieties sown; keep 
perfectly free from 
weeds b y frequent 
hoeing. Onion sets, 
raised on the tops, do 
not have to be planted 
any thicker than they 
are allowed finally to 
stand, as they are 
very hardy and not 
subject to disease or 
insects. When ma¬ 
ture, pull them up in 

Fig. ■i.—Danvers 1 ellovj Onion. weather, a 1 1 O W 

them to become perfectly dry, and then store them 
away in a cool place. 

Varieties. Large Red Wethersfield. An old 
standard; pleasant-flavored, grows very large, is 
hardy, very productive and keeps well. 

Extra Early Red. One of the best. 

Early Flat Red. A very quick grower, and one of 
the best for the North. 

Rarly Red Globe. One of the earliest, most pro¬ 
ductive and handsome of all the red sorts. 

Large Yello^a Strasburgh. Late standard variety. 

Danvers Yellow. Large, round, earlier than Large 
Yellow, very profitable; i,ioo bushels have been 
raised from one acre. 

Early Cracker. A decided improvement on Large 
Yellow, being much earlier; the kind for a short 
season. 

Large Flat White Ltalian. mild-flavored, large 
onion grown from sets. 

N'aseby's Mammoth. Another Italian variety. 

Marzajole or New Neapolitan. A silver-skin 
variety; white. 

Southport White Globe and Red Globe are remark¬ 
ably handsome and productive, but should not be 
raised north of latitute 41^. 

New Queen. A new English white onion; earliest 
of all. 

Potato Onion. Propagated by the bulbs. 

To Cook Onions. It is a good plan to boil onions 
in milk and water; it diminishes the strong taste of 
that vegetable. It is an excellent way of serving up 
onions, to chop them after they are boiled, and put 
them in a stewpan, with a little milk, butter, salt, and 
pepper, and let them stew about fifteen minutes. 
This gives them a fine flavor. 

Baked Onions. Boil in milk and water until just 
done, then drain and place the onions in a buttered 
baking-pan. Put a bit of butter and some pepper 
and salt over each one, and add a little of the water 
in which they were boiled. Brown them quickly on 
the grating of the oven and serve hot. 

Escalloped Onions. Take eight or ten onions of 
good size, slice them and boil till tender. Lay them 
in a baking-dish, putting bread crumbs, butter in 
small bits, pepper and salt between each layer, until 


997 


the dish is full, putting bread crumbs last; add milk 
or cream until full. Bake 20 minutes or half an hour. 

Onions and Green Tomatoes. Slice as many 
green tomatoes as you like, fine, put on to cook with 
a little water, look out for burning, take one-third as 
many onions. When both are nearly done season 
with drippings of butter and plenty of salt till it has 
the right taste. 

Opium is the most pleasant of narcotics. It pro¬ 
duces, like tea and coffee, pleasant exhilaration, and 
in large doses, stupor and death. The use of it has 
become most extensive in China, where it is so preva¬ 
lent that most of the Chinese-manufactured tobacco is 
said to contain an infusion of it. Opium is mostly 
procured from jxippies, which are intensely impregna¬ 
ted with it. In the fluid state, called laudanum, it is 
often procured from lettuce, and this is quite as poi¬ 
sonous as that of the poppy. Hence the drowsiness 
observed after eating lettuces, especially when the 
full-flavored stalks are eaten. Opium is too extens¬ 
ively used by idle and ignorant persons in charge 
of children to save them the trouble of doing their 
duty as nurses. All the “soothing” syrups sold for 
giving to children are more or less impregnated with 
laudanum, which always injures and often proves 
fatal. There is no habit so utterly demoralizing or 
so hard to break or mitigate as that of opium-eating. 
A man of otherwise high moral principles will lie, 
cheat and steal for it when the terrible habit is once 
contracted. There is neither ease, life, activity 
nor mental jxiwer for him, unless under its influ¬ 
ence. The victim of ordinary intoxication is less 
deplorable and more easily reclaimed than the opium- 
eater, or smoker. 

There are several medical preparations of opium. 
Of these morphia or morphine is the most important. 
It is sold in the drug stores in the form of white crys¬ 
tals, as also in that of liquid. Each fluid ounce con¬ 
tains one grain of morphine or the true principle of 
the opium and one grain of the morphine is equal to 
three grains of opium or 45 drops of the tincture of 
opium, commonly known as laudanum. The latter is 
the most costly of all preparations of opium. These 
preparations are used in veterinary practice some. 
The dose for a horse, of the liquid opium, is from 20 
to 40 grains. Horses will scarcely show the least 
effect of the administration of from two to four 
drachms of the powdered opium. On cattle it even 
has a much less effect than on horses. Cows can 
take one ounce and sheep one-half drachm of jx)w- 
dered opium without suffering. The dose of crude or 
powdered opium for horses is from one to two drachms 
and for cattle two to four drachms. Aconite has 
largely taken the place of opium in veterinar)'^ prac¬ 
tice. Laudanum is used in lotions and liniments for 
the relief of pain. 

Poison by Opium. When a person has taken an 
overdose of opium, morphine or laudanum, instantly 
give an emetic, and keep it up till the danger is over. 
Strong coffee is an excellent stimulant. Or give mag- 















ORANGE—ORCHARD. 


998 


nesia, chlorine, charcoal, or iodine. Electrical shocks 
are a very efficient remedy for stupor. If respiration 
falls below ten a minute artificial respiration should 
be tried. Prevent stupor by forced exercise. 

Orange. The orange is of the same genus as the 
lemon, lime and citron of foreign climes, and of the 
same order as garden rue, prickly ash, hop tree and 
fraxinella. There are many varieties of this fruit in 
tropical countries. 

This most agreeable fruit gives a striking illustra¬ 
tion of the advantages of commerce. Although it is 
the pioduction only of countries much warmer than 
almost any portion of the United States, we enjoy 
it nearly at the prices of our ordinary fruits; and this 
is the more important since it is perhaps the most 
refreshing and healthful of all fruits of warm countries. 
Most of the oranges and lemons intended for export¬ 
ation are gathered before they are ripe, for if they 
were mature they would spoil in the transit. The 
orange tree grows to an extreme age, there being some 
trees in Spain 600 or 700 years old. The orange 
tree may be mentioned as an instance of extraordi¬ 
nary fecundity, A single tree has been known to 
bear in a season 20,000 oranges fit for packing, exclu¬ 
sive of the damaged and wasted, which would 
amount to one-third more. See page 548. 

Orange Jelly. Make a syrup with a pint of 
water and a pound of loaf sugar, boil it with the thin 
rind of four oranges and two lemons, skim it carefully, 
and add the juice of eight oranges, and let it boil 
about 20 minutes; skim, and add the juice of a lemon 
and either a pint of calf s-foot jelly or gelatine; stir 
it well. Peel a couple of sweet oranges, removing 
every particle of skin of both kinds; cut them in 
slices and remove the seeds. Proceed to fill the 
mold, disposing of pieces of oranges in it in a sym¬ 
metrical fashion; when set, turn it out by dipping 
the mold in warm water. The slices of orange may 
be left out if preferred. 

Compote of Oranges. Put a handful of loaf sugar 
to boil with a gill of water in a sauce-pan; when it 
boils add the rind of three oranges chopped fine. 
Let the whole boil five minutes, add a glass of brandy, 
and pour the syrup hot over half a dozen oranges 
that have been peeled and sliced and the seeds 
picked out. The syrup may be strained if preferred. 
Leave the oranges in a dish with the syrup till quite 
cold. 

Orange Pudding. Soak pound bread crumbs 
in 14 pint boiling milk, strain through a colander, add 

pound of sugar, teaspoonful soda, pint sweet 
orange juice, and the grated rind of one orange, five 
eggs, beaten, and bake in a quick oven. ’ 

A:\ibrosia. Take 8 fine sweet oranges, peeled and 
sliced; ^ cocoanut, grated, and cup powdered 
sugar. Arrange the orange in a glass dish, spread 
the grated cocoanut thickly over it, sprinkle this 
lightly with sugar, cover with another layer of orange, 
and so on until the top is reached, which should be'^of 
cocoanut and sugar. Serve mimediately. 


Orchard, a field or enclosure devoted to the grow¬ 
ing of the larger fruits. Under the heads of the dif¬ 
ferent kinds of fruits, their propagation, culture and 
care is very fully treated, and in the articles Horti¬ 
culture, Budding, Grafting, Forestry, Fruits, Mulch¬ 
ing, Soil, Drainage, Manure, Fertilizers, etc., valuable 
aids to the care and management of the orchard and 
its products are detailed. Orchard grass is treated on 
page 598. 

In selecting a site for an orchard some care should 
be exercised. Do not think that you can plant an 
orchard anywhere and meet with success in fruit¬ 
growing. In former times the general custom was to 
select low and sheltered places, by the side of streams 
in the river valleys; but this is being abandoned as a 
wrong theory. Locations least liable to the ravages 
of frost are the best. A “warm place ” is a danger¬ 
ous place for trees. Elevated sites for orchards are 
growing more in favor, for it must be remembered 
that low places and flats are the resting places for 
cool air which settle at the bottom, and are therefore 
subject to untimely frosts. In the Northwest, 
orchards should be on northern slopes, in order to 
prevent a too early swelling of the buds in spring. 

Whoever would ])lant an orchard properly, should 
first determine to give up the land to the trees, and 
decide that whatever shall be done to it shall be done 
for the benefit of the trees alone, and not for any 
secondary crop whatever. The land upon which an 
orchard is to be planted in the spring should be pre¬ 
pared the preceding fall; but if this has not been done, 
delay planting until the land can be properly pre¬ 
pared. When the trees that you ordered arrive you 
had better let them remain heeled in for several 
weeks rather than to set them hurriedly in holes, as if 
they were posts. “ Heeling in ” is an abbreviation of 
the old gardening term of “laying in by the heels,” and 
means a temporary covering of the roots with earth. 
To do this, open a ditch in a place where water will not 
stand, and as much sheltered from the winds as pos¬ 
sible; if convenient let it run north and south; in 
this, place the trees inclined about 45 degrees or less, 
so that they may shade one another, and as they are 
put in, have fine mellow soil well worked in among 
the roots so that no cavities are left. Be careful of 
the labels; if there are many of a kind separate the 
varieties by a stake. See to it that the trees are put 
in in such a manner that there will be no doubt about 
the identity of the varieties when they are taken out. 
The soil for the orchard should be manured, plowed 
and harrowed as if for a crop of corn. As the 
amount of absorbing or root surface has been greatly 
reduced by the taking up of the trees, no matter how 
carefully, the evaporating or leaf surface should also 
be diminished. Recollect that every bud is an unde¬ 
veloped leafy branch, and every bud removed takes 
off many leaves. Before the trees are planted this 
evaporating surface must be lessened by cutting back 
the branches. How much to cut away is a matter of 
judgment, but it is safe always to cut away one-third 
of the shoots; and if the roots have been badly mutil- 

















ORNAMENTAL CURRANT. 


999 


ated, one-half or two-thirds may be removed to the 
benefit of the tree. 

The common method of setting out an orchard is 
to plant the trees in a square, but if a more uniform 
space is desired on all sides of each tree, what is 
called the quincunx is preferable. 

In laying out your orchard in this form, first decide 
upon the distance for the trees and make an equal¬ 
sided triangle of light stuff with the sides of that dis¬ 
tance. Place the frame at the end of the first row 
and the three corners will determine the position of as 
many trees. After laying off, and marking the places 
with stakes for a few trees, in this way, the rest of the 
orchard can be set without the use of the frame. 
Recording the orchard should not be omitted. Labels 
soon fall away and are not reliable, but a map or 
record of the trees by rows and numbers is easily and 
quickly made, and is permanent and useful. Trees 
that have been girdled by mice or rabbits will recover 
if a mound of earth be made to cover the wound, 
provided the inner bark is not destroyed. When the 
girdling is complete, the only hope of saving the tree 
is to insert grafts between the bark below and above 
the girdled place. Take small shoots from the same 
tree, sharpen both ends, and insert them in cuts made 
with a sharp chisel above and below, bridging the 
wound; afterwards cover with clay or grafting wax. 
Cut off any limbs of trees that have been broken down 
during the winter by ice and snow, make the wound 
smooth and cover it with melted grafting wax or paint. 
Old trees may be renovated by trimming out decay¬ 
ing branches, manuring the soil and scraping the 
trunk, to remove the loose bark and the eggs and 
chrysalids of various destructive insects. After scrap¬ 
ing, the trees should receive a strong alkaline wash; 
there is nothing so good for this as home-made soft 
soap, mixed with water until thin and applied to the 
trunks and branches with a large paint or whitewash 
brush. 

Nurserymen usually describe trees in their cata¬ 
logues as “ second class,” “ medium,” “ first class” 
and “extra.” The difference in these classes is prin¬ 
cipally, if not wholly, in the size and height of the 
trees; and as most farmers desire the best, they sup¬ 
pose that the large “extra” trees merit that description, 
and hence order them. The fact is, however, that a 
small tree will grow faster and (if a fruit tree) come 
into bearing condition sooner than a large one, and in 
half a dozen,years the tree that was planted when 
small will be larger and finer than the other. The 
larger the tree the larger the roots which it has, and 
the larger the roots the less fibers there will be upon 
them. A tree that has plenty of fibrous roots will 
grow readily if proper care is used in its transplant¬ 
ation ; but no amount of skill can coax a tree to live 
and flourish which is destitute of these little fibers. 
The roots of large trees are always more or less 
mutilated in the process of taking up, while small 
trees sustain little injury from this source. Dealers 
in trees assert that experienced men buy small, thrifty 
trees, while those who are just starting are anxious for 


the largest to be had. Those who wish to set out 
trees will do well to learn from the experience of those 
who, at considerable loss to themselves, have demon¬ 
strated that small trees are the ones to buy. 

If thrifty trees are set in a hole cut in a wet meadow 
and the sods put back, except for a foot or so about 
the tree, as is often done, such trees cannot thrive, 
and many will not survive the first season.. Such 
orchard planting is a waste of money, and if no other 
land can be used, w'ait until the land can be drained 
and made fit for planting. Having the land in proper 
condition for producing a good crop of wheat or corn, 
and having laid out the orchard, marking the place 
for each tree with a small stake, open a broad, shal¬ 
low hole, and with the tree in the center, spread the 
roots in all directions (see page 511), and work 
soil in among the roots, leaving no masses of roots 
or large hollow spaces about them. Set each tree 
carefully, as it is a matter of a life-time, and on it de¬ 
pends largely the success or failure of the orchard. 
While the trees are small they need special care. 
The ground should be well tilled and thoroughly 
manured. Hoed crops may be grown between the 
rows, but the very act of planting an orchard indicates 
that the land is devoted to the production of fruit. If 
another crop interferes in any way with the best 
growth of the trees, that crop is out of place. 

It is sometimes said “the orchard has run out,” but 
it is only another way for saying that "the trees are 
crying for manure. The earlier in the season this 
manure is applied the better. Good, well-rotted 
stable manure is the best, but should there be an 
abundance of vegetable matter in the soil, a dressing 
of lime will often produce gratifying results. Wood 
ashes or bones will not come amiss upon an old 
“worn-out” orchard. 

Pruning maybe done in March or June,but should 
not be done in April or May, for these reasons: in 
March 'the sap is partially dormant and the wound 
will become dried before the sap reaches it, and there¬ 
fore it will not bleed; in June, or in blossom lime 
the sap has passed up through the pores of the wood, 
forcing out the leaf and changed its nature, and is on 
the return to supply the fruit with nutriment, and to 
form a new layer of wood under the bark and there 
becomes thick and glutinous and will not bleed, and 
the tree being in full vigor of growth the wounds will 
readily heal, while in April and May the sap is mov¬ 
ing up through the pores of the wood, and is very 
thin and will readily bleed. 

Orchards should be cultivated to low crops or kept 
in fallow until the trees are well in bearing, when 
orchard grass, timothy or white clover maybe allowed 
to take possession of the ground. 

Ornamental Currant. This member of the 
saxifrage family is cultivated for its spicy-scented, 
bright-yellow flowers in early spring. The berries are 
blackish and insipid. The red-flowering species is 
rare in cultivation, while the golden is common every¬ 
where. 










O/^jVA menta l trees—oxen. 


Ornamental Trees: see Landscape Gardening, 
Forestry and Floriculture. 

Ornithology, that department of natural history 
which treats of birds. It should receive no little attention 
from the farmer. He should familiarize himself with 
characteristics, habits, etc., of the birds common to his 
section. It will not only enable him to guard against 
those that ravage his crops, and to know those that 
assist him, by keeping off the numberless insects, 
but will afford him rare pleasure. The study of the 
feathered tribe is very fascinating. We treat many 
birds in their alphabetical order, and many others in 
the article Birds. 

Ossify, to form into bone. 

Ounce, 480 grains, or one-twelfth of a pound of 
troy weight; in avoirdupois it is one-sixteenth of a 
pound, or 437 ^ troy grains. 

Ovarium, in plants, a hollow case, enclosing young 
seeds which contain one or more cells, and finally be¬ 
comes the fruit. The ovarium is always situated in 
the center of the flower, and, in connection with the 
stigma and style, constitute the female system of the 
vegetable kingdom. 

Overshot Wheel, a water wheel the circumference 
of which is furnished with cavities or buckets, into 
which the stream of water is delivered at the top, 
turning the wheel by its weight. 

Oviparous, developing young in eggs which are 
afterwards separated from the parent, and which are 
usually hatched after exclusion from the body. 

Ovoyiviparous, oviparous, but hatching the young 
while within the body. The viper, flesh fly and some 
fish are ovoviviparous. 

Oven Brick: see Brick Oven. 

Overreach: see page 815. 

Owl. d'here are few groups of birds so decidedly 
marked and so easy of recognition as the owl. The 
round, puffy head, the little hooked beak just appear¬ 
ing from the downy plumage with which it is sur¬ 
rounded, the large, soft, blinking eyes, and the curious 
disk of feathers which radiate from the eye, are such 
characteristic distinctions that an owl can at once 
be detected. They are almost without exception noc¬ 
turnal in their habits. The principal varieties known 
here are the barn owl, the great horned owl, the red, 
screech, the long-eared, the short-eared, great gray; 
the barred owl and the little owl. All of them are 
carnivorous and they generally feed on young turkeys, 
chickens, hares, squirrels, rats, mice, small birds, 
beetles and other insects, etc. 

Oxalic Acid. In cases of poisoning with oxalic 
acid or salts of sorrel, chalk and water may be 
administered as a chemical antidote, with the view 
of producing the insoluble oxalate of lime. Emetics 
should also be applied. The effects of such poison 
are vomiting and acute pain in the stomach, general 


debility, cramps and death. Lime water or magnesia 
in large draughts should be given. 

Oxen, the gelded males of neat cattle. These, until 
they have matured, are known as steers. “ Horned 
horses,” as the New England fathers were wont to 
style their oxen, are not so much in use in this coun¬ 
try as they formerly were, horses and mules being es¬ 
teemed i)referable and more in accordance with the 
speedy disix)sition of the times. In New England 
they are still much used on the rugged and uneven 
farms of that region, as well as in other mountainous 
sections. In New England, the Devons, red, shapely 
and sprightly, have always been most highly esteemed 
for draft purposes, the breed having been imported 
into the country at an early day. The Herefords 
have also been somewhat prized as oxen, and the 
various gradations of these breeds with the native 
scrubs have been used. The best time for breaking 
steers is when they are a few months old; in other 
words they should be so handled as never to need 
what is commonly termed “breaking.” Miniature 
yokes may be placed on them when they are quite 
young, before they suspect the object. Careful and 
patient boys may take this matter in charge, and begin 
yoking and driving them when yearlings. The after 
management of the ox will be a very easy matter, if the 
calf has been treated as indicated above. The goad and 
the lash should be used sparingly. The yelling and 
shouting of the average driver are absurd and more than 
useless. As in the case of nearly all dumb animals, 
when once the beast knows what the master wants that 
the brute will perform. Care should be taken in break- 
ing,steers not to blunderingly or carelessly get them into 
tricks or notions, through fear, like dodging, starting, 
or running away. Oxen, while at work, are usually 
large consumers of food. They will devour enormous 
quantities of hay if they are not given a feed of grain 
or roots. A good feed for working cattle is turnips, 
carrots or mangold-wurzels chopped, and corn meal, 
or meal and bran mixed, ^x^ured over them. Oxen 
kept on this feed will not consume so much hay as 
otherwise, and will be maintained in good heart for 
labor. When oxen are worked in winter they should 
be shod. Care should be taken not to have the boxes 
of yokes too small, nor yet too large; in both cases 
the animal will labor uneasily. 

Ox-Yoke. To make this yoke it is necessary to 
have a stick of light, strong timber, such as butternut, 
walnut, sycamore, basswood, soft maple, or wild 
cherry, each of which is excellent material. Idie size 
of the stick necessary is 10 by 16 inches and 5 feet 
long. This should be sawed in two, cutting out two 
pieces of the heart, making two pieces 10 by 7. One 
side and one edge of the piece should be dressed 
square; the center found, the first bow-hole is then 
bored 12 inches from this center; the second bow- 
hole 12 inches from the first. Mark, and bore the 
holes from each side, making them meet in the 
center, to secure accuracy. A 2-inch auger should 
be used, and the holes then burned with a hot iron 
















ox YGEN—OZONE. 


lOOI 


to make them smooth. The yoke is then laid out YV2 
inches thick in the center between the bow-holes, and 
inches thick in the center between the two bows, 
where the ring is placed; the ends are beveled off, and 
lines of proper curvature laid out between the points 
marked. The yoke may be fashioned with jig or 
band saw, or adz, and should then be finished up 
true and square from the face side with a drawing 
knife. It should then be laid upon its back and 
inches marked off from the center for the width of the 
yoke, taking off about i inches from each side. 
The ends are then tapered off and rounded. The 
bottom, or inside, of the yoke must now be rounded, 
first by a broad chamfer, and then rounding and 
finishing smooth; the top is left square, except to 
chamfer the corners or edges of the yoke. The bows 
are 28 to 30 inches in length and 2 inches in diam¬ 
eter. Instead of a staple, use a broad iron strap, 
which goes around the yoke, having screws cut on 
the end and a plate held down by nuts screwed over 
it, to clasp the yoke and strengthen it. In the bottom 
of the strap is placed two pieces of cast iron, which 
have a flange upon the edge, and four slight pro¬ 
jections upon the top, for which small holes are bored 
in the wood. The two castings are so formed that 
when they are placed in ixjsition they have a hole in 
the middle, in which the ring is inserted; the strap is 
placed around them and put upon the yoke, and the 
nuts on the top screwed tight. Such a yoke is much 
stronger than if the staple passed through it. 

Oxygen, a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. 
It is somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravity 
being 1.1056. Oxygen is the most abundant element 
in nature. It exists free in the atmosphere, of which 
it forms a fifth part. Combined with other elements, 
it constitutes two-thirds of the entire globe. Water 
is eight-ninths oxygen by weight. Fully one-half of 


the weight of all minerals, three-quarters of the weight 
of all animals, and four-fifths of the weight of all 
vegetables is oxygen. It is capable of entering into 
combination with all the elements except fluorine. 
But in the state in which it is usually obtained heat 
is necessary to bring about the union. Combustion, 
in the ordinary use of the term, is union with oxygen, 
attended with light and heat. When hydrogen, sul¬ 
phur, charcoal and iron, for example, are brought in 
contact with oxygen at a suitable temperature, they 
burn, evolving heat and light and producing oxides 
of these substances. Oxygen is therefore an intense¬ 
ly active substance, in which the rapidity of ordinary 
combustion is vastly increased. Oxygen gas is es¬ 
sential to respiration—that is, to the evolution of 
carbonic acid from the blood, but requires to be 
diluted with nitrogen, as in the air; otherwise it 
destroys life by producing over-activity. Seeds can¬ 
not germinate without oxygen, and must not therefore 
be buried too deep in the compact soil. The leaves 
of trees, also, cannot perform their functions without 
its presence, although they are always exhaling a 
large quantity of the gas. See Ozone. 

Oysters, To Cook: see page 473. 

Oyster Plant, or Vegetable Oyster; see Salsify. 

Ozone, is oxygen in an active or highly electro¬ 
negative state. In a word, it is active oxygen. (See 
Oxygen). It is half as heavy again as oxygen. 
Ozone is found free in the air after a thunder-storm. 
It acts to oxidize and destroy impurities in the air. 
Atmospheric ozone burns up miasmatic exhalations, 
and hence preserves the air pure. It is es])ecially 
active during a thunder-storm. The recently in¬ 
vented processes and apparatus so extensively 
advertised for generating ozone for purposes of dis¬ 
infection, cost much more than they are really worth. 










p 


tfHi a certain gait of a horse in 

list* which both legs of one side are raised at 

-- 


for a 

saddle-horse, yet it is not recognized in the art 


•jjJ of horsemanship. The action of the pacer is 
Mt neither so safe nor so pleasant as that of a racker, 
whose feet are set down one after the other in 
regular one-two-three-four time. This, however is 
only a variety of the pacing gait. ’ 

The word pace also signifies the peculiar man¬ 
ner of locomotion in a horse or other animal. 7'he 
natural paces of a horse are the walk, the trot the 
gallop and m a few instances the “pace,” or amble, as 
described m the above paragraph. 

Pack, a large collection of hounds, 25 couple 
constituting a true pack. It means also a number of 
wolves together. See Flocks. 

Pack-Saddle, a saddle adapted to the carrying of 
heavy packages or burdens. 

t a small pasture immediately adjoining a 


Paint and Painting. There is perhaps nothing 
that pays so well in the care of the farm buildings as 
tl^ use of paint; and not only for the orotection it 
affords, but the supenor elegance it gives to the plain¬ 
est structure by its tasteful application makes it too 
valuable to be ignored or neglected by the farmer 
As_ almost all painting is done by professional 
artisans, we deem it unimixirtant to the farmer 
to go into a detailed description of the process. 
Whmi you have any painting to do, it should 
be done in the fall, winter or early spring, as 
all paint applied in cool weather dries slowly 
and makes a hard, glossy surface; if applied in hot 
weather the wood rapidly absorbs the oil, leaving th'^ 
lead on the outside, to crumble off. The mild days 
of February and March are well adapted to outside 
house painting. No room should be painted while in 
use. 

The character of the work to be done will determine 
the kind of brushes to use. One or two flat and three 
round brushes of various sizes will be sufficient and 
wire-bound ones are the most durable. After use 
the brushes should be thoroughly cleaned with tur¬ 
pentine and covered with tallow. 

_ If the house be new, the knots should be covered 
with a varnish of gum shellac and alcohol, to prevent 
the exudation of resinous substance which would dis¬ 
color the paint. The first coat should be made of 


white lead and fresh, raw linseed oil, boiled oil and 
turpentine being used in the subsequent coats. For 
inside work, equal parts of boiled oil and turpentine 
are used for the first coat, and 75 per cent, turpentine 
IS used for the second, and nearly all turpentine for 
the third. The color desired should be in the second 
and third coats, the first being simply white lead. In 
repainting old houses, sand paper or pumice stone 
should be used to smooth down all irregularities of 
the surface, and then paint as if applying a second 
coat. 

Good mixed paints can be purchased in small cans 
thus saving the trouble of mixing them. 

We give recipes for making some cheap paints, 
which the farmer can make and apply himself on out 
buildings, fences, etc. 

Cheap Paint. Take a bushel of well burnt lime, 
white and unslaked, 20 pounds of Spanish whiting’ 
17 pounds of rock salt, and 12 pounds of brown sugar.’ 
Slake the lime and sift out any coarse lumps and 
mix it into good whitewash with about 40 gallons of 
water, and then add the other ingredients, and stir 
the whole together thoroughly, and put on two or 
three coats with a common brush. This is a cheap 
paint. Five dollars’ worth ought to make the build¬ 
ing look a hundred dollars’ worth better. This makes 
a coat that does not wash off, or easily rub off, and it 
looks well, while it will go far to preserve the wood 
It is therefore especially adapted to the outside of 
buildings that are exposed to the weather. Three 
coats are needed on brick and two on wood. If you 
want to get. a fine cream color, add 3 pounds of yellow 
ochre to the above. If you prefer a brown color, add 
4 pounds of umber, r pound of Indian red and i 
pound of lampblack. If you want a gray or stone 
color add 4 pounds of raw umber and 2 pounds of 
lampblack. This will be more durable than common 


.. TAINT. j)iacic stone lime 

by putting into a tub, covered, to keep in the steam- 
when slacked, pass the powder through a fine sieve’ 
and to every 6 quarts add a quart of rock-salt 
and a gallon of water; then boil and skim clear- 
to every 5 gallons of the liquid add pulverized alum’ 
I pound; pulverized copperas, ^ pound, and stir 
slowly; add powdered potash, pound; then verv 
fine sand or hickory ashes, 4 ix)unds; then use any 
coloring matter desired, and apply with a brush. It 
looks better than any ordinary paint, and is as durable 
as slate; will stop small leaks in roofs, prevent moss 

















PA LA TE—PAREGORIC. 


1003 


from growing tliereon, make it incombustible, and 
render bricks im[)ervious to water. 

Palate, the roof of the mouth of an animal. In 
young horses, particularly when they are changing 
their teeth, the palate is generally very full or swollen, 
and sometimes protrudes lower than the upper front 
teeth and is supposed to occasion difficulty in feed¬ 
ing. See the article Lampas, page 807. 

Palpitation of the Heart: see Heart. 

Pancakes, or Griddle-Cakes. Use a frying-pan 
for pancakes; heat it; put in a teaspoonful or two of 
lard and run it quickly over the bottom; then pour in 
adarge ladleful of batter—enough to cover the bottom 
of the pan with a thin sheet. Turn with a tin spatula, 
very carefully, to avoid tearing it. 

Clean snow is a good substitute for egg, in pan¬ 
cakes, 2 tablespoonfuls being equivalent to one egg. 

Co.MMON lb\Nc.4KES. Beat 3 eggs, and stir them 
into a pint of milk; add a pinch of salt, and sufficient 
flour to make it into a thick smooth batter; fry them 
in boiling fat, roll them over on each side, drain and 
serve them very hot, with lemon and sugar. 

Another recipe: 'Fake i teacupful of sour cream 
and 3 teacupfuls of sweet milk; add a level teaspoon¬ 
ful soda, and teaspoonful salt dissolved in a little hot 
water, and flour enough to make a batter that will 
l)our (not drop) in a heavy stream from a spoon. 

Bread Pancakes. Soak pieces of stale bread in 
water until cpiite soft; drain through a sieve, then rub 
the bread through a colander. To a quart add three 
eggs and milk enough to make a soft batter. 

Buckwheat Cakes: see page 125. 

Graham Griddi.e Cakes. One pint of milk, half 
a cup of sour cream, half a teaspoonful of soda, the 
same of salt; stir in Graham flour not as stiff as for 
fine flour cakes (no eggs); have the griddle quite hot; 
or with yeast the same as with buckwheat. 

Corn-Meal Griddle Cakes. Scald half a pint of 
Indian meal; half a pint of the same, dry, flour, and 
stir all into a pint of milk, with a tablespoonful of 
butter and i egg. Spread very thin on the griddle. 

Another: Take i quart of sour milk or buttermilk, 
gill of molasses, teaspoonful baking soda, a little salt, 
I egg, and mix with meal enough to make a good 
batter; have lard enough in a flat kettle boiling to 
swim the cakes; dip a spoon in the lard to drop the 
cakes, or omit the molasses and eat with butter. 

Green-Corn Griddle Cakes. Mix i pint of gra¬ 
ted green corn with three tablespoonfuls of milk; i 
teacup of flour, half a cup of melted butter, one egg, 
a teaspoonful of salt, and a little pepper. Drop this 
upon a griddle and cook well. 

Oatmeal Griddle Cakes. Take 0/2. cups oat¬ 
meal, 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, i saltsix)onful of salt, 
and a piece of soda about the size of a pea. Stir all 
well together with cold water and let it stand all night. 
In the morning put i egg, i cup of milk, and enough 
flour to give it the right consistency of a batter. Fry 


in a griddle with very little fat—a small piece of beef 
suet, which is the best to use. 

Oatmeal Cakes. Take 2 cups of cold boiled oat¬ 
meal ; mix I egg through it; 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 
and pepared flour enough to make into cakes; dip 
each side into rolled cracker and fry brown. 

CoM.MON Flat-Jacks. One quart sour milk, thicken 
it with flour; 2 teaspoonfuls of saleratus and a little 
salt. 

Pancreas (pan'cre-as), a glandular viscus of the 
abdomen, situated beneath the stomach, and one of 
the most important of the digestive organs. This is 
the sweet-bread in the lower animals. 

Panic Grass, a genus of grasses with spreading 
tops, many of which are common throughout the 
United States, some being useful as forage. There 
are 17 species in the Northern States, all but 
one of which are native. The introduced species is 
the familiar “ barnyard ” grass. Besides the above, 
the Hungarian grass or millet is a true panic grass. 

Barnyard Grass. This is an annual, growing two 
or three feet high, with a heavy, juicy stem and rough, 
heavy seed-tops. Its favorite habitat, as denoted by 
its name, is the barnyard, growing sometimes even 
upon manure heaps. It is greedily eaten by horses 
and cattle, and makes hay of passable quality. In 
some parts of the country it has been cultivated. 

Slender Crab-Grass. This is a Southern annual, 
with straight stems, terminated by three to five slen¬ 
der and erect spikes of flowers. The leaves are one 
to two inches long, smooth below and sometimes a 
little hairy above. It grows mostly in dry, sandy soil, 
and is of little value. 

Guinea Grass. This is a perennial of vigorous 
growth, a native of Africa and extensively cultivated 
throughout the tropics. 

Old-witch, Tickle and similar grasses belong also 
to the genus Panicum. 

Pansy, the most gorgeous and fantastic flower of 
the violet family. It is a familiar and hardy annual, 
of easy cultivation. Florists have made many beau¬ 
tiful varieties of it, so that one can order almost any 
color or mode of variegation. It will probably never 
become too old-fashioned for popular favor. 

Par, of the value of its face, or 100 per cent. 

Paraffine, a tasteless, inodorous, fatty matter dis¬ 
tilled from cannel coal and other sources. 

Paralysis, of horse : see page 815. 

Parasite, plants which attach themselves to other 
plants, and animals which live in or on the bodies of 
other animals, so as to subsist at their expense. The 
dodder is a parasitic plant, the louse and the intes¬ 
tinal worm parasitic animals. There are parasites 
which prey upon every part and every organ of the 
human body. The principal species are noticed 
under their respective heads and in the article on 
Insects, Injurious. 

Paregoric, an anodyne made of a' mixture of 










1004 


FAJilS GREEN—PASTUJ^E. 


opium, oil of anise and camphor, the latter to modify 
its effects to some extent, making it quite safe for 
children. The dose for an adult is from one to two 
teaspoonfuls. 

Paris Green: see page 887 under head of Use of 
Poisons. 

Carbonate of lime will be found a good substitute 
for Paris green or London purple in destroying potato 
beetles. A few pounds dusted from a dredging box 
IS enough for an acre of potatoes. There has been 
no such terror added to farm life of late years as the 
introduction of deadly arsenical poison into daily use, 
and any innocent material that would be as effective 
would certainly be very welcome. The number of 
cases in which the human or other animal life has 
been lost through the careless use of Paris green is 
saddening, and the worst of it is, the casualties increase 
as the public becomes familiarized with the handling 
of the poison. See Arsenic, page 37. 

Parotid Gland, the largest of the salivary glands, 
sealed under the ear and near the angle of the lower 
jaw. For inflammation of the parotid gland in the 
horse, see page 815. 

Parsley, a hardy biennial plant used for soup and 
garnishing meats. Sow in drills one foot apart in 
light, rich soil. The seed is usually from 15 to 25 
days vegetating. Thin plants to four inches apart 
when two inches high. The beauty of the plant may 
be increased by several successive transplantings. 

The best recommended varieties are the dwarf 
curled, the fine doubled curled, Myatt’s garnishing, 
Dunnett’s selected. Carter's Covent garden garnishing. 
Carter’s champion, fern-leaved, moss curled and En¬ 
field matchless. 

Parsnip. The parsnip belongs to the same tribe 
of plants as the carrot and grows in similar soil. 
Give the richest and deepest soil to the long varieties ; 
the turnip sort will grow well on shallow soil; pulver¬ 
ize the ground well and plant the seed in earliest 
spring in rows 18 inches apart, covering the seed 
about half an inch deep. To keep well in the ground 
over winter, draw a little earth over the tops. For 
winter use they may be pulled in the fall just before 
the ground freezes, buried thinly and allowed to 
freeze, or be frozen without burying if they are cooked 
at their first tha\ving. This is more convenient than 
to dig frozen ground for them to the depth of a foot 
or more during the winter. 

Varieties. Large or Long White Dutch. The 
standard kind. 

Hollaw-Crowned, Cup or Guernsey. Superior in 
quality. 

Round Early or Turnip. Good for shallow soil 
and easy to pull. 

Abbott's Hollow-Crcnaned. Smooth and sweet. 

Sutton's Student. A good English variety. 

Maltese. A new, long English variety. 

Parsnips are not sufficiently appreciated, perhaps 
because of their too sweet taste; but this can be 


overcome to a palatable extent by judicious cookery; 
they are excellent when sliced after boiling and 
warmed in a sauce made by mixing flour, butter and 
milk over the fire and seasoning it with salt and pep¬ 
per ; as soon as warm they are served with a little 
chopped parsley and a squeeze of lemon juice. Pars¬ 
nips fried brown with slices of salt pork and a 
seasoning of salt and pepper make an excellent dish. 

Parsnips are always good the first season they are 
planted, and also the next spring when they first 
come up they are good; but after they take their second 
growth they are always poisonous and will always 
kill anyone that eats them. 

Partridge: see Ruffed Grouse, page 611. 

Parturition (par-tu-rish un), the act of bringing 
forth young. VVe treat of the parturition of domestic 
animals in their respective articles. 

Paste. Paste for Scrap-Books. For a paste that 
will not strike through the paper, we may recommend 
ordinary flour paste, with the addition of about five 
per cent, of alum, d o keep the paste from s|X)iling, 
a little carbolic acid and about five grains of corrosive 
sublimate to the pound may be added. I'he acid has 
the effect of preventing the formation of microscopic 
growths and animalcules, and the sublimate effectually 
keeps away the flies and winged insects which are 
apt to lay their eggs in the paste, where they will 
hatch in spite of the carbolic acid. Recently salicylic 
acid has been used for the same purpose. 

A Good Paste That Will Keep. Four parts, by 
weight, of glue softened in fifteen parts of water, then 
heat with the water until a clear solution is obtained, 
and add sixty-five parts of water with stirring. Mix 
thirty parts of starch with water to a thin milk, and 
stir this into the glue solution, and keep the mixture 
at the boiling point for a time. Stir in a few drops of 
carbolic acid, and store in covered vessels to prevent 
loss of water. It will not sour. 

Pastern,that part of the horse’s foot between the 
fetlock joint and coronet of the hoof. It is the seat of 
ringbone. 

Pastry, food made with baked paste, as pies, tarts, 
etc.*, which see. 

Pasture, grass land entirely devoted to the grazing 
of stock. For the various kinds and cultivation of 
forage proper for pastures, see Grass and Clover. 

Pastures ought to be properly divided, and this 
work requires a great deal of judgment. Good fenc¬ 
ing is costly, and it is a difficult point to determine 
between the advantage of small ranges and the ex¬ 
pense and inconvenience of keeping up numerous di¬ 
visions. Milk cows, working animals and fattening 
stock need the most copious pasturage; then young 
stock; while sheep will thrive on shorter feed than 
either, and greedily consume most plants which the 
others reject. By this means a field will be thor¬ 
oughly cleansed of all plants which animals will eat, 
and the remainder should be extirpated. The same 
care should be taken to prevent the propagation of 















PA TENTS—PEA 


1005 


weeds in pastures as in other fields. Every pasture 
should, if possible, be provided with running water 
and shade trees, or other ample protection against the 
summer sun. In the absence of trees light and 
cheap sheds can be made. Excessive heat exhausts 
and sometimes sickens animals. Pastures ought also 
to be protected against “ poaching,'’ or treading up in 
the spring or late in autumn, when the ground is soft. 
Wherever a spot of ground becomes bare it should be 
renewed with fresh seed, manure and cultivation. 
Mosses should be destroyed. 

^Vhile pastures do not need manuring, they do gen¬ 
erally need fertilization by the use of salts, ashes, 
gypsum, lime, etc. In the course of time pastures be¬ 
come exhausted and require rotation. See Manure. 
In natural grass lands, which have a good natural or 
even an artificial drainage, pastures should very rarely 
or never be broken up. As a rule, the older they are 
the better. They become filled with a large variety 
of grasses, all nutritious and valuable in their seasons, 
and when once broken up it will take many years, 
even if well re-seeded, to firmly establish them again. 

The treatment of pastures must of necessity differ 
largely in various parts of our country, depending 
upon the surface of the land, the extent and char¬ 
acter of bottom land in which they may be situated, 
the kind of stock to which they are devoted, the dens¬ 
ity of the ix)pulation, the circumstances and habits 
of the people, etc. 

Whether a frequent change of pasture for stock is 
the most beneficial, is still an undecided question. 

Patents are granted by the United States, to per¬ 
sons who invent any new and useful machinery or 
compound. The grant is called letters patent, and 
runs for fourteen years. The several States have no 
power to issue letters patent. It is an exclusive 
right of the general Government. Letters are usually 
obtained by a petition in writing signed by the per¬ 
son who has made the invention. This petition must 
contain a statement of the residence and citizenship 
of the party applying and that he desires to obtain 
letters patent of the United States for a new and 
useful machine, naming it. This petition must be 
accompanied by specifications which must particular¬ 
ly and minutely describe the manner of construction 
and working of such machine. Also, there must be 
a drawing in duplicate, showing a front and side view 
of the machine. In addition to the petition, specifi¬ 
cations and drawings, there must also be forwarded a 
small and perfect machine, called a model. These 
when perfected are sent to the Commissioner of Pat¬ 
ents, Washington, D. C.,who will examine the same, 
and, if he finds" that it is new and useful, will issue 
letters patent to the inventor. A person may obtain 
a patent for an improvement on a part of a machine 
as well as for one entire. All patented articles must 
be plainly stamped or marked “patented,” giving the 
date of the patent, in order to preserve to the inven¬ 
tor his rights under his letters patent. 

The patent law provides a penalty of $100 for 
every marking of an article as patented when no pat¬ 


ent has been issued therefor. Patents are assignable 
in whole or in part, by an instrument in writing known 
as a patent deed. This instrument to render it valid 
as against third persons must be recorded in the Pat¬ 
ent Office at Washington. 

The person to whom such patent deed is made is 
called an assignee, and the person to whom letters 
patent are issued is called the patentee. 

The patentee may, by an instrument in writing 
under seal, grant to another person or corporation 
the e.xclusive right to make and sell his patented 
article in the United States or some portion thereof. 
Never buy a patent right or any interest in one unless 
from some reliable person with whom you are ac¬ 
quainted or who comes well recommended. Have 
nothing to do with the thousand and one fellows who 
travel round selling patent churns, etc., for nine 
times out of ten they are swindlers and frauds. 

Pathology, the science or doctrine of disease. As 
physiology teaches the nature of the functions of the 
body in a state of health, so pathology relates to the 
various derangements of these functions, which con¬ 
stitute disease. 


. Pawing, a horse striking the ground with his fore 
foot while he is in a standing }X)sture. It is a habit 
of no consequence when moderate, but becomes a 
vice when frequent and violent. For a remedy see 
page 722. 


Pawpaw, a small tree bearing heavy, oblong, pulpy, 
edible fruit. The flowers and foliage of the tree are 
very handsome, but the fruit is not generally admired. 

Pea. The pea has long been known as a culinary 
vegetable in China, Japan and India, but probably 

not originally a native of a 
very warm climate. The 
pea is now raised all over 
the civilized world for eat¬ 
ing green, or at the time 
when the seed are fully 
formed but not ripe. Be¬ 
sides the ordinary culinary 
pea there is a variety known 
as the Chick pea, which is 
cultivated as food for horses 
in some countries, and also 
the Cow pea, which is ex¬ 
tensively cultivated in the 
South as food for horses, 
cattle and swine (see Cow 
pea). There are two dis¬ 
tinct classes, the dwarf and the running. While the 
dwarfs are early and require no brush, the taller or 
running varieties produce qualities we do not find 
among the dwarfs. Hence we must continue to pro¬ 
pagate the taller varieties. 

The principal insect infesting the pea is the familiar 
weevil. Fig. 2, which may be driven out by a little 
heat when the seed is gathered. It is advised to plant, 
those varieties not subject to this pest. 



Fig. I. — McLean's Little Gem. 








ioo6 


PEACH. 



Fig. 2. — Pea Weevil. 


The culture of the pea is very simple, as every one 
knows. In planting cover very shallow, say only an 
inch deep. The dwarf 
varieties will stand lib¬ 
eral manuring, but 
with this treatment the 
tall kinds will run too 
much to vine. The 
dwarf varieties may be 
in rows two feet apart, 
but the taller should 
be four feet apart or in 
rows alternating three 
and four feet apart, the 
wider spaces for walking through in picking time. 

VARIETIES. 

For earliest planting, which may be as soon as 
the ground can. be worked in the spring, the varieties 
may be as follows : 

Dwarf, Wrinkled and Sweet: 

Carter s Extra Early Premium Gem. More pro¬ 
lific and longer podded than the Little Gem. 

Laxtons Alpha. The best early wrinkled market 
pea. 

Other Dwarfs: 

Tom Trtnub. One of the very earliest; very pro¬ 
ductive ; pods well filled; 
height of vine lo inches. 

Me Lean's Blue Peter. 
Pods larger than Tom Thumb 
but not so numerous; vines 
lo inches high. 

Haneock. The best early 
hard pea. 

Carter s Eirst Crop. Ear¬ 
liest of all. 

Extra Early Dan O'¬ 
Rourke. Early, standard; 
vines two feet high. 

Kentish Invicta. Crop 
ripens all together; vines 
2^ feet high; a new English 
variety. 

Second planting: 

Dwarf, Wrinkled and Sweet: 

McLeans Little Gem. One of the most popular. 

McLeans Advancer. Probably the best of this 
class. 

Hairs Dwarf Mattwwth. Very large; vines i8 
inches high. 

Other Dwarfs. Carter's Little Wonder. A kind 
of wrinkled Marrow, which may supersede the Ad¬ 
vancer, the seed being larger; vines 20 to 24 inches 
high, and of very robust habit. 

Eill-Basket. Large, handsome and prolific. 

Brenvn Dwarf Marremfat. The earliest of all the 
Marrowfats. 

Divarf Blue L 7 nperial. An old, standard sort; 
vines two feet. 

Royal Dwarf Marrowfat. Not so tall as Large 



Fig. 3. — Champion o/ 
England Pea 


•White Marrowfat; earlier than Champion of England. 

For late planting: 

Dwarfs. Yorkshire LLero. Peas remarkably large 
and fine; vines 2j4 feet high; wrinkled, sweet. 

McLean's Premier. Said to have every good 
quality; vines 2^4 feet high; wrinkled, sweet. 

Carter's Challenger. A dark green Marrow; 2^4 
feet high. 

Dwarf Sugar. A string pea with edible ])ods. 

Tall Varieties. The wrinkled and sweet are: 

Champion of England. Well known; standard. 

Carter's Commander-in-Chief. A green Marrow 
with long, well-filled pods. 

Other Tall Varieties. Large White Marrowfat. 
Standard. 

Black-Eyed Marrowfat. Another old favorite. 

Laxtons Supreme. One of the green Marrow class. 



Fig. 4. — Afnerican Wonder Pea. 


yielding remarkably long and well-filled pods • vines 
five feet. ’ 

Laxtons Superlative. New candidate for popular 
favor. 

To Cook Peas. Peas should be well picked over 
but not washed; put them into a coarse lace bag 
made double, or a fine-netted one made for the pur¬ 
pose, and put them into boiling water; let them boil 
for half an hour; put them into the dish with a little 
salt and butter. As peas grow older they should be 
boiled longer; and when they are quite old put a 

pinch of soda into the water in which they are to be 
boiled. 

To can peas see page 158. 

Peach. This certainly ranks among the most 
delicious of all the fruits cultivated. Pliny states that 
the peach was originally brought from Persia, where 
It grows naturally. Although not a tropical fruit it 
requires a great deal of warmth to bring it to per¬ 
fection. On the virgin soils, and in the early settle- 














PEACH. 


1007 


ment of our country, the peach was easily propagated 
and bore abundant crops, but it is now the most un¬ 
certain of all fruits attempted to be cultivated. In¬ 
deed, so liable is it to casualties, as to have become 
almost entirely discarded in large sections of the 
United States where it was once cultivated without 
difficulty. It is now generally cultivated on an ex¬ 
tensive scale for markets in certain favorable sections 
by those who make its culture an exclusive business. 

Propagation. This is very easy. A stone plant¬ 
ed in the autumn will vegetate the ensuing spring, 
grow three or four feet high, and may be budded in 
August or September. Two years from this time it 
will usually produce a small crop of fruit, and the 
next season bear abundantly, unless the growth is 
over-luxurious. In nursery culture it is customary to 
bury the peach-stones in autumn, in some exposed 
spot, in thick layers covered with earth, where they 
are allowed to lie all winter. As early in the spring 
as the ground is in good condition the stones are 
taken up, cracked, and the kernels planted about an 
inch deep in a mellow soil, in the nursery rows where 
they are to grow. In the latter part of this season 
they should be budded, the buds being inserted quite 
near the ground. The next March the stock should 
be headed back, and the trees will, under favorable 
conditions, grow five or six feet high this year. Be 
sure that the peach-stones are from orchards where 
there are no yellows. To render the peach quite 
dwarf plum stock of hard wood should be employed. 

Soil and Situation. The very best soil for the 
peach is a rich, deep, sandy loam; next to this a 
strong, mellow loam; next a thin sandy soil, and the 
poorest is a heavy, compact clay soil. The best 
situation is a southerly slope near the top of a hill 
where high winds are brok’en off. In districts of 
country, however, where the fruit in the blossom is 
liable to be cut off by spring frosts, it is safer to plant 
on the north sides of hills or on eastern sides of large 
bodies of water. In setting in the orchard the trees 
may be 16 to 25 feet apart, according to the expect¬ 
ed size of the tree. Whether to transplant from the 
nursery into the orchard in the fall or spring depends 
upon local conditions. 

Cultivation. As to the cultivation of the orchard 
bv the plow, many horticulturists, especially in the 
North, are in favor of the method, while at the South 
they say that the plow injures the surface roots, 
damaging the tree and the crop. In most peach 
orchards in the East and South, the soil, being poor, is 
enriched by what is added to the surface; the roots 
of the trees therefore grow near the surface and are 
easily destroyed by the plow. As to pruning, there 
is a great difference of opinion as well as of practice. 
The Michigan cultivators generally shorten in the 
long and heavy branches, thin out the smaller ones 
where too numerous, leaving a few small twigs next 
to the main trunk on the south side, to prevent sun 
scald. February and March are the best time for 
pruning; but much may be saved to the tree as well 
as to the orchardist if he can discriminate in time, 


by rubbing off the buds before they grow into large 
limbs. Of course, as with all fruit trees, the peach 
tree should not be allowed to overbear. A heavy 
mulching put on the ground around the trees when it 
is frozen, and permitted to remain on in the spring," 
will prevent the trees from blooming too early. 
Sometimes it pays to cover the trees, by wrapping old 
calico around them for winter protection. 

Training peach trees against walls or espaliers is 
but little practiced in this country. 

Insects and Diseases. The peach borer does 
great mischief to this tree by girdling and devouring 
the whole circle of bark just below the surface of the 
ground. It is three-fourths of an inch long, pene¬ 
trates and devours the bark and sap wood, and, after 
passing the winter in the tree, it enfolds itself in a 
cocoon under or upon the bark, and emerges again 
in a winged form in June, when it commences de¬ 
positing eggs in the soft portion of bark at the surface 
of the ground. Re 7 nedies: Heap up around the tree 
a foot high, earth, ashes, etc., in the spring, and re¬ 
move from the tree in the fall, so that if there are any 
grubs there, the winter will freeze them out; or, draw 
away a little earth from the tree in the spring, and 
wrap the body up with strong, coarse paper, a foot 
high, securing it wuth tying and replacing the earth; 
or, hunt for the grubs with a sharp knife and kill 
them. 

Leaf curl usually appears in May or June ; the 
leaves curl up, become thick and swollen, with hol¬ 
lows on the under side and reddish swellings on the 
upper; in two or three weeks they fall off and are suc¬ 
ceeded by new and vigorous leaves. The blister is a 
similar affection in the leaf and leaf-stem, and both 
these injuries are caused by the peach-tree louse and 
fungus. Remedy : Rub off the affected twigs as soon 
as discovered during the summer and prune them off 
during the winter. In the latter season they can be 
easily recognized by the fine fungus threads. 

The peach curculio makes extensive ravages in 
some parts of the West. I'he remedy for it is similar 
to that for the plum curculio, except that it is abso¬ 
lutely necessary that there be unity of action over a 
large extent of country, and for this purpose State 
legislation is requisite. 

Extremes of cold and heat, although alone are not 
sufficient to injure the tree materially, when accom¬ 
panied by other exposures, seem to aggravate disease 
and hasten death. It is maintained that the peach 
fruit bud can stand a temperature of at least 40® 
below zero without injury, provided it is protected by 
a layer of snow, or otherwise kept shaded, and not 
exposed to severe winds. Very often a peach tree 
stands opposite an opening between buildings, or at 
an exposed corner, where the wind is unusually severe 
or constant. Late frosts in spring often kill the fruit. 
No one need expect that such trees should bear fruit. 
A long drouth in connection with hot weather hastens 
the maturity of the fruit, which is consequently thin 
and imperfect. 

Of all the diseases which attack the peach, the 


64 







ioo8 


PEACH. 


yellows is by far the greatest epidemic,—or, if we may 
coin a word, epidendric. Most peach-growers regard 
the yellows as contagious. The symptoms of this 
incurable disease are: The production upon the 
branches of very slender, wiry shoots a few inches 
long and bearing starved, diminutive leaves; these 
shoots are not protruded from the extremities but 
from latent buds on the main portions of the stem and 
larger branches; the leaves are very narrow and small, 
pale yellow or colorless. The fruit ripens prema¬ 
turely, has specks and large spots of purplish red, and 
internally the flesh is more deeply colored, especially 
around the stone. These symptoms are generally 
slight the first season, and are aggravated each suc¬ 
ceeding season until the tree dies. The fruit from 
the tree the first season of attack seems as good to 
the palate as ever; but its healthful character is dubi¬ 
ous : after the first year it should of course never be 
eaten. This disease is propagated by budding and 
grafting, as well as by the seeds. The cause of the 
yellows is still a mystery; some think it a result of 
overbearing, or bad cultivation, or both. Mr. Down¬ 
ing says that the yellows has but little progress in 
European countries, where pruning is practiced and 
overbearing not allowed. Remedy : Prompt and 
total destruction of the tree; and for this purpose 
State legislation seems to be necessary, as many per¬ 
sons are too slow in applying the remedy, and are 
consequently the source of a public calamity. Even i 
the ground which has been occupied by affected trees 
should not again be planted with the peach until after 
several years. 

A species of “rot” sometimes attacks the fruit of the 
peach-tree in the West, for which no specific remedy 
is yet proposed. 

Varieties. We will describe only those varieties 
which are recommended for cultivation : 

Alexander., Alexander's Early., Amsdens June. 
Medium size, greenish white, nearly covered with red; 
a partial cling; end of July; veiy good dessert and 
market; fruit showy and of good flavor. Amsden’s 
June is thought by some to be a distinct variety from 
the Alexander. 

Allens October, is said to be one of the best for 
profit. 

Chinese Cling. Large, sides compressed, suture 
quite shallow, skin creamy white, shaded and mar¬ 
bled with red; flesh white, red at the stone, which is 
adherent, melting, and of a rich, vinous flavor; ripens 
first to middle of September. 

Cooledge's Favorite. Large, especially on one side, 
suture prominent at the top only, white, with a fine, 
crimson, mottled cheek, juicy, rich and high-flavored; 
very good dessert and market; tree unusually product¬ 
ive and is very hardy; middle of August. 

Barnard. Fair size, dark-red on yellow ground, 
freestone, flesh yellow, firm and of an aromatic flavor, 
good dessert and very good market, beginning of Sep¬ 
tember; apt to overbear, when the fruit is small; tree 
very hardy. 

Crawford's Early. Large, the swollen point at the 


top prominent, the suture shallow; skin yellow, with 
a fine red cheek; flesh yellow, free,best, early August; 
tree vigorous, fruitful and hardy. 

Cranford's Late. Very large, fine dark-red on a 
yellowish ground; flesh deep yellow, but red at the 
stone; a rich vinous flavor; best; early September; 
tree lacks productiveness when young or on light soil. 

Crockett's Late White. Medium to large, oblong, 
greenish white, some red in the sun; flesh pale, sweet, 
not very juicy, free; last of September. 

Early Beatrice. Small, whitish red, somewhat mar¬ 
bled, freestone, very good dessert, fair market, middle 
of August; a beautiful peach. 

Early Louise. Medium size, purple red on green¬ 
ish white ground, freestone, very good dessert and 
market; early August; high quality. 

Early Rivers, Rivers' Early. Large, yellowish 
pink or pale straw color, freestone, best dessert and 
market, but lacks color for the latter purpose; middle 
of August. 

Early York, Large F.arly York. Medium to large, 
pale red, thickly dotted over a pale ground in the 
shade but quite dark red in the sun; flesh greenish 
white, remarkably tender and melting, free, very good 
dessert and market; last of August. The Red Rare¬ 
ripe is larger, more deeply marked with the suture, 
ripens later and is richer flavored. 

Felt's Rareripe is a new and promising variety. 

George the Fourth. Medium to large, deeply 
divided by a broad suture, one side larger, pale yel¬ 
lowish white, finely dotted with bright red and deep¬ 
ening into a dark red cheek on one side ; flesh pale, 
red at the stone, which is small, free and of a 
remarkably rich and luscious flavor; best dessert, ix>or 
market on account of tenderness; last of August; tree 
very hardy and vigorous, and bears regular and mod¬ 
erate crops. 

Hale's Early. Medium size, greenish, mostly 
covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, 
best dessert and veiy good market* middle of August; 
subject to rot; tree hardy and productive. 

Haines' Early Red. Medium size, depressed at 
the top, suture well marked, one side of the fruit 
larger than the other, pale white, marked with red 
and nearly covered with deep red; flesh greenish 
white, fair dessert and market; last of August; hardy 
and productive. 

Heath Cling. Very large, narrowing to both ends 
and terminating at the top with a large swollen jX)int; 
suture distinct on one side; skin downy, cream-col- 
lored white, with a faint tinge of red or brown In the 
sun; flesh greenish-white, exceedingly juicy and 
luscious, veiy* good dessert and market; October; needs 
a long season. 

Indian Cling is a variety recommended for the 
West. 

Lemon Cling, Kennedy's Carolina, Yellow Pine¬ 
apple, etc. Large, narrowed at the top, with a ter¬ 
minal point like a lemon: skin fine yellow, with a 
dark brownish-red cheek, flesh firm, yellow, slight 
red at the stone, rich, sprightly, vinous, sub-acid; fair 

























































PEACH—PEA-FO WL. 


ion 


dessert, very good market; ripens end of September. 

La Grange. Large, greenish white with some red 
occasionally on the sunny side; flesh pale, high- 
flavored, free-stone; end of September; one of the 
best for profit in Central Illinois, 

Morris' White Rareripe. Medium, suture of 
moderate depth, swollen point small; skin rather 
downy, greenish white on all sides at first, but white 
with a creamy tint when fully ripe, and having a 
slightly purplish cheek where fully exposed to the 
sun; flesh white to the stone, a little firm; free-stone; 
fair dessert and market; best cooking and valuable 
particularly for canning on account of its color. 

Mountain Rose. Large, white and red; free-stone; 
very good dessert and market; very fine in respect of 
form, size and color; beginning of September. 

Old Mixon Cling. Large, suture distinct only at 
the top, one side of the fruit slightly larger; skin yel¬ 
lowish white, dotted with red, or with a red cheek, 
varying from pale to lively red; flesh pale white; best 
dessert and cooking; very good market; middle of 
September; an old standard for profit. 

Old Mixon Free. Large, one side swollen, suture 
visible only at the top, cavity but slightly sunk at the 
stem; skin pale yellowish white marbled with red, 
the cheek a deep red; flesh white but quite red at 
the stone; sugary, vinous, very good dessert; best 
market; middle of September; an old variety which 
still holds a high position as a market peach. 

President. Large, suture shallow, very downy, 
pale yellowish green, with a dull red cheek; flesh 
white but deep red at the stem, high flavor; stone 
very rough, free ; middle of September. 

Rivers' Early : See Early Rivers’. 

Slocian. Ripens the beginning of September. 

Smock Free. Large, narrow toward the stem, rather 
compressed on the sides; light orange yellow mottled 
with red or often with dark red cheek when fully ex¬ 
posed; free-stone; flesh bright yellow, red at the 
stone, fair dessert, best market; October; one of the 
latest profitable market peaches in Southern Michi¬ 
gan. 

Snow. Medium to large, suture faint except at the 
. top; skin thin, clear, beautiful white or yellowish 
white on all sides; flesh clear white to the stone; fair 
market and dessert; middle of September; free-stone; 
young growth yellowish green; blossoms also white. 

Stump the World. Very large, brownish red on 
white ground, very good dessert, best market, end of 
September; free-stone. 

Troth's Early., Troth's Early Red. Medium, 
whitish, bright red in the sun; flesh white, red at the 
stone, which is free; medium dessert; good market, 
early in August; tree productive. 

Venus {Belle Bausse? Vineuse Native?) is a small 
fine-flavored peach, very productive. 

Ward’s Late Free. Large, white with a beautiful 
crimson cheek; flesh white, slightly tinged with red 
at the stone; very good dessert; first of October. 

Yellow Alberge. Medium, with a well marked 
furrow running half round; yellow with a deep 


purplish red cheek ; flesh yellow but deep red at the 
stone, which is free; a luscious fruit; middle of 
August. 

Yocum is a new and promising seedling. 

To Pickle, Preserve and Spice Peaches. For 
the best mode of canning peaches, see page 157. We 
give the following excellent and well-tried methods of 
preparing peaches: 

To Preserve Peaches. Take fine ripe ones, pare, 
cut in two, and remove the stones. Take double re¬ 
fined white sugar, finely pulverized. Weigh sugar 
and fruit, and let them balance evenly — that is, 
pound for pound. Put the fruit in a large earthen 
bowl, and strew over it one-half of the sugar, and let 
it stand till morning. Then take all the juice from 
them and put it into a preserving kettle with the rest 
of the sugar. Set over a moderate fire, and boil and 
skim it. While boiling, and after the scum has quit 
rising, put in the peaches, and cook until they are 
clear as amber, but not soft enough to break up. Put 
away in bowls and small vessels; when cool cover 
with thick paper over which you have brushed the 
white of an egg. We always find preserved fruit to 
keep best in a well ventilated closet or cupboard on 
the porch. 

Pickled Peaches. To ten pounds of the fruit add 
one-half gallon of vinegar and three pounds of sugar 
and one-half ounce each of cloves, cinnamon, and 
allspice. Scald the vinegar, sugar, and spices, and 
turn it over the fruit the next morning. Drain the 
liquor off and scald it again, and once more pour it 
over the fruit while hot, and the succeeding morning 
scald the whole mass of fruit and liquor together, 
and you will have delicious pickles. 

Another: This is a good recipe for all sweet 
pickles. Take peaches of full growth, ripe, but not 
soft, wipe them with a flannel cloth or pare them; 
stick three or four cloves in each peach, lay them in a 
stone jar, put one-half pound sugar to one quart of 
good vinegar; add cinnamon and other spices to the 
taste; let the vinegar come to a boil, skim, and pour 
it on the peaches. Let them stand two weeks, then 
pour off the vinegar and boil it; pour it on again and 
they are fit for use. 

Spiced Peaches. Take four pounds of brown sugar 
and one gallon of vinegar. Cling peaches are usually 
preferred, as they cook up less than the free-stone. 
The peaches should be brushed and cut from the pits 
in halves. The pickles may not last so long as if 
cooked whole, but will afford more pleasure to visitors 
in the eating than the full orbed ones. Stick three or 
four cloves in each peach, tie a small quantity of 
spice in a cloth. Put the peaches in a stone jar, boil 
the syrup and pour it over the peaches boiling hot. 
Cover tight, let them stand a couple of days, pour off 
the vinegar, heat and skim and again pour over the 
peaches. Do this three or four times. Free-stones 
are better left on the pits. 

Pea-Fowl. Pea-fowls are bred and kept for an 
ornament. Sometimes they are found upon the farm, 
but they have no business there, if other poultry is 






1012 


FEA-NUT—FEAR. 


kept. They are naturally an ill-natured bird, and 
will fight and kill other poultry, especially the cock, 
which will kill young chickens, and it is said will eat 
them. Public parks are the only place for pea-fowls. 
There their beauty is attractive, and whenever they 
choose to indulge in one of their unearthly screeches, 
they are far enough away not to deafen everybody. 
But although naturally wild and ill-natured, pea¬ 
fowls, if they are well taken care of, become tame, 
and often act very intelligently, tapping on the win¬ 
dow, if they are neglected, and doing other things to 
show that they would like to be attended to. The 
hen always seeks and makes her own nest, and lays 
and sits in strict seclusion. Sometimes the attempt 
is made to hatch pea-fowl’s eggs under a common 
hen, but the common hen cannot or will not raise a 
brood of pea-chicks. She will not remain witlr them 
longer than two months, while the pea-hen remains 
with her chicks full six months; and they need her 
care all that time, too. The manner of rearing is 
about the same as that of rearing turkeys. They 
must be kept from the rain, and fed about as turkeys 
are fed, with the addition of some worms or finely 
chopped raw meat. It requires three years for them 
to develop into maturity. Of course there is no profit 
in them, considered as poultry. They are not very 
often found upon the table, although it is said that a 
year-old bird makes very fine eating. As these birds 
pair of course there must be as many males as females. 

Pea-nut. In some parts of the United States the 
pea-nut, or goober, as it is known in some sections of 
the South, is quite extensively raised. One peculiar¬ 
ity of the pea-nut is that when the plant flowers, the 
young seed-pod enters the ground where the seed 
ripens. The usual mode of cultivating it is to plant 
in drills three feet apart, one nut in a place, at a dis¬ 
tance of 12 inches apart. Weeds are not permitted 
to grow among them, and at the time when they 
blossom the drills are bedded up so as to make a 
mellow surface for the young nuts to strike in. When 
ripe the vines are pulled and dried, without getting 
wet, the nuts whipped off, cleaned up in a common 
fanning-mill and sacked for market. A light gray 
soil, not very sandy, is best adapted to their growth. 

Pear. This may be said to be a modern fruit, es¬ 
pecially as a good article of dessert. The wild varie¬ 
ties are the most austere of all fruits, and the pear of 
ancient times was but little better; but the modern 
cultivated pear stands at the head of luscious and 
nutritious fruits. Dietetically it is perfect. 

Propagation. The pear is propagated by grafting 
or budding on seedling or sucker stocks, the former 
being far preferable. To raise good seedling stocks, 
clean the seed as soon as possible after the fruit has 
matured, and sow it, as apple seeds, in drills, in deep, 
rich soils. The ground should be trenched 20 inches 
to two feet deep and enriched with manure or a com¬ 
post mixed with ashes. If the young plants do not 
have a vigorous growth from the start they are apt to 
be killed out by diseases and insects. At the end of 


two years the seedlings should be transplanted to the 
nursery rows for budding. 

Budding, which is preferable to grafting, is best 
done about the first of August. To prevent winter- 
killing, the young trees should be covered in the fall, 
or they may be heeled in, in a sheltered place. The 
thorn makes a very good stock for the pear, except 
that if grafted above the ground the tree is often apt 
to be broken off by high winds at the ^x)int of union: 
this is obviated by grafting a little below the surface. 
The thorn is especially good for clayey soils. To ren¬ 
der the pear a dwarf, quince stock is generally pre¬ 
ferred. The dwarf pear, however, is usually short¬ 
lived, seldom enduring more than 15 or 20 years in 
bearing, but it is a pretty and economical way of rais¬ 
ing a good many sorts, and getting fruit speedily, in a 
small garden. 

The young pear, not being very abundantly sup¬ 
plied with fibrous roots, should never be transplanted 
from the nursery to the orchard after they have be¬ 
come very large. Small, thrifty plants five or six feet 
high are much to be preferred. 

Soil, Situation and Culture. The best soil for 
this fruit tree is a strong loam of moderate depth, on 
a dry or well drained sub-soil. A soil that is too rich 
and deep, like some of the Western alluvials, forces 
the tree into such luxuriant growth that its wood can¬ 
not all ripen well, and is liable to be killed by winter 
blight. Soils that are too light, on the other hand, 
may be improved by trenching if the sub-soil is 
heavier, or by top dressing with heavy muck and river 
mud, if it is not. In the North it is better to plant 
on a southern slope. 

It is the general opinion at the present day that for 
a long time past too much pruning has been practiced 
upon the pear tree. Shortening in or pruning back 
the ends or shoots, either in summer or winter, re¬ 
tards the fruit-producing period and abridges the 
productiveness of the tree. Fruiting spurs will not 
form where the growths are constantly interrupted and 
excited by pruning. In soils of moderate fertility and 
in a favorable climate, young shoots will in most 
cases be covered with fruiting spurs the second year 
after their formation if left to their natural mode and 
condition of growth. The only pruning then that is 
really essential, after the tree has become established, 
is to thin out the crowded branches. If low-headed 
trees are preferred, those branches which have be¬ 
come destitute of fruiting spurs near the body of the 
tree may be cut out and a young shoot be allowed to 
take the place of the one removed. There will be no 
lack of young shoots for this purpose, as they will 
be produced from the base of the cut branch. Select 
the strongest and best place to occupy the vacancy, 
if such occupancy is desired. This mode of cutting 
back branches is more essential with dwarfs, as the 
quince roots are unable to support a tall, heavy- 
headed tree; but in all other respects dwarf pear 
trees should be treated the same as standards. 

The pear succeeds so well as an open standard 
and requires so little care for pruning that training is 












PEAR. 


1013 


seldom thought of in this country except for dwarfs, 
or in the gardens of the curious or skillful. The 
method generally pursued here is to cultivate the 
trees as bushes, with low heads, rather than as pyra¬ 
mids, quenoLiilles or espalier. To do this the main 
shoot is headed back more severely than the branches. 
If, for this purpose, summer pinching has been 
neglected, the heading should be done the latter part 
of winter by the use of the knife, shortening back 
from one-half to two-thirds on the preceding year’s 
growth. 

In orchard culture the pear is usually planted 
about 30 feet distant each way; in small gardens, 
where the trees are cultivated as dwarfs, 20 feet dis¬ 
tant is sufficient. Some fruit-growers are in favor of 
what is called clean cultivation, which consists in 
keeping the surface of the ground clear of weeds by 
light plowing, etc. This cultivation should com¬ 
mence early in the season and not be continued later 
than the middle of July. After a standard tree has 
been set for three or four years the cultivation should 
cease and grass allowed to grow, which should be 
mowed and placed around the tree. Every autumn 
the ground should have a top dressing of manure and 
lime; this is better than an occasional heavy manur¬ 
ing. In warmer latitudes, where the growing season 
is longer, the pear can receive more extended cultiva¬ 
tion, as it has time to ripen its wood before winter. 

Diseases and Insects. By far the greatest enemy 
to the pear is a disease called the pear blight, or fire 
blight. This alone does more mischief in a pear 
orchard than all the diseases and insects together in 
an apple orchard. So extensive is it, indeed, that 
many persons deem it unprofitable to undertake lo 
raise any pears at all. As to the cause and remedy 
for pear blight opinions are as various as they are 
concerning anything within the whole domain of 
horticulture. The symptom of this dreaded affection 
is plain enough, which is simply the death of the 
tree, by piece-meal, commencing with some of the 
branches and extending over the whole tree. Usual¬ 
ly, however, the devastation is only partial; it is 
always very capricious in all its features. Mr. Down¬ 
ing teaches us very distinctly that there are two kinds 
of blight,—one caused by an insect, the other by 
frozen sap. He describes the insect at length and 
characterizes the effect of his work as follows: “In 
June or July shoots at the extremity of the branches 
suddenly turn brown, and in two or three days the 
leaves become quite black and dry, and the wood 
shriveled and hard. The disease usually progresses 
farther down gradually to the point where the insect 
laid its egg, sometimes farther.” In the blight caused 
by frozen sap a thick, brownish, sticky matter exudes 
from the tree and sometimes drops from the limbs 
where wounded with a knife, and in the spring black¬ 
ened patches are to be seen, which extend further 
and further during the summer. But also other 
causes are assigned, as fungus, peculiarities of climate, 
root-pruning, excessive tQp-pruning, or some other 
mistake in cultivation, situation, etc. While many 


young scientists look at the diseased part through a 
microscope and announce to the world with con¬ 
fidence that the fungus which he sees is the cause of 
the malady, an older scientist queries which was the 
cause of the other. Every dead or dying plant is 
permeated with microscopic fungoids. The remedies 
of course are still more various; as, varnishing with 
raw linseed oil, washing with strong lye, or with lime 
and sulphur, saturating the soil with unbleached 
ashes, planting the trees scattering in a peach orchard 
or otherwise, cutting out the black patches as they 
appear, confining sulphur in an auger hole just below 
the affected part, etc., etc. The most reliable of all 
these remedies is perhaps the most troublesome one, 
—that of closely searching for and promptly cutting 
off and burning the affected twigs. Some think there 
are signs of the disease running itself out. As a pre¬ 
ventive the tree should be taken from unaffected 
districts, planted in a dry soil, avoiding severe sum¬ 
mer pruning; if there is a vigorous young growth in 
the fall and danger of winter coming on before it is 
sufficiently ripened, lay bare the roots two or three 
weeks, and during the winter cut out all limbs which 
have discolored, or soft, sappy spots on them. 

A slimy, slug-like worm, of a dull olive brown, and 
nearly half an inch long, sometimes eats the upper 
side of the leaves of the pear-tree during the summer. 



Pear-Tree SIu^. 


The best way to destroy it is to sprinkle over the 
leaves early in the morning, ashes, plaster, dry dust, 
quick-lime, powdered white hellebore, or Persian 
insect powder, or showering the tree with a solution 
of carbolic acid or carbolic soap-suds. 

The pear-leaf blister is caused by an insect, the 
smallest of all true insects, being only a 200th of an 
inch long. The blisters are reddish spots an eighth 
of an inch or more in length, principally on the upper 
side of the leaves; afterward these spots turn brown 
by the death of the parts. As many of these mites 
find their way down the stem of the leaf to the bud, 
and show marks of their presence at the latter place, 
the affected branches can be identified, cut off and 
burned. Prompt and early attention to this work is 
the only reliable remedy proposed. 

A species of curculio attacks the pear in some sec¬ 
tions, but its ravages are not very extensive. For 
remedy, see Plum. 

Scaling of the bark is a disease similar to the blight, 
but is not extensive. 

The fruit of the pear tree is sometimes subject to 
splitting and cracking open, and the omnipresent fun¬ 
gus is discovered in this case also, as a “cause,” in 
the estimation of those who look through a micro- 










1014' 


PEAR. 


scope for the first time; but like many other mysteri¬ 
ous diseases and troubles, this affection is clearly and 
definitely referred, for our enlightenment, to “the 
effect of atmospheric influences.” 

The pear is a peculiar fruit in one respect, namely, 
it has usually to be picked from the tree and ripened 
in the house. A very few varieties should be allowed 
to ripen on the tree. The proper season for gathering 
is when a few full-grown specimens, but worm-eaten, 
fall to the ground, or when there is a change of color, 
or the fruit separates easily from the stem. They 
should be laid away in shallow drawers, or boxes like 
bureau drawers, on a thickness of woolen cloth, with 
another woolen cloth laid over ihem, and in a cool, 
dry room; then, according to variety, from three days 
to three weeks they will be in their best condition for 
eating. Winter dessert pears should be allowed to 
hang on the tree as long as possible,—until the nights 
become frosty; they should then be picked and wrap¬ 
ped separately in dry paper, and packed in kegs, bar¬ 
rels or small boxes, and kept in a cool, dry room free 
from frost. 

Varieties. Bartlett. Large, oblong, obtuse pear- 
shaped, uneven, skin very thin and smooth, clear 
yellow, with a soft blush on the sunny side in exposed 
specimens, rarely marked with faint russet; stem one 
to one and a half inches long, stout, inserted in a 
shallow cavity; basin shallow; flesh white, exceeding¬ 
ly fine-grained, buttery, somewhat musky and of a 
highly perfumed vinous flavor; very good dessert and 
cooking, best market, first part of September. One of 
the worst to blight. Tree upright, with yellowish-brown 
shoots and narrow, folded leaves. 

Belle Lucrative, Fondante d’Automne. Medium 
size, variable in form, from obovate to obtuse, pear- 
shaped to globular; pale yellowish green, slightly 
russeted; stem little more than an inch long, stout, 
often fleshy, obliquely inserted in a slight, irregular 
cavity; basin of moderate depth; flesh sugary and 
rich, best dessert, fair cooking and market, last por¬ 
tion of September; tree moderately vigorous and pro¬ 
ductive. Shoots yellowish-brown. 

Beurre dAnjou. Large, obtuse, pear-shaped, green¬ 
ish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded with 
dull crimson, sprinkled thickly with brown and crim¬ 
son dots; stem short, thick, fleshy; cavity surrounded 
by russet; flesh whitish, not very fine, brisk vinous 
flavor, pleasantly perfumed, best for all purposes, No¬ 
vember ; tree, vigorous and productive. 

Beurre Gilfiard. Medium size, pear-shaped, tapering 
to the stem, which is rather long; skin greenish yel¬ 
low, marbled with red on the sunny side; flesh white, 
delightfully perfumed and vinous, very good dessert, 
fair cooking and market, early August; must be gath¬ 
ered early, and does not continue long; tree of mod¬ 
erate growth, with slender, reddish shoots. 

Bloodgood. Medium size, turbinate, inclining to 
obovate, regular, pale green, sprinkled with small rus¬ 
set dots and considerably covered with russet; stem 
three-fourths of an inch long, curved; flesh yellowish 
white, gritty around the core, rich, very good dessert. 


fair cooking and poor market, August; skin thin and 
of a musky perfume; core small. Tree short-jointed, 
with deep reddish-brown wood, and bears early and 
regularly. 

Buffum. Medium size, oblong obovate, a little 
smaller on one side, fair, deep yellow (brownish green 
at first) finely suffused over half the fruit, with bright 
red sprinkled with small brown dots or a little russet; 
stem an inch long; cavity slight, basin moderate; 
flesh white, buttery, not very juicy, but sweet and of 
good flavor; good for all purposes, September. This 
pear is easily distinguished by its upright, reddish 
brown shoots, and peculiar brownish green of the fruit 
before ripening. Tree very productive, healthy and 
vigorous, but the fruit is liable to vary in quality. 

Clapp’s Favorite. Large, slightly pear-shaped, 
uneven, pale lemon yellow, marbled and faintly 
splashed with crimson and fawn where fully exposed 
to the sun, thickly sprinkled with brown dots and 
sometimes patches and traces of russet; stem nearly 
an inch long, somewhat fleshy and stout; cavity and 
basin slight; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, sweet, 
vinous, etc.; very good for all purposes, but inclined 
to rot at the core; early September. Tree a strong 
grower and highly recommended for the latitude of 
.Iowa. 

Doyenne d’Alencon. Medium size, nearly pear- 
shaped, rough, yellow, shaded with dull crimson or 
carmine, sprinkled, netted and patched with russet 
brown dots; stem of moderate length, rather large; 
cavity medium; basin deep, round; flesh somewhat 
granular, buttery, sprightly, rich and highly perfumed, 
very good, December to April. Tree moderately vig¬ 
orous and productive; young shoots dull olive brown. 

Duchesse dAngouleme. A very large and mag¬ 
nificent pear for all purposes, but at the North it loses 
quality; oblong obovate, with an uneven, somewhat 
knobby surface, dull greenish yellow and considerably 
streaked and spotted with russet; stem one to two 
inches long, very stout and bent; cavity irregular, 
deep;_ basin knobby; flesh has all the good qualities. 
Tree is a strong grower but is unproductive if its cul¬ 
tivation is neglected. Not subject to blight. 

Flemish Beauty, and many other names. Large, 
nearly pear-shaped, slightly rough, pale yellow, but 
mostly covered with marblings and patches of light 
russet, becoming reddish brown at maturity on the 
sunny side; stem rather short; cavity deep, round 
and peculiarly narrow; basin small and round; flesh 
yellowish, not very fine-grained, musky, very sweet, 
good for all purposes, September; fruit very showy, 
but soon decays at the center, drops and sometimes 
scabs; must not be allowed to mature on the tree; 
generally the best market variety for the Northwest. 

Easter Beurre,Bergamotte de la Pentecote, Doyenne 
d’Hiver, etc. Large roundish obovate, obtuse, often 
rather square in figure, yellowish green, sprinkled 
with russet dots and some russet, which give it a 
brownish cheek in some specimens; stem rather 
short, stout; cavity obtuse and abruptly sunken; eye 
small; basin shallow, plaited and angular; flesh 






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KIEFFER’S HYBRID PEAR 






























FEAR. 


white, fine-grained, very buttery^ melting and juicy, 
with a rich and sweet flavor; fair dessert, good cook- 
poor market, January to March; tree upright, 
thrifty, does better in the South; requires a warm 
exposure and a favorable season. 

Glout Morceau, Victoria, etc. Rather large, vary¬ 
ing in form, but usually obovate obtuse pear-shaped, 
smooth, thin, pale greenish yellow, marked with 
small green dots, and sometimes with patches of 
greenish brown; stem rather slender and straight, an 
inch or more long; cavity small and regular; basin 
moderately deep; flesh has all the good qualities, but 
in heavy soils is somewhat astringent; better on the 
old trees and well ripened. December. 

Gray Doyenne, Doyenne Gray, Red Doyenne, etc. 
Medium size, obovate, but usually a little rounder 
than the White Doyenne; wholly covered with a 
smooth cinnamon russet, rarely a little ruddy next 
the sun; stem half to three-fourths of an inch long, 
curved; cavity deep and abrupt; basin smooth, 
shallow; best for all purposes; October. Shoots up¬ 
right, grayish brown. 

Howell. Rather large, roundish pear-shaped, 
light waxen yellow, often with a finely shaded cheek, 
thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots and some 
russet patches; stem medium; cavity is generally 
wanting; basin rather large and uneven; flesh whit¬ 
ish, brisk, vinous, very good for all purposes ; October. 
Tree a good bearer but subject to blight. 

Julienne. Small, but varying in different soils, ob¬ 
ovate, regular, clear bright yellow on all sides ; stem 
light brown, speckled with yellow, a little more than 
an inch long, pretty stout; cavity shallow; basin 
shallow and a little plaited ; flesh white, firm at first, 
half buttery, sweet and moderately juicy; August. 
Tree thrifty and upright, with light yellowish brown 
shoots. 

Lawrence. Medium size, obovate obtuse pear- 
shaped, nearly regular, lemon yellow with traces and 
patches of russets and thickly speckled with minute 
brown dots; stem of medium length and rather stout; 
cavity russeted and irregular; basin broad, shallow, 
uneven or slightly corrugated, and thinly russeted; 
very good to best; December. Tree a moderate grow¬ 
er, healthy, vigorous, an early and abundant _bearer. 

Louise Bonne de Jersey, William IV. Large, ob¬ 
long pear-shaped, a little one-sided, glossy, pale green 
in the shade but overspread with brownish red in the 
sun and dotted with numerous gray dots; stem about 
an inch long, curved, rather obliquely inserted, with¬ 
out depression, or with a fleshy, enlarged base ; eye 
open ; basin shallow, uneven; flesh greenish-white, 
very good for all purposes, September and October 
Fruit of better quality on the quince than on the 
pear. Tree very productive; should be grown as a 
dwarf. 

Madeleine, Sainte Madelaine, Citron des Cannes, 
etc. Medium size, obovate pear-shaped; stem long 
and slender; set on the side of a small swelling; pale 
yellowish-green, very rarely with a little brownish 
blush and russet specks around the stem; basin very 


1017 


shallow, furrowed ; flesh slightly perfumed, good des¬ 
sert and cooking and fair market; July; sometimes 
slightly astringent; the earliest pear of good quality. 
Tree has long, erect olive-colored branches. 

Onondaga. Large, obtusely pear-shaped ovate 
obovate, somewhat coarse and uneven, thickly covered 
with russet dots, fine rich yellow at maturity, gener¬ 
ally with some traces of russet, and sometimes with a 
sunny cheek; stem rather stout, of medium length, 
inclined; cavity small, basin narrow and somewhat 
uneven ; flesh buttery, slightly granular, good dessert, 
very good cooking and market; late autumn; a showy 
fruit. Tree very vigorous and productive; young 
wood olive brown. 

Ott. A seedling of the Seckel; small roundish 
obovate, greenish yellow, partially netted with russet, 
reddish on the sunny side; stem long,curved; cavity 
shallow; basin round, open ; flesh sugary, perfumed 
and aromatic, excellent, but sonrewhat valuable; 
middle of August. Tree moderately vigorous and 
very productive; young wood reddish olive brown. 

Passe Colmar and many other names. Rather 
large, varying considerably from obovate to obtrrse 
pear-shaped; skin rather thick, yellowish green, be¬ 
coming yellow at maturity, a good deal sprinkled with 
brown russet, especially around the stem and blos¬ 
som end ; stem an inch and a half long; cavity ob¬ 
tuse, uneven, sometimes wanting; basin shallow; 
flesh yellowish white, buttery, rich, juicy, sweet, aro¬ 
matic, good to very good; December and January. 
Tree vigorous and an abundant bearer, but very vari¬ 
able in the quality of fruit; shoots long and bending, 
and of a dark olive brown. 

Prende du Pont, although an inferior pear, is hardy 
in Northern Illinois. Not described under this name 
in Downing’s work. Is it Prairie du Pont.? 

Rousselet Stuttgard. Small, pear-shaped, greenish 
yellow, netted and patched with russet and sprinkled 
with russet and green dots, brownish crimson in the 
sun; stem rather long, curved, enlarged at its inser. 
tion, generally without depression ; basin shallow, 
flesh rather coarse, juicy, half melting, with a spicy 
aroma. Last of August. One of the most reliable 
of the early kinds. Tree vigorous and a good bearer; 
young wood reddish purple. 

Seckel. Small, regularly formed, obovate, brownish 
green at first, becoming dull yellowish brown, with a 
lively russet red cheek; stem one-half to three-fourths 
of an inch long, slightly curved; cavity shallow and 
basin almost wanting; flesh whitish, buttery, very 
juicy and melting, with a peculiarly rich, spicy flavor 
and aroma. Mr. Downing does not hesitate to pro¬ 
nounce this the richest and most exquisitely flavored 
variety known; best dessert; fair market, October; 
tree hardy, vigorous, very productive, but sometimes 
tardy, and carries a symmetrical head. 

White Doyenne, Doyenne White, Virgalieu, and a 
score of other synonyms. Medium to large, regularly 
formed, obovate, varies in proix)rtionate length on 
different soils; skin smooth, clear, pale yellow, regu¬ 
larly sprinkled with small dots, and often with fine 








ioi8 


PEARL PARLEY—PEPPER. 


red cheek; stem brown, three-fourths to one inch 
long, a little curved; cavity small, round; basin shal¬ 
low; flesh white, fine-grained, very buttery, highly 
delicious, best dessert; good cooking and market, 
October; tree hardy, has all the good qualities and is 
an old standard variety; the branches are strong, up¬ 
right, yellowish gray or light brown. 

Winter Nelis. Medium size, narrowed toward the 
stem ; yellowish green at maturity, dotted with gray 
russet and a good deal covered with russet patches 
and red streaks, especially on the sunny side; stem 
one inch and half long, bent; cavity narrow and basin 
shallow; flesh yellowish white, fine-grained, buttery, 
highly flavored and rich; best dessert, good cooking 
and market; December and January; fruit in the 
West inclined to be knotty; tree hardy, healthy, a 
regular bearer, etc.; branches diverging, rather slender; 
dark reddish brown. 

To Preserve and Pickle Pears. The mode of 
canning pears is given on page 157. 

Eres/i Pears. Take nice, ripe Bartlett pears; pare 
them, cut in halves and core them; weigh, and to 
each pound of fruit allow 6 ounces of sugar; cook the 
pears until they are soft in a little sugar and water, and 
put the pears and syrup hot into the jars; seal im¬ 
mediately. 

Spiced Pears. Take 4 pounds of sugar and i gal¬ 
lon of best cider vinegar; pare and halve as many 
pears as the syrup will cover; tie cinnamon, cloves 
and allspice in a cloth, and boil till the fruit looks 
clear. If intended to be kept some months, it will be 
better to put them in self-sealing cans. Do not put 
in too much spice as it will make them dark. 

Preserved Pears. Peel the pears and core them; 
cut them in halves; weigh them ; take i pound of 
sugar to I pound of fruit. It is best not to have them 
too hard; if so, they should be boiled in water first. 
Make a syrup of the sugar; put in some preserved 
ginger, and lemon sliced, to flavor it; boil the pears 
until quite soft; take them out in a dish to cool; boil 
the syrup 10 or 15 minutes longer. 

Pickled Pears. Put up the same as for sweet 
pickled peaches. Any kind of fresh fruit can be put 
up in the same way. 

Pearl Barley: see page 46. 

Peat, a substance which seems to be closely allied 
to coal, and which, there is no doubt, has been pro¬ 
duced by the decay and decomposition of vegetable 
matter. See Fuel. 

Pecan (pe-con), a species of the hickory genus of 
trees, which bears soft-shell, sweet, edible nuts, which 
are as finely flavored as the hickory-nut. The diffi¬ 
culty of collecting pecans in quantity accounts for 
their comparatively high price in the market. 

Peck, a measure of capacity comprising two gal¬ 
lons, or one-fourth of a bushel. 

Pectorals, medicines which relieve coughs and 
other diseases of the respiratory organs. 


Pelts, the dry, unprepared skins of animals, espe¬ 
cially the skins of sheep or lambs. 

Pemmican, dried buffalo meat mixed with about 
five-ninths melted fat; put into a tin or skin while still 
soft and warm. It is largely used by the Indians and 
travelers in unsettled regions. 

Peony (pe^o-ny), a very gorgeous, hardy flower 
propagated from the roots. It presents a wonderful 
combination of colors. Plant in spring or autumn 
and leave in the ground undisturbed until you wish 
to propagate by dividing the roots. It will grow in 
any soil not covered in winter and spring with surface 
water. 



Peony. 

Pennyroyal, a perennial plant of the mint family. 
It flowers in August and September; it is warm, 
pungent, aromatic, stimulating and diaphoretic, like 
spearmint, but not so agreeable. The infusion is 
warming to the stomach and allays sickness. ^ It re¬ 
lieves spasms, hysterics, flatulency and colic, and 
promotes expectoration in dry consumptive coughs. 
It promotes perspiration and is most valuable in ob¬ 
struction of the menses. It is very disagreeable to 
most insects and will therefore drive them away. 

Pepper, a well-known spice of an aromatic odor 
and an extremely pungent and acrid taste. Black 

pepper is the fruit 
of a species of 
climbing vine, a 
native of the East 
Indies. The ber¬ 
ries grow in spikes 
of from 20 to 30; 
are at first green, 
and when ripe are 
of a bright red 
color. After being 
gathered, which is 
done while they 
are green, they are 
dried in the sun; 

Large Sweet Spanish Pepper. become 

black and more or less shriveled. Those which are 

































F£FFEJ^-GJiASS—P£ IVEE. 


1019 


least ripe and in the fittest state for gathering, shrivel 
the least; but when they are more ripe they often 
shrivel up entirely or remain nothing but dust. The 
quality of pepper is tested by rubbing it between the 
hands, and what is easily reduced to powder is un¬ 
sound and bad. 

White pepper is not the product of a separate plant, 
but is made from the black by steeping it in lime and 
water and the removal of its black skin. Pepper is 
sold extensively ground. This is never pure, but 
adulterated with various cheaper articles. 

Red pepper {Capsicum) is a name given to numer¬ 
ous herbaceous plants natives of tropical countries, but 
some varieties are cultivated throughout the United 
States in gardens. The pods are the part used, being 
yellow or red when ripe. The red (Cayenne) pepper 
of commerce is the long, small red pepper. 

This powerful spice has become a necessary article 
in cooking and seasoning, and is much esteemed for 
its flavor and the quality which it is supposed to 
possess of promoting or aiding digestion. It is very 
doubtful, however, if its use is conducive to health. In 
fact, the black variety may be considered very detri¬ 
mental. The Cayenne is preferable, yet should be 
used sparingly. 

To pickle pepper and make pepper mangoes, see 
article on Pickles. 

To cultivate the red or Cayenne variety, start in a 
cold frame or hot-bed, transplant the young plants 
toward the close of May in a very warm location, in 
rows 18 inches apart; thin plants to a foot apart in 
the rows; or, when but few are wanted, it is more 
economical to sow the seed where the plants are to 
remain. Very rich ground is necessary. 

Varieties. Spanish Monstrous. Six inches long 
and two in diameter. 

Chili. Sharply pointed, two inches long and half an 
inch thick. 

Long Yellow. The name is properly descriptive. 

Large Bell. A standard sort. 

Cayenne. Small, long and tapering; very hot; 
best for seasoning pickles. 

Large Sweet Mountain. Very large and excellent 
for mangoes. 

Cherry. Small, smooth and round; a great bearer. 

Squash, or Flat. Best for pickling; in most popu¬ 
lar use. 

Long Red, or Santa Fe. Very productive. 

Yellow Squash. A fine, large variety. 

Pepper-grass: see Cress. 

Peppermint, an herb used for sauces, perfumes 
and in medicines. It is distilled and its oil formed 
into an essence. It belongs to the same family as 
spearmint and pennyroyal, both which are cultivated 
in a similar manner. The soil should be moist, mel¬ 
low and rich. The roots are put in the ground about 
six inches apart, and in rows two feet apart, about 
corn-planting time. In the garden they, may be set 
one foot apart each way. In drying it must be done 
in the shade and the branches not permitted to get 


wet. When for the oil they should be cut when in 
blossom. St. Joseph county, Mich., is the principal 
point in the United States for the cultivation of this 
plant. 

Pepsin, the active principle of the gastric juice of 
animals. See Dyspepsia. 

Perambulator, or Odometer, a wheel so con¬ 
nected with another wheel in machinery as to measure 
the distance traveled. It can be attached to a wagon 
and measure the distance it travels along the road. 

Perch, in long measure, five and one-half yards or 
a rod; the one-fortieth of a rood in land measure. 
Stone masonry is usually measured by the perch, 
meaning a mass i6j4 feet long and a foot each in 
height and breadth, or cubic feet. Perch is the 
name of a family of excellent fresh-water fish de¬ 
scribed on page 464. 

Percheron Horse: see page 698. 

Perennial (per-en ni-al) herbs are plants that 
die down to the ground in the autumn, while the roots 
continue to live and send up plants annually for many 
years. Such roots should be divided each year in the 
spring. Annuals are plants whose roots live but one 
year, the plant reproducing its species by seed ; bien¬ 
nials are such as spring from the seed, forming a plant 
during the first year which does not mature its seed 
until the second season, when it dies. 

Perry, the cider of pears. 

Persimmon. This fruit is grown between latitudes 
30® and 40” north. It is seldom seen north of the 
latter point, but is common south of it. The tree 
averages about 35 feet in height, and resembles the 
white ash, but when trimmed and cultivated has 
symmetrical heads like the hard maple. The fruit 
when green is remarkably astringent, but when ripe is 
sweet and luscious and very palatable. The fruit 
varies from that of a small plum to a medium-sized 
peach, and is very difficult to keep. 

Perspiration, the insensible transpiration or exha¬ 
lation continually going on at the surface of the skin 
and membranes. Sensible perspiration is called sweat. 

Petroleum, a bituminous oil obtained from under 
the earth. It is the crude oil from which kerosene 
and other oils are distilled. 

In veterinary practice petroleum or rock oil was for¬ 
merly recommended in chest diseases, but it has been 
succeeded by more certain and successful drugs for 
this purpose. However, it is still occasionally used 
as an external application for sores and for the de¬ 
struction of lice, etc., in the skin. It is apt to leave 
a blemish by causing the hair to fall off, and in some 
cases in which it has been used extensively the hair 
did not come on again. The better way to use coal 
oil is to mix equal parts with some other oil having 
no acrid principle. 

Pewee, or Phebe Bird. This is a small, well- 
known bird of the North. It lingers around bridges. 






P HE A SA NT—PICKLING. 


1020 


old mills and caves, in some secure part of which it 
makes its nest of mud, grass and moss, with soft lin¬ 
ing within to receive the pure white eggs with reddish 
spots near the larger end. It is quite domestic and 
innocent of mischief. The wood pewee comes a little 
later than the above and loves the dark, quiet retreats 
of the forest. Here, sitting on a dry branch, it may 
always be found in summer and early autumn, watch¬ 
ing for insects, and uttering its low, melancholy notes. 
It makes its nest on a horizontal branch, constructing 
it of lichens and mosses without and of fine grasses 
and hairs within. The eggs are four or five, light 
yellowish, and six)tted with reddish on the larger end. 
The short-legged pewee is a familiar bird throughout 
North America. 

Pheasant. See Ruffed Grouse, page 6ii. 

Phebe Bird : see Pewee. 

Phlegm (flem), the mucous liquid thrown up from 
the bronchia or lungs. 

Phonography : see Short-Hand. 

Phosphate, a salt formed by a combination of 
phosphoric acid and a salifiable base, as lime. It is 
necessary to the formation of bone and therefore be¬ 
comes a most valuable mineral manure. Soil^ defi¬ 
cient of phosphate does not furnish animals sufficient 
of this bone-making substance. 

Phosphorus, an elementary substance, not me¬ 
tallic, solid, colorless, brilliant, and very inflammable. 
In common air it burns with great rapidity. At ordi¬ 
nary temperature it naturally attracts the oxygen of 
the air, and burns spontaneously, emitting a luminous 
vapor. 

Phrenitis (fre-ni'tis), in cattle, see page 210; in 
horses, see Inflammation of the Brain, page 763. 

Phylloxera (fil-ox e-ra): see page 642. 

Physician: see Doctoring. 

Physiology, the science which treats of the func¬ 
tions of the organs of animals or vegetables. 

Piccalilli, 'I’o Make: To one peck of green 
tomatoes take 3 good-sized heads of cabbage, 12 
green peppers and 2 large onions. Slice your toma¬ 
toes, put them in salt and water over night, dram 
well’in morning; chop tomatoes, cabbage, pepper and 
onions, mix them all thoroughly together, cover with 
vinegar, cook until cpiite tender, then dram through 
a colander; then take i pint of grated horse-radish, a 
half ounce each of allspice, cloves and mustard, mix 
with I pint of sugar, and vinegar enough to cover the 
whole; stir all well together and put in a stone jar. 

Pickling is the term used to express the mode of 
preserving animal or vegetable substances from 
putrefactive fermentation, or decomposition, by im¬ 
mersion in vinegar. Almost any eatable plant may 
be pickled, and the number so used is very great. 

We have given directions for making almost all 
kinds of pickles in the articles of the respective fruits 


and vegetables; we will therefore only give such in this 
connection as are mixed, and the cucumber pick e. 

In pickling observe the following rules: Always 
procure the best vinegar, as the success of your pickles 
depends on its quality. Use glass bottles for your 
pickles; if earthen jars they must be unglazed, as the 
vinegar acting upon the glaze produces a mineral 
ixjison. Use saucepans lined with earthenware, or 
stone pipkins to boil your vinegar in. If you are 
compelled to use tin or copper, do not let your vin¬ 
egar remain in one moment longer than necessary. 
Do not allow it to cool in them, as thus it would then 
become poisonous. Employ also wooden knives and 
forks in the preparation of your pickles. Fill the jars 
three-fourths full with the articles to be pickled, and 
then fill the bottle or jar with vinegar. 

When greening, keep the pickles covered down, as 
the evaporation of steam will injure the color. A 
little nut of alum may be added to crisp pickles, but 
it should be very small in proportion to the quantity 
or it will give a disagreeable flavor. 

Cucumber Pickles. Make a pickle, or brine, in a 
clean tub, that will bear a small potato; wash the 
cucumbers and put them in; cover with cabbage 
leaves, and place something heavy on the top to keep 
them under the brine; let them lie in this as long as 
j you wish. To make a few at a time, take^ them out 
and let them remain in cold water over night; then 
put half vinegar and half water, and a small piece of 
alum in the kettle with the pickles, and set them on 
the back of the range. Be careful not to let them 
boil. Turn them over every fifteen minutes, so they 
will all get done through; you can tell by breaking 
one in half, and if it is green it is done, d ake them 
out, put in a stone jar, throw away the vinegar, put in 
fresh vinegar, with some cloves, peppers and allspice, 
a few of each; let it boil up, and throw it over the 
pickles in the jar, and then cover. They will be 
ready for use in a few days. Can be kept a year if 
desired. 

Mixed Pickles. Take anything that can be 
pickled, such as onions, sliced cucumbers, cabbage, 
mangoes, peppers, small green tomatoes, cauliflowers, 
martinoes, celery, green beans, nasturtiums, water¬ 
melon rind, small green cucumbers and Chili peppers. 
Lay them in salt and water, with enough turmeric to 
turn them yellow. Let them stand twenty-four 
hours, stirring frequently; then drain and dry them, 
and put them into the jars. To every quart of vine¬ 
gar allow a tablespoonful of mustard-seed, one of 
turmeric and one of whole black peppers, some garlic 
if you like. Spice to your taste with mace, cloves, 
ginger, red pepper and horse-radish. Boil all but 
the mustard-seed in a bag with the vinegar; let it 
stand till cold. Boil some eggs quite hard, mash 
them in enough sweet oil to make a paste; then stir 
it into the vinegar, and pour over the pickles. Put 
a handful of salt to every jar. Let them stand three 
days, covered tight, and they will be ready to use. 

Mangoes. Cut out a small strip at the side of the 
peppers,.and take out the seed with a teaspoon; fill 















PIANO—PJE. 


1021 


them with chopped onion, peppers, horse-radish, 
mustard-seed, cloves and allspice. Sew on the piece 
taken out, and prepare them the same as for cucum¬ 
bers; they should remain in the salt and water forty- 
eight hours. 

Green Tomatoes. The same as for cucumbers; a 
few green peppers can be put in with them. 

Green Peppers. Take fresh, hard peppers; take 
out the seed and fill each one with chopped cabbage, 
onion and whole mustard-seed; put on the top that 
you remove to take out the seed and to fill it; tie it 
on with a string to keep the stuffing in, and put them 
into salt and water; let them remain in it forty-eight 
hours. Then pour over them hot vinegar. Th^ey 
can be put into the salt and water before the chopped 
cabbage is put into them, if preferred. 

iPiCKLED Onions. Peel the onions, which should 
be fine, white ones—not too large. Let them stand 
in strong brine four days, changing it twice. Heat more 
brine to a boil, throw in the onions, and boil three 
minutes. Throw them at once into cold water, and 
leave them there four hours. Pack in jars, inter¬ 
spersing with whole mace, white pepper-corns and 
cloves. Fill up with scalding vinegar, in which you 
have put a cupful of sugar for every gallon. Cork 
while hot. They will be ready for use in a month, 
but will be better at the end of three months. 

Pickled Cauliflower. Pick the whitest and 
closest bunches. Cut into small sprays or clusters. 
Plunge into a kettle of scalding brine and boil three 
minutes. Take them out, lay upon a sieve or a cloth, 
sprinkle thickly with salt, and, when dry, brush this 
off. Cover with cold vinegar two days, setting the 
jar in the sun. Then pack carefully in glass or stone¬ 
ware jars, and pour over them scalding vinegar 
seasoned thus: To one gallon allow a cup of white 
sugar, a dozen blades of mace, a tablespoonful of celery 
seed, two dozen white pepper-corns and some bits of 
red-pepper pods, a tablespoonful of coriander seed, and 
the same of whole mustard. Boil five minutes. Re¬ 
peat the scalding once a week for three weeks; tie up 
and set away. Keep the cauliflowers under the 
vinegar by putting a small plate on top. 

Pickled Cabbage is generally called “sour krout” 
(German, saner kraut). To make it, see page 1096. 

Picture Frames, To Clean; see Furniture. 

Pie Plant: see Rhubarb. 

Pie. We give the following well-tried recipes for 
making many different kinds of pies. To make a 
good pie crust take a quart of flour, which will make 
four large pies. Sift the flour and stir in a quarter of 
a pound of butter and a teaspoonful of baking powder, 
then moisten with ice water if you have it, using just 
as little as will make the flour stick together. The 
secret of good, tender paste is speedy work. Do not 
work it with warm hands. 

Apple Pie. Peel the apples, slice them thin, pour 
a little molasses and sprinkle some sugar over them; 


grate on some lemon peel or nutmeg. If you wish 
to make it richer, put a little butter on the top. 

Butter Pie. Very rich. Take a piece of nice 
butter, not too salt, large as a hen’s egg; ^ of a cup 
of sugar, I cup of sweet cream, i tablespoonful of 
flour. Stir butter, sugar and flour together; then stir 
in the cream; add nutmeg if liked; pour into a crust; 
put crust in strips across the top; bake until slightly 
browned. 

Carrot Pie. A very good pie may be made of car¬ 
rots, in the same way that you make pumpkin pies. 

Chicken Pie. Take 2 or 3 nice young chickens and 
boil them until the meat will come off the bones real 
easy, then pick all the bones out; make a crust the 
same as for other pies but roll it rather thicker; put 
your crust in a dripping-pan; put in a layer of chick¬ 
en seasoned with salt, pepper and butter; have plenty 
of broth; then put on another crust, then another 
layer of chicken, then put in all the broth, then the 
top crust; pinch the crust firmly around the top. 
Bake in a slow oven about two hours. 

Chocolate Pie. Two cups of sugar, three-quar¬ 
ters of a cup of butter, one cup of milk, three and a 
half cups of flour with two teaspoonfuls of some 
condensed baking powder sifted into it; five eggs, 
leaving out the whites of four. Bake in Washington 
pie tins ; this will make three pies of two layers each, 
with the chocolate between and on top. For the 
chocolate frosting take the whites of the four eggs 
beaten stiff, with one and a quarter cups of powdered 
sugar, two tablespoonfuls of chocolate placed in a 
saucer and steamed over a teakettle until creamy; 
one teaspoonful of vanilla. 

CocoANUT Custard Pie. Boil one quart of milk, 
take it from the fire and stir into it six well beaten 
eggs, half a pound of sugar (if you do not use the 
dessicated cocoanut; if you do, less sugar is required); 
a pound of cocoanut, and two teasiX)onfuls of vanilla. 
This can be baked with a crust and will make two 
large pies, or without a crust in a buttered pudding 
dish. 

Cranberry PrE. It should be made in the same way 
as gooseberry, allowing the same amount of sugar and 
a little more water. 

Cream Pie. For 3 pies take 7 eggs, i quart sweet 
cream or milk, i pound pulverized sugar and 2 ounces 
corn starch. Flavor to taste. Use only bottom crust, 
and bake very slowly. 

Another: One large tablespoon of butter, 3 of 

sugar, 2 of flour, 2 eggs and a little more than ^ pint 
of milk. Beat the sugar and butter to a cream ; beat 
the eggs well and mix them with the milk; then stir 
in the flour, etc. Flavor with whatever you like. 
This is for one pie. 

Custard Pie. For a large pie, put in 3 eggs, a 
heaping tablespoonful of sugar, pints of milk, a 
little salt and some nutmeg grated on. For crust use 
common pastry. 

Dried-Apple Pie. Soak the apples in cold water 
all night, having first looked them over carefully; in 
the morning look them over again, to make sure that 








I 


PIE. 


there are no bis of core left on; rinse in several wa¬ 
ters, then cook slowiy; when done, mash with a pota¬ 
to masher, till the sauce is smooth and far removed 
from Inmpiness; sweeten and spkre to suit the taste. 

If \x>a have anv boiled cider, put in just enough to 
moisten the apple, then make a crust as rich as for 
mince pie; bake till top is sligntlv browned. Some 
dried brackbenies cooked with the apples will give 
an excellent flavor. 

Elderberry Pn- 5:ew the terres very jtdcy, 
addins vinegar enough to maie tnem tart; sweeten 
and spice to taste; thicjten wim floor; remove hom 
the stove, and put in plenty of butter or a pinch of 
sain 

Frot Pies. Line your dish with a good crust :md 
fill with cherries, peaches, strawbemes, or any ripe 
fruit that you have, regulating the quandnr of sugar 
bv the sweetness of the fruit: iney may be covered 
or TKM as vou lie. Green gtesecerries and rhubarb 
should be stewed and sweetened before making into 
ties. 

G.yme Pie. Jlhvide the buds, u large, into pieces 
or ic^ts. The}' may be pheasants, partridges, etc. 
.\dd a littic baccHi or ham. Season welL Cover wiA 
puff paste, and bake caiefu^y. Pour into the pie 
half a cupful <M melted butter, tne juice of a lemon, j 
and a glass of sheny, wnen ratner more than halt 
baked. 

Gooseberry Pa: or T.yrt. Pick off all the stalks 
and liule bbossoms. and put them on to stew after 
ihev have been washed; a very little water may be 
put in the bottCMn of the sauce-pan to prevent its 
burning To each quart « gx>seberries allow three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar. aen they are all 
broken add the sugar, and let them cook tor a few 
minutes louEer. To pretvare for tarts, a little more 
■water should be pat to the bemes; they should then 
be -trained, and to each pint of juice p ut a po und of 
sugar and bc^ it fifteen minutes, line the plates 
with paste, fill them with the gx>secerries, and put ' 
on the strips or an upper crust. 

Lemox Pie. One lemon, one cap ot sugar, one 
tablespoon com starch; rub snxxxh witn a little water; 
one-half cap boiling water, one egg; butter the size 
of a walnut; one crusL 

Ancitker: Line a common-sized pie-piate with crust, 
rubbins it as full of aooir as you can. T ake one large 
lemon, grate off the yellow port and squeeze the juice 
into the middle of the pee; place the pulp around 
the edee; one egg. Dcaten with three-fO'..rtrta eff a cup 
of white susar, one-nail cup of cold water, spri nkl e in 
some of the grated rind, and cover with a crusL 

I_XMOX Cream Pie. One and a ball pin3 milk, 3 
tablespoonfuls com starch, i cup s ugar, a tablespoon¬ 
fuls butter, I teaspoonful each extract lemn-^o, cloves, 
and cinnamon, juice o! a lemons, yolks oc a eggs. Boil 
the milk; add the com starch, dissolved in little of the 
milk; when it re-boils tase it off", beat in the yolks, 
batter, lemon juice, and extracts; pour at once into 
pie-plates, lin^ with paste Having a nigh rim. and 


bake in a hot oven until the piaste is cooked about 
twenty minutes. 

M-UtLSOROEGH Pie. One cup stewed dned 
apples, sifted or made fine with a spoon; half cup 
sugar, one cup milk, small piece of butter or some 
sweet cream in place of butter, two beaten eggs, nut¬ 
meg, no top crust. 

Meat Pies. Have a good crus: ready; let }-our 
meat be cold, put in seasoning as }X>u like, and cut 
small pieces of batter over die top, before putting on 
the upoer crust. Allow suiDcient mc^ttire. 

Mes'CE Pies. The ibllowing is a recipe for the pastry 
of mince pies. Directions for making the meat are 
given in the article Mince Mean Two cupf'uls of 
flour, one cupful of lard, half a cupful of ice water, a 
pinch of salt; use a knife to cut the lard tlpough the 
flour until fine; then add the water, and mix with the 
knife until no flour remains in the bowl; ipU thin, 
and place small bits of butter over, dredge with flour, 
fold up. and repeat the process rwrice, using half a 
cupful of butter; roil the crust thin; have a quick 
oven; it will rise in flakes. 

Molasses Pies. Take four eggs and one heaped 
tafalespoonful of flour; beat together until well mixed; 
then add two cups of molasses and one tablespoonful 
of i?X)d vinegar; have paste rolled as for custard 
pies ; bake in moderate oven; care should be taken 
or they will bum if oven is too hot. These will jelly 
nicely! The above quantity is enough for two pies. 

OtoYXGE Pie. Two oranges, eight tablespoo^uls 
of sugar, four eggs, two-thirds tumbler of milk; beat 
the voIks. sugaf and grated peel of the oranges, being 
careful not to grate off. 

PiGEOX Pie. Lay a rim of paste around the sides 
and edge of a pie 'dish, sprinkle a link pepper and 
salt over the bottom and put in a thin beelsteak ^pick 
and draw the pigeons, wash them clean, cut on^ the 
feet and press the legs into the sides; put a bit of 
butter and a seasoning of pepper and salt in the inside 
of each, and lav them in the dish with their breasts 
upwards, arvl the necks and gizzards between them; 
sprinkle some pepper and salt over them and p>ut in a 
wineglass of water; lay a thin sheet of piaste over the 
top, ^d with a brush wet it all over; then put a puff 
paste half an inch thick over than cut it close to the 
dish, brush it over with egg. ornament the top, and 
bake it. M*hen done, pour in a little good gravy. 
Yoa mav put in the volks of 6 hard-boiled eggs, or 
leave out the beefsteak if you think proper. 

Pore Pie. Take the skin and fat from a loin of 
pork, and cut it into thin steaks; season them with 
pepper, salt and nutmeg; line a jxe dish with pufi' 
paste, put in a layer of pork, then of jMppins pared 
and cored, and about r ounces of sugar: then place 
in another layer <rf pork, and balf a |Hnt of white wine, 
and lay some butter on top: cover it over with puff 
. paste, pass a knife throegh the top to leave an op)en- 
ing. cut the paste even with the dish, egg it once and 
bake it. 

PoT.LTO Pie. One po'und of mashed potato rubbed 
through a colander; ^ pound of butter rubbed to a 












PIE—PIGEON. 


1023 


cream with 2 cups of white sugar; 6 eggs, the whites 
and yolks beaten separately; the juice of i lemon, 
squeezed into the potato while hot; i teas[X)on of 
nutmeg, the same of mace; bake in shells of paste, or 
in dishes lined with good paste, without covers. To 
be eaten cold. 

Pumpkin Pie. Cut up and peel a sweet yellow 
pumpkin, scrape out the inside, put to stew with only 
a little water; cover the pot until the pieces are soft, 
then stir these. Especial care is to be taken that the 
pumpkin does not scorch. When it is taken out and 
cold, sift through a colander; if there is too much 
water drain in a clean cloth. To 2 quarts of the pre¬ 
pared pumpkin add 3 quarts of milk, yi of it being 
thick cream; 12 eggs, a little salt, a pint of molasses, 
a teasix>onful of ginger, and cinnamon to suit the taste. 
Stir well. Have a pie plate lined with paste. Stir up 
from the bottom and fill the plates. They must bake 
until they rise up in the middle. 

Rabbit Pie. Skin and wash a fine, large rabbit; 
cut it into joints and divide the head. Then place it 
in warm water to soak until thoroughly clean; drain 
on a sieve or wipe it with a clean cloth. Season it 
with pepper and salt, a sprig of parsley chopped fine, 
and I shallot if the flavor is liked (but it is equally 
good without it). Cut the bacon into small pieces, 
dredge the rabbit with flour, and place it with the bacon 
in a pie dish, commencing with the inferior parts of 
the rabbit. Pour in a small cupful of water, or stock 
if you have it; put a paste border round the edges of 
the dish and cover it with puff paste about half an inch 
thick. Ornament and glaze the top, make a hole in the 
center and bake it. 

Rhubarb Pie. Take the tender stalks of rhubarb, 
strip off the skin and cut the stalks into thin slices. 
Line deep the plates with pie crust, then pour in the 
rhubarb, with a thick layer of sugar to each layer of 
rhubarb: a little grated lemon peel improves the pie. 
Cover the pies with a crust, press it down tight 
around the edge of the plate, and pick the crust 
with a fork, so that the crust will not burst while 
baking, and let out the juices of the pie. Rhu¬ 
barb pies should be baked about an hour, in a slow 
oven: it ^vill not do to bake them quick. Some 
cooks stew up the rhubarb before making it into pies, 
but is not so good as when used without stewing. 

Rice Pie. Boil your rice soft; put one egg to each 
pie, one tablespoonful of sugar, a little salt and nut¬ 
meg. 

Another: Boil cup of rice in milk till tender; 

after which add milk until it is a thin batter; the yolks 
of 4 eggs, and 4 tablespoons of sugar. Bake with 
one crust till brown; spread over the top a frosting 
made by beating together whites of 4 eggs and 6 table¬ 
spoons of sugar; flavor with lemon; put in the oven 
five minutes. 

Squash Pie. Boil and sift a good, dry squash, thin 
it with boiling milk until it is about the consistency of 
thick milk porridge. To ever}'- quart of this add 3 
eggs, 2 great spoonfuls of melted butter, nutmeg (or 
65 


ginger if you prefer), and sweeten quite sweet with 
sugar. Bake in a deep plate with an undercrust. 

Sweet-Potato Pie. Take 2 eggs, 2 cups milk, 
about a cup of finely mashed potatoes, mix well, and 
sweeten to taste ; bake without top crust. 

Tomato Pie. Make the crusts the same as for 
apple pies. Partly ripe tomatoes make the best pies. 
Peel and slice them; three tablespoonfuls sugar, a 
small sixxmful flour, butter the size of a walnut; sea¬ 
son to taste; lemon flavoring very nice. Green toma¬ 
toes the same, only less flour. 

Green Tomato Pie. Cut off both ends and slice 
the remainder; put in one good layer of tomatoes: 
then add four tablespoons water, one tables^xion flour, 
mixed with half cup sugar; now sprinkle a little cin¬ 
namon over, put on your crust, and bake in a moder¬ 
ate oven. 

Veal and Oyster Pie. Cut a pound and a half 
of veal into small, neat cutlets, and spread over each 
a thin layer of minced or |X)unded ham, season them 
with pepper, salt, and grated lemon peel, and roll 
each cutlet round. Line the edge of a pie dish with 
a good paste, put a layer of rolled veal at the bottom, 
over the veal a layer of oysters, then of veal, and the 
oysters on the top; make a gravy with a cupful of 
weak gravy or broth, the peel of half a lemon, the 
oyster liquor strained, and a seasoning of pepper and 
salt; cover a crust over the top; ornament it in any 
way approved, egg it over, and bake it in a moderate 
oven. When done, more gravy may be added by 
pouring it through the hole on the top through a fun¬ 
nel, and replacing an ornament on it after the gravy 
is added. Very nice oyster pies can be made with¬ 
out veal. 

Vinegar Pie. i cup vinegar, i cup sugar, 2 eggs» 
I cup water, and i spoonful of corn starch or flour. 
Seasoned with lemon, it is equal to a lemon pie. This 
makes a large pie. Bake with two crusts. As soon 
as it boils it is done. Should the vinegar be very 
strong use more water and less vinegar. 

Pig: see Swine, and Pork, page 964. 

Pigeon. The pigeon belongs to the dove family 
of birds. It is bred all over the civilized world and 
has been from a very early period. The varieties, 
however, known to the Greeks were veiy few, but 
were greatly increased among the Romans, with whom 
the breeding of these birds was quite a science. The 
same attention to them has continued in some modern 
nations, and the adepts in the art pretend that the al¬ 
most innumerable varieties may be bred to a feather. 
There are several species and a very great number of 
varieties of the pigeon. Among the most important 
are the following: 

Carrier Pigeon. This is a domestic variety which 
from very ancient times has been employed more or 
less for the transmission of intelligence. In early 
times it was customary to attach the paper upon 
which the message was written to the neck; but in 
latter times it has been tied to the upper part of the 






1024 


PIG-NU T—PINE-APPLE. 


leg. Messages have been carried thousands of miles 
by them. They have been known to travel 800 miles 
without food. 

The Wild or Passenger Pigeon is extremely rapid 
in flight, being able to perform long journeys at the 
average speed of a mile a minute. The rapidity with 
which it passes through a wood is perfectly astonish¬ 
ing; threading its way amid the closely grown branches 
with unerring course, it flashes upon the sight like a 
meteor and is gone. They migrate wholly for the 
purpose of procuring food, and hence their migrations 
do not occur at any particular season of the year. 
They go wherever they can find a supply of grain, 
rice or nuts. The number that sometimes move to¬ 
gether are vast beyond conception. Millions associate 
in a single roost, completely filling a forest for 30 or 
40 miles in length and several miles in breadth, and 
literally loading and breaking down large trees. From 
their roosts they fly off hundreds of miles, in some 
cases, to feeeding grounds and return at night. 

Immense flocks of these birds are not so often seen 
now as formerly , on account of the settlement of the 
country and the destruction of the forests; and the 
birds themselves have diminished by being killed in 
vast numbers. 

There are other domestic varieties besides the car¬ 
riers, known as the tumblers, runts, etc. 

Pig-nut, the name of two species of the soft- 
shelled hickory. The kernel is bitter, but after being 
frozen a time or two becomes somewhat edible. 

Pig-pen, or Piggery: see Swine. 

Pig-weed, the name of two very different weeds,— 
Chenopodium album and Arnaranius retroflexus. 
The former is also called lamb’s-quarter and goose- 
foot. See Lamb’s-quarter, page 911. The Amarantus, 
as the name denotes, belongs to the Amaranth family, 
and being a common weed in rich gardens, is easily 
identified. It is sometimes called green pig-weed. 
For the sake of definiteness, we should drop the 
name pig-weed altogether and call the first mention¬ 
ed above goose-foot and the latter green amaranth. 
Although both these weeds are abundant, they are 
easily subdued. 

Pike, a family of voracious fresh-water fish: see 
page 465. There is also a variety of the Perch 
family known as the pike: see page 464. 

Piles, The piles is a very common affection of the 
veins of the rectum, which occurs in both sexes and 
in all classes of society. 

The patient first experiences a singular itching and 
uneasiness about the parts, which is soon followed by 
an enlargement of the veins, causing tumors that are 
filled with dark blood.' These tumors, which are 
sometimes from three to six in number, are extremely 
painful, particularly on going to stool, 

When'the bowels are in a constipated state, it is 
often very difficult to procure a passage, owing to the 
obstruction produced by the tumors ; but the attend¬ 
ant irritation brings on tenesmus and bearing down. 


which forces down the hardened contents, ofteri bring¬ 
ing with them the tumors when they are situated 
low in the bowel. If they are large, they will usually 
remain without, and thus prove a source of great an¬ 
noyance. But the tumors frequently burst, and thus 
will bleed sometimes very profusely. 

When the piles bleed, they are called open or bleed¬ 
ing piles, and when they do not, they receive the name 
of blind piles. 

Piles are occasioned by a relaxed condition of the 
parts, which may arise from the use of drastic purga¬ 
tives, particularly those that spend their influence 
chiefly on the lower part of the intestines, such as 
aloes, and the most of the pills now offered to the 
public. Habitual costiveness, sedentary habits, and 
heavy lifting, may also bring them on. 

Piles are seldom dangerous, unless they become so 
from the excessive loss of blood that they sometimes 
occasion. 

Treatment. Recent cases of piles may soon be re¬ 
lieved by the use of astringent injections. The bow¬ 
els must, however, always be kept regular by the use 
of proper diet, or by means of laxatives. 

Old and confimied cases of piles are sometimes 
considerably difficult to cure. In the treatment of 
these, it is necessary, in the first place, to get the 
bowels into a good condition by the use of laxatives, 
or laxative enemas. The use [of astringent injec¬ 
tions must then be commenced, and continued three 
or four times a day. In the meantime apply the fol¬ 
lowing ointment: Flower of sulphur, i teaspoonful, 
mixed with one tablespoonful fresh butter, in which 
there is no salt. This must be applied by smearing 
it on a rag or bit of linen, which should then be intro¬ 
duced into the bowel, and left to remain until the 
syringe is used, when it should be renewed. 

Sometimes the tumors grow hard and irritable, and 
in this state will not readily yield to the foregoing 
treatment. A ixailtice made with slippery-elm bark 
and milk will be found to give great relief. See 
Ointment, page 995. The best way to cure them is to 
inject, with a hypodermic syringe, a solution of equal 
parts of carbolic acid and sweet oil. 

Pine. There are many species of this most useful 
of all trees. It not only furnishes ornamental trees 
in great variety, but furnishes most of the lumber 
used on this continent, and affords the material from 
which tar, pitch and turpentine are manufactured. 
The white pine is the most useful of all the pines, as 
it furnishes the largest quantity of lumber. It has 
five leaves in a sheath, pitch pine three, the red pine, 
the gray scrub, yellow, Scotch, Austrian, etc., have 
two leaves in a sheath. The white pine is one of the 
best trees for prairie planting. We have referred to 
the pine in the articles Evergreen, Forestry, Land¬ 
scape Gardening and Hedge, to which we refer the 
reader for further observations. 

Pine-apple, a tropical evergreen fruit. The name 
seems to be derived from the general resemblance of 
the fruit to some large cone of a pine tree. In rich- 














FINK—PLANTING. 


1025 


ness of flavor the fruit cannot be surpassed, and it is 
usually pronounced the finest in the world. The 
pine-apple is propagated by planting either the 
crowns or tufts which grow on the fruit, or by the 
suckers whicli appear on the fruit stalk, or which pro¬ 
ceed from the base of the plant. Exceedingly fine 
fabrics are made from a delicate filament obtained 
from the leaves by maceration. 

Preserved Pine-apple. A pound of sugar to a 
pound of pine-apple; put the slices in water, and boil 
a quarter of an hour; then remove them and add the 
sugar to the water; put in the apple and boil fifteen 
minutes. Boil the sirup till thick. 

Pink, a well-known, hardy, flowering plant of the 
Carnation family. It is very near akin to the true 
Carnation, but it possesses quite distinct characters 
of its own, and comprises countless numbers of 
varieties and hybrids. It is one of the most general¬ 
ly cultivated and highly admired of flowers. Pinks 
are propagated from seeds for new varieties and from ' 
pippings for the continuation and multiplication of 
existing varieties. 

Pink Eye: see page 801. 

Pip, the seed of an apple, or any other pomaceous 
fruit. 

Pirouette (pir-oo-et'), in horse training, is a turn¬ 
ing round and round. 

Pisciculture, the culture of fish: see Fish. 

Pistil (pis'til), the seed-bearing organ of a plant. 
Pistils occupy the centerof the flower and terminate the 
axis of growth. A pistil is composed of three parts,— 
the ovary, or seed-bearin'g portion; the style, or taper¬ 
ing portion, into which the apex of the ovary is pro¬ 
longed, and the stigma, usually situated at the 
summit of the style, consisting of a part, or sometimes 
a mere point, of the latter. The ovary, which con¬ 
tains the young seeds, is of course a necessary part 
of the pistil; the stigma, which receives from the 
anthers the jxillen by which the seeds or ovules are 
vivified, is no less necessary, but the intervening 
style is no more essential to the pistil than the fila¬ 
ment is to the stamen, and is therefore not uncom¬ 
monly wanting. 

Pitch, tar boiled down to a state of dryness. It is 
a solid black substance with a shiny fracture, and 
it softens at 90"* and liquefies in boiling water. A 
good plaster for sandcrack and other veterinary pur¬ 
poses, consists of one pound of pitch and one ounce 
of bees’-wax, melted together. 

Pith, the central part of the root, stem and 
branches of dicotyledonous plants. It is always 
comparatively soft and spongy, and often succulent. 
It is tubularly enclosed in stems and branches just as 
marrow is tubularly enclosed in bones, and it has 
therefore been called the medulla of plants. 

Pithing, the instant killing of an animal by divid¬ 
ing the spinal marrow above the origin of the phrenic 


nerve. This method of killing takes its name from 
the word “ pith,” which the butchers in some coun¬ 
tries apply to the spinal marrow. 

Pitting, a method of planting trees, by preparing a 
pit of suitable size for the reception of each; also, a 
method of storing potatoes, turnips, etc., by putting 
them in heaps and covering with straw and soil; also, 
the taking of the pits (stones) out of stone fruits, as, 
to pit cherries. 

Plague, a name applied to acute, malignant dis¬ 
eases of live stock, as "I'exas fever, pleuro-pneumonia, 
murrain, etc. It is very indefinite in its meaning, and 
is used in different localities to designate different 
epidemic or contagious diseases that may prevail 
among live stock. See the article Murrain, on page 
210. 

Plank. When lumber is sawed in pieces it has 
different names applied to it, depending upon the size 
and form of the pieces. Thus, when a piece of timber 
is sawed longitudinally, so as to produce a number of 
plates of timber, the sides of which are parallel to 
each other, such pieces are called planks. Planks are 
similar to boards, only thicker. A piece sawed as 
above less than one and a half or two inches, is called 
a board, but over that, and up to three or four, it is 
called a plank; larger than that it is called timber. 

Plant, an organized and living body, without voli¬ 
tion, subsisting exclusively iqxjn inorganic food, 
and exhibiting some remarkable analogies to an ani¬ 
mal, but originating in seed and completing the cycle 
of its existence by the reproduction once or oftener 
of seeds precisely identical in kind and power with 
that from which it sprang. 

Plantation, a word used to denote a large farm, 
devoted to special crops, as cotton, rice, etc. This is 
its significance at the South, but in the North it is 
used to denote the nursery or plot of trees of different 
kinds. 

Planter, a machine for planting special seeds, in 
hills, as corn-planter. In the South the word means 
the owner of an estate or farm devoted to special 
crops, as cotton planter. 

Planting, the dejxisiting of a young plant, or of 
the germ of a plant, in the place where it is intended 
to grow and remain. The word is very comprehens¬ 
ive in meaning, and is applied to almost every kind 
of dejxisition of productive plantlet, root, cutting, germ, 
or seed, whether in the garden or field, except aspers- 
ive sowing. The planting of slips, the planting of 
sets, and the planting of beans, or other large seeds, 
as are deposited one by one, are common modes of 
expression, and in spite of their bearing a widely 
different sense from such a phrase as the planting of 
trees. They are everywhere understood and do not 
cause any confusion or mistake. We have fully dis¬ 
cussed the planting of vegetables and cereals in their 
respective articles, and the planting of trees in the 
article Forestry. 













1026 


PLASHING—PLOIV. 


Plashing, a mode of making a hedge by binding 
down portions of the shoots, cutting partly through 
near the ground, and twisting them among the upright 
trees, as illustrated by Figures 4 and 5 on page 655. 

Plaster. Adhesive or lead plaster, for binding up 
wounds, is to be had at drug stores all ready for use, 
as also “court plaster” (see page 276). Gypsum 
(sulphate of lime), sometimes called “land plaster,” 
or simply “ plaster,” is fully treated on pages 448 and 
632. It is also used in surgery for dressing limbs, in 
orthopedic surgery Tor supporting a deformed body or 
parts, and as an antidote for many poisons, especially 
the acids. 

Plethora (pletlTo-ra), undue fullness of the blood¬ 
vessels of animals. 

Pleura, the membrane which interiorly invests an 
animal’s breast and sides. It covers the lungs so 
closely as almost to appear a part of them, and is here 
called pleura pulmonalis, and where it lines the inside 
of the chest it is called pleura costalis. 

Pleurisy, inflammation of the pleura. For pleu¬ 
risy in cattle, see page 210; in horse, seepage 816. 

Pleuro-pneumonia, in cattle, see page 213. 

Plover, a genus of the Grallce or waders, distin¬ 
guished by having a moderate-sized compressed beak, 
enlarged at the end, and the hinder toe exceedingly 
small, not touching the ground. They inhabit all parts 
of the world, traversing temperate climates in the 
spring and autumn. 

Plow, an implement which loosens and turns over 
the soil in such a way as to disintegrate it and expose 
new surfaces of it to the atmosphere. It performs sub¬ 
stantially the same work as the digging action of the 
spade. 

In reference to its history, the plow has been used 
in some form since man left his pastoral state. Illus¬ 
trations of it are cut in the ancient monuments of 
Egypt, and Moses mentions it in the Bible. It was 
first a very rude and simple implement, and it long 
retained its primitive character among seyii-barbarous 
tribes, but seems to have become speedily improved 
among the most enlightened nations. Some old 
representations of it on coins and monuments exhibit 
it as a mere wedge, with a short beam and a crooked 
handle; but accounts of it in the sacred and classical 
writings imply that among the Israelites, the Greeks 
and the Romans, it was generally known and used as 
an implement of considerable complication and of 
great power. Some improvements were made during 
the different centuries, but it has been left for America 
to make the most rapid strides in improving the plow, 
as well as other agricultural implements. During the 
last fifty years greater advances have been made than 
ever before. 

Farm implements and machines for working the 
soil should be, as far as possible, simple and stout, 
because they mostly meet with an irregular resist¬ 
ance consisting of hard and soft soil and stones 


variously mixed together. A complex machine that 
meets with occasional severe obstruction, receives a 
blow like that of a sledge, and when this is repeated 
frequently the probability is that some part will be 
bent, twisted, knocked out of place or broken. If the 
machine be light, the chances are in its favor; but if 
heavy, its momentum is such that it can scarcely 
escape injury. 

Every plow should do good work and do it easily. 
The inversion of the soil, especially if incumbered 
with vegetable growth, should be complete and per¬ 
fect ; and the mass of earth thus inverted should be 
left as thoroughly pulverized as practicable, instead of 
being laid over in a solid, unmoved mass. 

The jxiint and cutting edge of a plow perform the 
first work in separating the furrow-slice from the land. 
It is important that this edge should not only do the 
work well, but with the greatest possible ease to the 
team. The force required to perform this cutting_ is 
55 per cent., over one-half of the draft. The point 
or share should therefore be kept sharp and form as 
acute an angle as practicable. Some plows which 
otherwise work well are hard to draw because the 
edge, being made too thick or obtuse, raises the earth 
abruptly. Where stones or other obstructions exist in 
the soil it is important that the line of the cutting edge 
form an acute angle or sharp wedge with the land-side. 
It will then crowd these obstructions aside, and pass 
them with greater ease than when formed more ob¬ 
tuse, for the same reason that a sharp boat_ moves 
more freely through the water than one that is blunt 
or obtuse. But when the soil is free from stones 
or obstructions, or is filled with small roots the sharp¬ 
ness of the edge is more important than its form. 

A prominent difference between the good and bad 
plows result from the form of the mold-board. To 
understand the best form it must be observed that 
the slice is first cut by the forward edge of the plow, 
and then one side is gradually raised until completely 
turned over, or bottom side up. To do this, the 
mold-board must combine the two properties of the 
wedge and the screw. 

The cutting part of the plow may be improperly 
formed like the square end of a chisel, and the sod 
may slide backward on a rise, with a very slight turn 
until elevated to considerable height before inversion; 
this must require more force of a team and make the 
plow hard to hold on account of the side pressure. 

The share should also be placed so as to cut the 
slice to an equal thickness on each side. Some plows 
are made so as to cut deepest on the land-side, form¬ 
ing a sort of saw-teeth section to the removed earth 
below, and leaving what is called crested or acute 
ridges at the top. Such plowing requires as much 
force in cutting the slice, and nearly as much in turn¬ 
ing it over, as when level furrows are made, and 
should therefore be avoided. The same result is pro¬ 
duced when the plow is unproperly gauged, and the 
plowman is compelled to press the handles to the left 
to keep it from running too much to land, which 
makes it too laborious for both man and team. 














PL O IPS. 


1027 


Varieties. In olden times one plow did all 
kinds of work; now a farmer can have a plow 
adapted to his varied wants; for to-day plows 
are manufactured for every kind of soil, to do any 
kind of work desired, in any manner or location. 



Fig. .1. —Stubble Plozu. 

We have endeavored to illustrate in this article the 
varieties of plows, giving a short description of 
them and their uses. 

Fig. I rep¬ 
resents a good 
specimen of a 
standard 
stubble plow, 
with wood 
beam,and 
peculiarly 
adapted to 
light soils, 
which it thor¬ 
oughly pul¬ 
verizes. It 
has a hard¬ 
ened iron-center steel mold, hardened slip share, 
patent wrought frog and handle brace, both right 
and left hand, and a cajDped standard. 

Fig. 3 represents an excellent “general-pur¬ 
pose ” plow made by the Long & Allstatter Co., 
Hamilton, O. The cut exhibits a patent coulter 



Fig. 3. — Timber-Land Plovi. 


and weed hook attached. The plow is double- 
shinned, made of hardened steel, has a liberal 
clearance at the throat, and is well adapted to all 
kinds of heavy work. 


The “ timber-land ” plow (Fig. 3) is right or 
left hand, has a malleable iron standard, high land- 
side, double shin, strapj^ed beam, knee cutter and 
patent wrought frog. Adjustable for either two 
or three horses. This plow is built with particular 
reference to strength, and is well adapted to timber 
or hazel-brush lands and heavy soil. 



Fig. 4. —Iron Beam Plox'j. 


good specimen of the iron-beam 

style. It is 
strong and 
steady, while 
it gives great 
clearance un¬ 
der the beam 
to weeds, 
stubble, grass 
and brush, 
and is adjust¬ 
able for two 
or three 
horses. 

The illus¬ 
trations of 
the various kinds and styles of plows given in this 
article, with a few exceptions, are taken from those 
manufactured by Deere & Co., Moline, Ill., their 
plows being standard throughout the United States. 



Fig. ^.—Prairie Breaker. 


Fig. 5 is light and strong, and turns a flat 
furrow with very light draft, and is used for break¬ 
ing prairie. It has a capped standard, hardened 
iron-center steel mold, unhardened steel slip share, 
jDatent wrought frog, with rolling cutter, gauge 
wheel and extra share, right and left hand. 


Fig. 4 is a 



Fig. 3. —Hand Plow for General Purposes. 

















































1028 


PA OH'S. 



Fig. 6 . —Another Breaker. 


Fig. 6 Is used for breaking where the sod is 
light. Its peculiarity consists in being stocked 
with draft rod and dial clevis, and in the shortness 
of cutting angle and flatness of share. It is of the 
same general construction as Fig. 3, except in 
points indicated. 



Fig. 7. —A Road Plow. 


Fig. 7 is an extra strong plow, for four or six 
horses, and is well adapted to road-grading. 



Fig. 'S,.—'‘Wisconsin" Breaker. 


The « Wisconsin” breaker (Fig. 8) has a long, 
heavy land-side bar, welded to a share, heavy shoe 
cutter, with or without a gauge wheel. 



Fig. ^.—Hillside Plovj, Moldboard SUe. 


Fig. 9 has a cast-steel share and mold, strong 
iron frame; suitable for two horses, and will turn 
a 12, 13 or 14 inch furrow, according to the nature 
of the soil and steepness of incline. 

The hillside plow (Fig. 10) has a swivel mold- 
board, which is readily turned at each end of the 
furrow converting the plow alternately into a 



Fig. xo.— Hillside Plow, Land-side View. 


right-hand and a left-hand plow, thus enabling one 
to retrace the furrows and turn all the soil dovA n 
hill. 



Fig. II. —Titrf and Stiihhle Ploza. 

Fig. II represents the best form of a turf and 
stubble plow for heavy and tenacious clay. 



Fig. 12 .—“ Lister ” Plow. 


The “ Lister” Plow (Fig. 12) is one of the best 
for preparing ground for drilling corn, as it throws 
the earth each way equally and tears up the bot¬ 
tom by a small sub-soiler. Often supersedes 
spring plowing. 



Fig. XT,.— Michigan Double Sod and Trench Plow. 


The Double Jvllchigan Plow (Fig. 13) is ac¬ 
knowledged to be the very best plow in deep soils, 
where thorough cultivation or trenching is desired. 
The forward plow, called the “ skim ” plow. 





























































PLOWS. 


1029 


raises and partly turns over the top of the soil, and the 
hinder plow brings up the subsoil, and, completely 
inverting the whole, jDlaces the subsoil on top, 
leaving the seed-bed mellow and deep. This plow 
requires a four-horse team. 



Fig. 14. —Subsoil Plow. 


Fig. 14 is a subsoil plow intended to follow an 
ordinary old-ground plow, loosening up and 
exposing the subsoil to atmospheric influences to 
the depth of 10 to 14 inches, and leaving the 
ground in best condition to I'etain moisture, and 
the crop to withstand drought. Where the sub¬ 
soil is inferior in fertility to the top, this mode of 
treatment is preferable to trench plowing. IMuch 
used by nurserymen for root-pruning, and for pre¬ 
paring soil for the cultivation of grapes. It 
requires a team of three or four horses. 

There are other varieties of single plows, not 
much used, especially in the West, as the shanked 
subsoiler (several varieties), paring plow, mole 
plow and others. An adjustable ditching plow is 
made, which saves a great amount of labor. 



P'lG. 15.—“ Highlander ” Plow. 

The “Highlander” (Fig. r5) is made for 
heavy land, timothy sod, etc. It has a long, easy 
turn of mold, light draft, and inverts stubble com¬ 
pletely without “ flirting,” leaving “ readable ” 
furrows to be pulverized by the harrow. Made 
of the same materials as (Fig. 25) and with 
the same modern improvements in all details. 

Sulky Plows. One of the greatest improve¬ 
ments is the riding or “sulky” plow, which is 
now coming into general use, especially in the free 
soil of certain Western localities. There are sev¬ 
eral styles of these plows, differing in details, but 


all agreeing in having the plow-beam furnished 
with wheels, with a seat for the driver, while the 
form and manner of attachment of the plow and 
coulter, and the control of the working are pecul¬ 
iar to each different style. Those who have stud¬ 
ied the mechanics of plowing, find that a large 
share of the power of the team, some say one- 
third, is exerted in overcoming the friction of the 
plow on the bottom and sides of the furrow; by 
supporting the plow upon wheels this friction is 
largely removed, the weight of the plow being 
mainly supported by the wheels. The force re¬ 
quired to cut the furrow slice is, with ordinary 
plows, estimated at one-half of the draught. In 
the sulky plows, great care is taken to use sharp- 
edged coulters of the most serviceable form. An 



Fig. 16. —Gilpin Sulky Plotv. 

excellent example of this plow is the Gilpin sulky 
plow, made by John Deere & Co., and which is 
illustrated in the annexed cut. This style has but 
one lever, is easy to operate, is adjustable to hill¬ 
side work, to various depths, etc., and will turn 
under stalks and weeds very nicely. 

With sufficient power one man can run a set of 
jdIows at once. Thus united they are considered a 
single apparatus or machine, and denominated the 

“gang plow.” 
Even a sulky 
gang plow (Fig. 
17) has been con¬ 
structed, which 
operates well. It 
is all made of iron 
and steel, and is 
quite durable. 

Its ingenious 
construction and 
simplicity are 
shown in the fact 
Fig. I'j.—Gang Plow. lever 









































1030 


PLOWS. 


it is operated to any required depth, opens up the 
first furrow and finishes the land by simply mo^•- 
in" the lever from one notch to another, the plows 
maintaining a level position at all depths; and by 
pressing the same lever outward until it locks into 
a lug on the hub, the plows are lifted clear of the 
ground by a half revolution of the wheel. 

It is of very light draft, as has been proved in 
many dynamometer tests; and the many farmers 
having them in use have become satisfied, by com¬ 
parative team tests, that no draft is added by the 
weight of frame and driver; and this is accounted 
for by the well-known fact that a heavy load can 







CTIl 



m IW 


Fig, 19. —Sulky Plow. 


bolted to the 
beam cast- 
ing; 65, loop 
bolted to 
brace in the 
plow bottom 
and having a 
b r e a k - p i n 
near the ends 
which gives 
wav when 
striking ob¬ 
structions. 





Fig. iS .—The Plow Sulky. 


be carried on wheels easier than a lighter one can 

o 

be drasrsred on the gfiound. 

The “ Buckeye ” plow sulk}^ (Fig iS) is one that 
can be attached to any plow, made for the purpose 
by P. P. Mast & Co., Springfield, O. It is said to 
work well, even on rough ground, and that with 
it the plowman can turn a square corner. It can 
also be used with three horses as well as with two. 

The Hughes sulky plow (Fig. 19), made by the 
Long Sl Allstatter Co., Hamilton, O., is a good 
arrangement, being simple, easy-working and 
stout. A subsoiler attachment (Fig. 20) is furnished, 
with these points: 61, blade; 62, standard with 
holes to regulate the depth; 63, angle piece which 
prevents accident from side movement; 64, is 



Fig. 20.—Subsoiler for Sulky Plow. 


The soil is not 
thrown to the 
surface. By 
its use an or¬ 
dinary three 
horse tea m 
with one of 
“Hughes”rid- 
ing plov, s can 
turn a furrow 
six inches deep 
and subsoil 
from four to 
six inches 
more, t h u s 












































































































PLOWS. 


1031 





plowing the ground thoroughly from ten to twelve 
inches deep with less draft than seven inches can be 
reached with most other plows. 

The plow and pulverizer (Fig. 3i) is indeed a 
“revolutionary” farm implement, “ turning over ” 
the sod most completely, thoroughly pulverizing 
and aerating it, burying the weeds and leaving a 
fine seed bed,—all in one operation. It is claimed 
that less team power is required to produce a 
given quantity and degree of mellow ground by 
this machine than by any other process, as for 
instance the common plow and harrow separately, 
and that therefore both time and labor are also 
saved to a considerable extent. There are no cogs 
or other weak parts to get out of order, the ma¬ 
chine is adapted to drilling in seed, and applying 
fertilizers at the same time that it breaks and pul- 
•verizes the land. The plows are quickl}'^ elevated 
by a simple lever, and the whole easily turns to and 
from the fields on its own wheels. It is made by the 
Sackett Plow and Pulverizer Company, New York. 

Screw Pulverizer. The office of the plow 
is to turn over and stir the soil; to do this in some 
better and more effective manner than with the 
plow, has been the object 
of several inventors. One 
sought to accomplish this 
by means of revolving 
disks, and though this 
seemed full of promise at 
fii’st, nothing has been 
heard of it for several 
years. The only inven¬ 
tion for “plowing” other 
than with the plow, 
which to our knowledge 
has reached that point 
when it is offeied for 
sale, is the Chicago Screw 
Pulverizer. The engrav¬ 
ing (Fig. 23) shows suffi¬ 
ciently the general struct¬ 
ure of the implement 
or machine; this has a 
screw-shaped blade, which must cut up and turn 
over the soil in a most effective manner. For 
breaking up prairie sod, and for preparing the 

land for the 
w h ol e s a 1 e 
cultivation of 
wheat and 


Fig. 23. —Pony Plow. 


izer seems to have made for itself a place in the 
agriculture of the Western and Southern States, 
including Texas. How far it may be useful on 
the farms of the older States, is yet to be shown, 
but the evidence as to its utility elsewhere is 
abundant and interesting. It is but a few years 
ago—within the memory of most of our readers— 
that the scythe was superseded by the mowing 
machine. That the plow will give place to some 
other implement, we do not doubt, and this “Chi¬ 
cago Pulverizer” looks as if a long step had been 
made in that direction, and the implement appears 
to be an improvement of real value. 

Cultivating Plows. Figs. 23, 24 and 25 rep¬ 
resent cultivating plows which are well adapted 


Fig. 22. — Screz’j Pulverizer. 


corn, so com¬ 
mon in the 
W e s t e r n 
States, this 
p u 1V e r i z er 
seems admir¬ 
ably adapted. 
The pulver¬ 


Fig. 21. —Plovj and Pulverizer. 

to deep cultivation and to work in hard or weedy 
ground. Some of these patterns have beaded 







































1032 


FLO WING. 


steel-heeled land-sides, hardened iron-center steel 
molds, patent wrought frog, cast-steel slip shares, 
etc. 

The double diamond plow is just the thing to 
throw the earth from the young corn both ways at 



Fig. 24^. —Corn PIov.’, 


once, enabling the plowman to get over twice as 
much ground as with a single diamond. 

All diamond plows are really breaking plows 
so far as they go, made small or narrow so as to 
work between rows of plants. They are just the 



Fig. 25. —Small Stirring Plotv. 

plows, therefore, to tear up the ground deep, or 
shave off stout weeds at the surfoce of the ground; 
but the farmer must ever bear in mind that they 
must necessarily kul to do what other implements 
are made to do, namely, pulverize the earth and 
leave it level. They aVe of but little use, there- 



Fig. 2.6—Double Diamond Corn Ploav. 


fore, in wet or cloddy ground. Every farmer ill 
find it often to his advantage to have one of these 
plows on the farm. While they cannot take the 
place of pulverizing plows, or light cultivators, 
the work of the diamond plow cannot be done by 
other implements. 



Fig. 27.— Single-Shovel Plow. 


The shovel plow series commences with the 
single shovel (Fig. 27), and increases in number of 



blades (Figs. 28, etc.) until it becomes what we call 
a “ Cultivator ” (which see), and gradually passes 
from that into the Harrow (which see). 



Fig. 29. — Double-Shovel Breahpin Plow. 


Plowing. In the article Plow, above, many 
principles were of necessity inculcated which es¬ 
sentially underlie the art of plowing, but they all 
come under the head of Plow as an apparatus or 
machine. We endeavor to make this article com¬ 
plete by explaining everything of importance that 
relates to the manipulation of the plow, or the art 
of plowing. As to fall and spring plowing, deep 
and shallow plowing, etc., the wisdom of any par¬ 
ticular course depends upon the circumstances of 
the case. It is a wise, general rule, however, to 
plow when the soil is in good condition, he it fall, 
winter or early spring. Plow in the fall if po.s- 
sible, especiallv green sward, because: 1. The sod 
rots during winter, thus fertilizing the soil for the 
coming crop; 2. The pulverizing effect of frost is 
fully realized; 3. The team and plowman can 
work easier in the comfortable autumn days; 4. 





















































PL O WING. 


1033 


There is less huirv than in the spring; 5. The ac¬ 
tion of the atmosphere upon the soil for a longer 
time is beneficial; 6. Dry land does not suffer so 
much from drouth, and wet land may be worked 
on earlier in the spring. 

On the other hand the following difficulties in 
fall plowing are met with: 1. It favors the spring¬ 
ing up of weeds, necessitating replowing in spring; 
2. Fall rains, should they be heavy, will pack the 
surface of clay soils, which the frost that follows 
does not always relieve, and never if pressed dur¬ 
ing the winter by a deep snow; 3. In this case the 
soil turns up rough in the spring, and generally is 
too wet and sticky, effects which the land will 
show for a year or two. 

These objections do not apply to light soils. 
The practical farmer will be able to decide for 
himself. He must know his soil, and much, too, 
depends upon the season and latitude. Whenever 
it is possible to do the plowing during the winter 
and early spring—before freezing and thawing is 
over—-it should be done, because every day then 
is so much gained, and saves an equal number for 
the busy season. In other words, it puts you so 
many days ahead with your work, and you can 
keep so much ahead throughout the season. 

Plow deeply—the deeper the better—never less 
than 6 to 10 inches. If you have been plowing 
but 4 inches this year do not go down 8 inches 
next, unless you have a rich loam. In clayey soil 
go a little deeper each year, and give the virgin 
soil the benefit of the air, rain and frost. vSink the 
plow gradually to its greatest depth, and you have 
a deep surface soil, which is better from any point 
of view than a shallow one. In subsoil plowing 
the plow may be made to reach from six to 
eigfhteen inches below the bottom of the furrow 

O _ 

made by the surface plow. The depth is regulated 
by the clevis, and depends upon the strength of the 
team. It is a difficult plow to hold aud to pull, 
but a few hours’ experience will master it. In a 
soil well underdrained, either naturallv or artifi¬ 
cially, subsoiling has a most beneficial and lasting 
effect. Upon land which needs draining no per¬ 
manent benefit is derived. A run-down, or hide¬ 
bound meadow or pasture may often be restored 
to usefulness without the expense of breaking up, 
by running a large, single subsoil plow under it, a 
foot deep and two feet apart. Apply a top-dress¬ 
ing, and roll the fields after the subsoil plow has 
done its work. 

To adjust the plow so that it will cut a furrow 
with the least draft to the team aud the least 
exertion to the plowman, the team must be hitched 
as close to the plow as it can be and not have the 
whiffle-trees hit their heels in turning at the cor¬ 
ners. As the length of the traces is increased, in 
plowing, the draft increases. Now put the con¬ 
necting ring, or link, or dial clevis, at the end of 


the beam, in the lowest notch, and if it will not 
run deep enough, raise it another notch at a time 
until it will run just deep enough. Next, alter the 
clevis from right or left, as may be necessary, until 
the plow will cut a furrow-slice just wide enough 
to turn it over well. If the plow crowds the fur¬ 
row-slice without turning it over, it shows that the 
furrow-slice is too narrow for its depth, and the 
plow must be adjusted to cut a wider slice. On 
the contrary, if the plowman is obliged to con¬ 
stantly push the furrow-slice over with his foot, 
and the ground he is plowing be very smooth and 
even, it shows that the mold-board is too narrow, 
or not sufficiently spiral. Sometimes, by adjust¬ 
ing a plow to run an inch deeper, it will do very 
bad work; and sometimes it is necessary to adjust 
it to cut a little wider, or a little narrower, before it 
will cut the furrow-slice as well as it ought to be 
cut. When a good plow is correctly adjusted it 
will glide along, where there are no obstructions, 
without being held, for many rods. When a plow 
is constantly inclined to fall over one way or the 
other, and the plowman must hold it up all the 
while, to keep it erect, there is either an imper¬ 
fection in the plow, or it is not adjusted correctly. 
When a plow '•''tips up behind^ and does not keep 
down flat on its sole, or when it seems to run all 
on the point, either the point is too blunt, or is 
worn off too much on the under side, or there is 
not “dip enough”—pitching the plow downward 
to the point. 

To make a plow run deeper, raise the whiffle- 
trees at the end of the beam one or more 
notches higher in the clevis, or lengthen the 
draft chains. To make it run more shallow, 
lower the draft a notch or more in the clevis, 
or shorten the draft chains; or, which should 
never be done, shorten the back-bands or hip- 
straps of the harness. To make a plow take a 
wider furrow-slice, carry the connecting point one 
or more notches in the clevis to the right-hand. 
A notch or two to the left-hand will make a 
plow cut a narrower furrow-slice. Or, which is 
seldom allowable, a plow may be made to run 
more shallow by putting the gauge-wheel lower, 
so as to raise the end of the beam; and a plow 
may be made to cut a narrower furrow-slice 
by carrying the handle to the left hand, or wider 
bv carrving and holding them to the right, beyond 
an erect position, neither of which is allowable 
except for a temporary purpose. 

The practice of using three horses for plowing 
possesses such advantages that it is rapidly extend¬ 
ing among fiirmers. Two horses .'done are hardly 
strong enough for such deep and thprough work 
as the hest farming commonly requires; and a 
single jilowman can cut a wider and deeper fur¬ 
row with three horses, and consequently do more 
work in a day. When four are employed, an 







1034 


FLO\V-SHARE—PLUM. 


additional hand for driving is commonly necessary; 
and another disadvantage is, that the two forward 
horses, being at a distance from the plow, draw on a 
nearly horizontal line, and with much of the waste of 
^xjwer resulting from a line of draught in so unfavor¬ 
able a direction. 

In plowing an acre the distance traveled is as fol¬ 
lows: 8-inch furrow, miles; 9-inch furrow, ii 

miles; lo-inch furrow, 9 9-10 miles; ii-inch furrow, 
9 miles; 12-inch furrow, miles. In cutting a 
9-inch furrow, the time required for an acre, going at 
the rate of miles an hour, is 7 hours and 20 min¬ 
utes; \yl miles, 614 hours; 2^4 miles, 4 hours; 3^ 
miles, 3 hours and eight minutes. 

In plowing no considerable time is lost in turning 
corners, as the following table shows. Notice that in 
the shortest furrow given in the table more time is re¬ 
quired in turning than in plowing: 


Length 

of 

Furrow 

Breadth 

of 

F urrow. 

Hours 

of 

Work. 

Time Lost 
in 

Turning. 

Time Devoted 
to 

Plowing. 

234 feet. 

10 inches- 

10 

5 hours 11 minutes 

4 hours 14 minutes. 

447 feet. 

10 inches. 

10 

2 hours 44 minutes. 

7 hours 16 minutes. 

600 feet* 

10 inches. 

10 

2 hours I minute. 

7 hours 59 minutes. 

636 feet. 

10 inches. 

10 

I hour 56}^ minutes. 

8 hours 3/4 minutes. 

822 feet. 

10 inches. 

10 

I hour 28 minutes. 

8 hours 32 minutes. 


Plow-share, plow-shoe, or plow point, the front part, 
which has the edge for cutting the ground under¬ 
neath. 


Plum. The plum has been cultivated in Europe 
for many centuries. The Damson, a leading variety, 
takes its name from Damascus, where it grows in 
great quantities, and from whence it was taken 
into Italy as early as 114 B. C. Good native plums 
used to be abundant in the West, but at the present 
day we are entirely dei>endent on cultivation for this 
luscious fruit, and even then there is generally a fail¬ 
ure, mainly on account of the curculio. In the 
vicinity of Bristol, in Northern Indiana, good plums 
are raised in great abundance. Dried plums are 
called prunes. 

Propagation and Culture. Sow the seeds of 
any free-growing variety, not the Damsons, and bud 
them when two years old, with finer sorts; plant the 
stone as soon as gathered, sowing in broad drills as 
peas, about an inch and a half deep. In good soil 
the seedlings will reach 18 inches to two feet high the 
next season, and in the autumn or ensuing spring 
they may be taken from the seed beds, their tap-roots 
reduced, and all that are of suitable size planted at 
once in the nursery rows, the smaller ones being 
thickly bedded until after another season’s growth. 
The stocks planted out in the nursery will ordinarily 
be ready for grafting or budding about the ensuing 
mid-summer; the buds should be taken as soon as 
they are sufficiently firm; insert them on the north 
side of the stock, and tie the bandage more tightly 
than for other trees. In selecting scions, examine to 
see whether they have been winter-killed or injured by 
the weather of the previous season. Grafting by 


scions is done in April. Seedlings under the trees 
havd often been taken up for suckers, and in this way 
many spurious varieties have been propagated. For 
dwarfing, the seedlings of the Mirabelle are chiefly 
emploved. Open standard culture is the universal 
mode in America, as the plum is one of the hardiest 
of fruit trees. It requires little or no pruning beyond 
that of thinning out a crowded head or taking away 
decayed or broken branches, and this should be done 
before mid-summer, to prevent the flow of gum. Old 
trees which have become barren may be renovated by 
heading them in pretty severely, covering the wounds 
with a solution of gum shellac and giving them a good 
top-dressing at the roots. In cultivation, however, be 
careful not to tear the roots, as the tree is so liable to 
sprout, especially the later sorts. 

The best soil is a heavy clay loam in a wooded sec¬ 
tion of country : in prairie soil the trees are liable to 
winter-kill. While they need a great deal of moisture, 
and constantly, the ground should be well drained, 
like the bank of a stream where we see the native 
plum in its greatest perfection. In very sandy soil 
the curculio is worse, but a modicum of sand is good. 
A soil which is light and sandy it is well to prepare 
by adding pure yellow loam or clay. A ery heavy clay 
burned slowly by mixing it in large heaps with brush 
or fagots, is at once an admirable manure and alterative 
for such soils. Swamp muck is also one of the best 
substances, especially that from salt-water marshes. 
Common salt is a good fertilizer for a plum orchard. 
Be careful not to stimulate the plum to too rapid 
growth by high cultivation. Fertility of the tree is 
often induced by cutting out a narrow ring of bark, 
or by driving nails into it. 

Insects and Diseases. The curculio does more 
harm to the plum than all other insects and diseases 
together, and is a pest so persistent and successful 
that most people are discouraged from raising this 
fruit at all. About a week after the blossoms have 
fallen this small, dark brown beetle begins its work 
of puncturing the young fruit near the stem, making 
a kind of crescent-shaped wound, in which it lays its 
eggs. If it finds that the little plum has already been 
visited by one of its species it will go to another; 
hence all the fruit is soon punctured. The insect is 
so small and shy that unless we watch it closely it 
will escape our notice; but if we strike or shake the 
tree suddenly it will fall in considerable numbers upon 
the ground, drawn up as if dead, resembling a ripe 
hemp-seed. From the first of April until in August 
this insect may be found, but its depredations are 
mostly limited to May, June and July. The remedies 
are, at first the chip trap during the flowering season, 
then the intercepter, which is a mass of raw cotton 
fixed around the trunk of the tree with stiff, coarse 
paper and twine so as to catch the beetle as he crawls 
up the tree; but, most reliable of all, jarring the tree 
and catching the insect upon a sheet spread out be¬ 
low and killing it. This work, to be entirely success¬ 
ful, should be commenced before the blossoms fall. 
Take a sheet about nine feet square, stretched over a 

































$ 





























PLUM. 


frame, with a slot from one side to the center to ad¬ 
mit the body of the tree, and this mounted on low 
block wheels; this is run under the tree, as indicated, 
and the large limbs one after another are jarred by a 
long-handled mallet which has cloth or rubber fastened 
over the face to prevent its bruising the bark; pick 
up the curculio and kill them as fast as they fall. 
Two hands can go over a hundred trees in about two 
hours; but this work has to be attended to two or 
three times a day for about three weeks, then once or 
twice a day for three weeks more, according to the 
weather, then three times a week until the first week 
in August. This is a great task, but where every¬ 
thing else is favorable for a good crop of plums one 
will be abundantly rewarded for his trouble. The 
young plums that drop to the ground wounded with 
the insect should be picked up and destroyed. The 
first that fall, however, are generally so small that it 
is too tedious to gather them. To keep tlie ground 
enriched with plum material, some orchardists scald 
these plums and throw them back under the trees. 
Some persons have been successful with the coal-tar 
smudge under the trees; probably this remedy would 
always be successful if thoroughly and persistently 
applied, at the proper times and for the whole period 
of exposure. 

The plum-gouger bores a small round hole in the 
plum, deposits eggs, which hatch out there and the 
young find their way to the kernel and kill the fruit. 
Remedy: Coal-tar smudge. 

Next to the curculio, the greatest obstacle in plum 
culture is the disease called the black knot, the 
knots, or black gum. In some parts of the country it 
has destroyed the whole race of plum trees. The 
bark first becomes swollen, afterward bursts and at 
length assumes the appearance of large, irregular, 
black lumps, with a hard, cracked, uneven surface, 
quite dry within. Purple-fruited varieties seem to be 
most subject to this disease. The cause of this malady 
is not well understood, but the remedy consists simply 
in looking up the affected parts as early in the spring 
as possible, cutting out and burning them, or, if the 
tree is very badly affected, destroying it utterly. Even 

then, for the coniplet- 
est success, all the 
neighbors should do 
likewise, that the pesti¬ 
lence bred on their 
farms do not spread 
around and become 
a public plague. 

Leaf blight, leaf rust 
and rot are also dis¬ 
eases of the plum that 
are sometimes a lit¬ 
tle serious. No special 
remedy other than general good care can be relied 
on as protectives against them. 

Varieties. The following list comprises the best for 
cultivation throughout the North. 


1037 


Chickasaw. This is a native wild species, and 
does best grafted in April on wild stocks. It is some¬ 
times called the sloe. The fruit is about three-fourths 
of an inch in diameter, round, red or yellowish-red, 
of a pleasant sub-acid flavor, and ripens pretty early; 
skin thin; branches thorny, head rather bushy, and 
leaves somewhat narrow, appearing at a distance like 
those of a peach-tree. The full height of the tree is 
about 12 to 14 feet. 

Damson. Small, oval, about an inch long, purple, 
covered with thick blue bloom, melting and juicy, 
rather tart, separates partially from the stone ; Sep¬ 
tember. Tree enormously productive, but a slow 
grower and subject to the knots; branches slender, 
a little thorny and downy. Best cooking, good mar¬ 
ket, but rather inferior as a dessert. 

De Soto. A comparatively new variety, but prom¬ 
ises well; more like the European than any other; 
fruit about the size of the Miner, is a clingstone, 
bright red when ripe, and matures two to four weeks 
before the Miner; rich, delicious flavor, and the tree 
an excellent bearer. 

German Prune, Common Quetsche, Damask, etc. 
Long oval, nearly two inches long, peculiarly swollen 
on one side and drawn out toward the stem ; suture 
distinctly marked; skin purple, with a thick blue 
bloom; stem three-fourths of an inch long, slender; 
flesh firm, green, sweet, and pleasant; separates from 
the stone, which is flat, very long and a little curved ; 
good dessert, cooking and market; middle of Septem¬ 
ber. Valued for preserving and drying. Fruit hangs 
long on the tree, which is an abundant bearer. 
Branches smooth. 

Coe’s Golden Drop, Golden Gage, etc. Very large, 
oval, with a well marked suture, light yellow, with a 
number of rich, dark red spots on the sunny side; 
stem nearly an inch long, rather stiff; flesh yellow, 
rather firm, adhering closely to the stone, which is 
quite pointed; good dessert and cooking, very good 
market; early September; a beautiful and excellent 
plum; does not ripen well in the North. Tree mod¬ 
erately vigorous, productive; branches smooth. 

Green Gage. Rather small, round ; suture faint; 
skin green or yellowish-green at full maturity, when 
it is often a little dotted or marbled with red ; stem 
half to three-fourths of an inch long, slender; flesh 
pale green, exceedingly melting and juicy, freestone, 
sprightly and luscious, best de.s.sert, very good cook¬ 
ing and poor market; early August; the standard of 
quality among plums. Tree is a slow grower, should 
be grafted into the Miner; is an abundant and regu¬ 
lar bearer, though in wet seasons the fruit is liable to 
crack. Branches smooth ; buds with large shoulders. 

Harris. Freestone, ripens a month earlier than 
the Miner, has a leaf more peach-shaped, pointed and 
thin, but in other respects like the Miner. 

Imperial Gage. Large, oval, suture distinct, stem 
nearly an inch long, slightly hairy and pretty stout; 
cavity even; pale green until fully ripe, when it is 
tinged with yellow, showing a peculiar marbling of 
dull green stripes and covered with copious white 



P.’unt Curculio. 









FL UNGE—POISONING. 


1038 


bloom; flesh greenish, very juicy, rich, agreeable, best 
dessert, cooking and ma-rket, September. Tree a 
rapid grower, and has long, dark shoots, slightly downy. 

Italian Prune. Medium, oval, suture moderate, 
dark blue, with a bloom; stem an inch long, rather 
stout; cavity small; flesh dark yellow, juicy, sweet, 
fair dessert, and good cooking and market, October. 
Tree vigorous, spreading; branches smooth. 

Lombard, Bleecker’s Scarlet, Beekman’s Scarlet. 
Medium, roundish oval, slightly flattened at either 
end; suture obscure; stem quite slender, scarcely 
three-fourths of an inch long; cavity broad and 
abruptly narrowed; skin delicate, violet red and dust¬ 
ed thinly with bloom; flesh deep yellow, pleasant, 
but not rich, clingstone, fair dessert, best cooking and 
market, beginning of September. Tree vigorous, 
hardy and productive. The leading market variety. 

Miner, or Hinckley. Medium size, oblong pointed 
at the apex, dark, purplish red, with a fine bloom,soft 1 
juicy, vinous, clingstone, excellent, early October; an 
improved and hardy variety of the Chickasaw; 
branches smooth, dark red. Propagated from pits, it 
will produce an endless variety, and the tree should 
then be propagated by grafting or budding, A slight 
frost, or cold winds, cast the young fruit. Mr. D. B. 
Weir, of Lacon, 111 ., thinks the Hinckley a different 
varietv from the IMiner, the former being larger, a 
little more oblong, of a dark crimson and somewhat 
mottled. 

Newman. A typical variety of the Chickasaw. 
Medium, roundish, oval, light scarlet, with a thin 
bloom, soft, light pinkish pulp, juicy, vinous, cling¬ 
stone; ripens in August. Tree hardy, healthy, vigorous 
and productive; slender grower, is a beautiful tree in 
flower and fruit; best of the Chickasaw class. 

Wild Goose. This is another improved variety of 
the Cliickasaw. Fruit nearly as large as the green 
gage, purple, with a blue bloom, juicy, sweet, cling¬ 
stone, last of July. Tree vigorous, suckers very 
persistently; leaves narrow, twigs slender. Does 
well but in few places. 

To Preserve Plums. To every pound of fruit 
allow three-quarters of a pound of sugar. Divide the 
plums, take out the stones, and put the fruit on a dish 
with pounded sugar strewed over; the next day put 
them into a preserving pan and let them simmer 
gently by the side of the fire for about thirty minutes; 
then boil them quickly, removing the scum as it rises, 
and keep them constantly stirred, or the jam will 
stick to the bottom of the pan. Crack the stones and 
add the kernels to the preserve when it boils. 

Pickling Plums. Best vinegar, i pint; sugar, 4 
pounds; plums, 8 pounds; spices to taste. Boil 
them in the mixture until soft; then take out the 
plums, and boil the sirup until quite thick and pour 
it over them again. 

Plunge. A horse is said to “plunge” when he 
leaps heavily and violently forward, in order to free 
himself from the rider. 

Plush is a woolen fabric having a sort of velvet 


nap on one side, composed regularly of a woof of a 
single woolen thread and a double warp; the one of 
wool, of two threads twisted, and the other of^ goat s 
and camel’s hair. Some plushes, in imitation of 
these, are made of other materials. 

Pneumonia, inflammation of the substance of the 
lungs. It is one of the worst kinds of inflammation, 
and is often complicated with pleurisy and^ other in¬ 
flammations of the chest. For pneumonia in the 
horse, see page 817; in cattle, see pages 213-4. 

Pod, a two-valved pericarp (the seed-enveloping 
part of a fruit) with a linear receptacle along the 
edges of which the seeds are alternately arranged. 

Podophyllin (po-do-fil'in), the medicinal principle 
extracted from the root of the May apple; see INIay 
Apple. 

Point, a feature of quality in an animal; a score 
made or counted, in any competing exercise; a stand¬ 
ing on game. 

Pointer, a dog used to locate game: see pages 
312, 334 - 5 - 

Points of Cattle: see page 181. 

Poisoning. Cases of poisoning are so common 
and so awful in their effects that we have deemed it 
proper to treat the common articles of poison, giving 
the symptoms resulting from poisoning by each, tlie 
antidotes and treatment of the patient, in their respect¬ 
ive alphabetical order, and also to give a very full 
list, with antidotes, in this connection. This will en¬ 
able a person to tell at a glance, and with the least 
possible loss of time, what are the antidotes for the 
various poisonous articles. We have very fully treated 
of the mineral, vegetable and animal poisons com¬ 
monly met with, and by which people are generally 
poisoned, in articles under their respective heads, as 
Arsenic, Mercury, Iodine,Corrosive Sublimate, etc., etc. 

When it is not known precisely what poison a per¬ 
son has swallowed, produce copious vomiting as soon 
as possible, by warm water and salt, or warm water, 
salt and ground mustard, or water alone,—anything 
to bring about vomiting. In taking warm water, be 
sure that in your haste you do not administer it so 
hot as to scald the patient. Salt and ground mustard, 
each a heaping teaspoonful in a glass of water, will 
be found a quick emetic. This should cause vomit¬ 
ing in one minute. Some of these emetics should be 
given iiumediately on its being known that a poison 
has been swallowed.' After several quarts of water 
have thus been thrown up from the stomach, give 
some bland beverage, as milk oi‘ whites of eggs, with 
water: no sugar. 

When it is known what substance the patient has 
swallowed, for acid poisons the following should, in 
general, be administered; Large draughts of chalk, 
whiting, magnesia, or soap in water, about as thick as 
cream, followed by milk and whites of eggs, mixed 
with water. Or, if these cannot be procured at once, 
warm water, salt and ground mustard. For alkaline 











V 


POISONING. 


1039 


lX)ison, as alkali, potash, soda, ammonia, etc., give 
vinegar or lemon juice, the latter in great abundance. 
In the absence of the above, an emetic, only in the 
form of pure water, may be given, in connection with 
the stomach-pump. Avoid drug emetics. 

For alkaloids, such as morphine, quinine, etc., 
emetics and the stomach-pump must be relied upon 
rather than chemical agents. Astringent liquids may 
be administered, such as tannic acid, which precipitates 
many of the alkaloids from their aqueous solution, 
absorption of the poison being thus retarded. 

After the ix)ison has been completely removed, the 
patient should be placed under appropriate treatment. 
After irritant poisons have been taken, stimulants 
and sedatives may be required. After narcotics 
strong coffee will be found useful. 

The following is a very full list of poisons with their 
antidotes. The name of the poison is given first, and 
the antidotes immediately follow: 

Acetate of Morphia. Infusion of galls; tannic 
acid; green tea; coffee; stimulants; dash of cold 
water. 

Acetic Acid. Magnesia; calcined magnesia; chalk; 
carbonate of soda. 

Aconite. Tannic acid; green tea; bromine; 
chlorine; iodine. 

Alcohol. Acetate of ammonia; common table salt. 

Alum. Carbonate of soda; carbonate of ammonia. 

Antimony. Astringents; tannic acid; alkalies. 

Arsenic. Hydrated peroxide of iron; hydrated 
magnesia. 

Arsenite of Copper. Hydrated peroxide of iron. 

Arsenic Acid. Hydrated peroxide of iron. 

Arsenious Acid. Calcined magnesia; hydrated 
peroxide of iron. 

Bee Sting. Ammonia. 

Birthwort. Calcined magnesia ; carbonate of mag¬ 
nesia. 

Bitter Almonds. Inhalations of ammonia; chlorine; 
chloroform. 

Bittersweet. Charcoal. 

Bitter Vetch. Charcoal. 

Black Cherry. Dashes of cold water, ammonia, 
chlorine or chloroform inhaled. 

Black Hellebore. Charcoal. 

Black Henbane. Bromine; chlorine; iodine; vine¬ 
gar; ammonia. 

Blue Mass. Gluten; gold ; iodine. 

Bromine. Albumen; starch; magnesia. 

Buckeye. Ammonia; alcohol. 

Calomel. Gluten; gold; iodine. 

Camphor. Emetic. 

Carbonic-Acid Gas. Ammonia inhaled, cautiously; 
dashes of cold water. 

Cheese. Charcoal; emetics. 

Cherry Lazirel. Dashes of cold water; ammonia 
inhaled ; chlorine or chloroform inhaled. 

Chloric Ether. Ammonia by inhalation. 

Chlorine Gas. Ammonia; ether by inhalation. 

Chloroform. Ammonia by inhalation; galvanic 
shocks. 


Chrome. Carbonate of potassa; carbonate of lime. 

Citric Acid. Magnesia; chalk; carbonate of soda; 
carbonate of ix)tassa; carbonate of lime. 

Crabs. Milk; mucilage. 

Crawfish. Charcoal. 

Creosote. Albumen; milk; flour. 

Cissus. Emetics. 

Croivfoot tribe. Charcoal. 

Cyanide of Potassiufn. Sulphate of iron in solution. 

Deadly Nightshade. Bromide: chlorine ; iodine; 
emetic of sulphate of zinc. 

Dogbane. Charcoal. 

Elixir of Vitriol. Magnesia; lime ; chalk; soda. 

Emetic Tartar. Tannic acid; astringent infusion; 
yellow bark; green tea. 

Fool's Parsley. Tannic acid; green tea; bromide; 
chlorine; iodine. 

Foxglove. Infusion of yellow bark ; stimulants; 
galls; tannic acid; green tea. 

Fusil Oil. Emetic. 

Fungi. Emetics of tartarized antimony. 

Gad-Fly. Solution of ammonia. 

Gnat. Solution of ammonia. 

Gold. Sulphate of iron; mucilage. 

Hartshorn. Vinegar; lemon juice; demulcents. 

Hedge Hyssop. Charcoal. 

Hemlock., Poison. Emetics. 

Hortiet. Ammonia in solution. 

Hornet Sting. Ammonia. 

Hydrophobia. Nitrate of silver; ammonia. 

Indian War Poison. Common salt; sugar. 

Iodine. Gluten ; wheat flour; starch. 

Ipecacuanha. Bromide; chlorine; iodine. 

Iron and its Salts. Carbonate of soda; carbonate of 
magnesia. 

Jhnson-weed. Bromine; iodine; vinegar; lemon 
juice. 

. Land Crab. Milk; charcoal. 

Lead and its Salts. Dilute sulphuric acid; iodide 
of potassiumsulphate of soda; sulphate of magnesia. 

London Purple. Hydrated peroxide of iron. 

Meadow Pimpernel. Charcoal; tannic acid; green 
tea. 

Mercury., and all its Oxides and Salts. Albumen; 
gluten; iodine; charcoal; coffee; ammonia. 

Mountain Ash. Charcoal. 

Muriate of Antimony. Tannic acid; green tea; 
astringent infusions; alkalies. 

Muriatic Acid. Carbonate of soda; carbonate of 
lime; carbonate of potassa; carbonate of magnesia. 

Mushrooms. Sulphate zinc emetic; common table 
salt; charcoal; chlorine. 

Narcotina. Astringents; coffee; ammonia. 

Nitrate of Silver (lunar caustic). Common table 
salt. 

Nitric Acid. Carbonate of lime; magnesia; chalk; 
carbonate of soda. 

Nitric Ether. Ammonia by inhalation. 

Nitrous Acid. Ammonia inhaled cautiously. 

Nux Vomica. Bromine; chlorine; iodine; prussic 
acid; chloroform. 


66 





1040 


POISON IVY. 


Oil of Tiirpeiitme. Ammonia. 

Oleander. Charcoal. 

Opium and its Preparations. Infusion of galls; 
astringents; coffee; magnesia; chlorine; iodine; bro¬ 
mine. 

Oxalic Acid. Carbonate of magnesia; lime; plaster 
from the ceiling. 

Paris Green. Hydrated peroxide of iron; hydrate 
magnesia. 

Phosphoric Acid. Ammonia; chlorinated water; 
magnesia; cold water. 

Poison Ivy, Oak, Sumac and Vine. Charcoal. 

Poppy. Infusion of galls; coffee; charcoal. 

Prussic Acid. Ammonia; chlorine; carbonate of 
potassa in solution, followed by sulphate of iron in 
solution; chlorinated water; stimulants. 

Ptitrid Animal Matter. Ammonia; tonics. 

Quicklime. Mineral soda water; effervescing 
draughts. 

Ratsbane. Chlorine; bromine; iodine. 

Rattlesnake. Alcohol; cinchonia; ammonia. 

Red Precipitate. Albumen; gluten, 

Scour-Grass. Chlorine. 

Silver. Common table salt. 

Snake-bites. Whisky; ammonia ; cinchonia; whorl- 
ed milkweed. 

Spanish Fly. ^Vhisky; ammonia. 

Spurred Rye. Charcoal. 

Squirting Cucujnber. Bromine ; chlorine ; iodine, 

Stavesacre. Charcoal. 

Sugar of Lead. Sulphate of magnesia; sulphate 
of soda; phosphate of soda; iodide of potassium. 

Sulphuric Acid. Magnesia; carbonate of magne¬ 
sia; carb. lime; chalk; carb. soda; whiting; milk; oil. 

Sulphuric Acid Gas. Ammonia inhaled cautiously. 

Sulphuric Ether. Ammonia by inhalation. 

Swamp Leatherwood. Chlorine; bromine; iodine. 

Tartaric Acid. Carbonate of lime; carb. mag¬ 
nesia ; plaster from the ceiling. 

Thornapple. Bromine; chlorine; iodine; vinegar; 
lemon juice. 

Tin. Albumen; flour; milk. 

Toadstool. Emetic of tartarized antimony. 

Verdigris. Albumen (egg); iron ; milk. 

Viper. Alcohol; ammonia. 

Wasp. Ammonia in solution. 

White Henbane. Charcoal; vinegar; ammonia. 

Wormseed. Emetics. 

Yellow fessamine. Ammonia; charcoal. 

Zinc. Salts of carbonate of soda; albumen; 
astringents. 

Poisoning in the horse: see pages 8i8 and 819. 

Poison Ivy and Sumac. There is a common 
belief that “ Poison Ivy” and “ Poison Sumac” are 
the same plant. While their poisonous effects are 
much alike, the two plants are very different. The 
Poison Ivy {Rhus toxicodendro/i) is a prostrate or 
climbing vine. It is also known as “ poison oak” and 
“mercury (often marcury) vine.” It presents two 
very distinct forms; the most common is a low 


spreading plant, matting itself along the ground, 
rambling over stone walls, and climbing upon fence- 
posts. The other form attaches itself to the trunks 
of trees, clinging closely by its abundant rootlets, and 
reaching the tops of the highest trees. Though very 
different in their habit of growth, no botanical differ¬ 
ence is to be found in them, and all the many forms 
are considered as varieties of the same species. This, 
while its leaves vary much in shape, has always 
compound leaves of three leaflets; that is, its leaves 
are divided into three parts; these parts differ some¬ 
what in size, and especially in outline, some having 
the margins so deeply cut as to suggest the name_ of 
“ poison oak.” As there is no other native vine 
which has its leaves divided into three parts, that is 
a very safe guide in deciding whether a suspected 
plant is poisonous or not. The common Virginia 
creeper {Afnpelopsis quinquefolid), is often unjustly 
suspected of being poisonous. Besides other very 
marked characters, the leaves of that are five-parted. 
The ivy is found almost everywhere, in the older 
States at least,—by the road-sides, along stone walls, 
in pastures, on trees at the edges of woods,—in fact, 
it is one of the most generally distributed of all our 
native plants. 

Poison Sumac, on the other hand, does not climb 
at all, but is always an erect shrub from 6 to 15 feet 
high, and noticeable for its neat and cleanly habit. 
It is always found in moist, swampy places, and is dis¬ 
tinguished from the several harmless sumacs by 
having its flowers and its berries in loose spreading 
clusters and not close upright ones, as in the harm¬ 
less species. Both the poison ivy and poison su¬ 
mac are well known for the qualities indicated by 
their names — their ability to poison. It is probable 
that a very small minority of persons are affected by 
this poison. The few are poisoned by coming into 
direct contact with the plant, while now and then a 
person is so susceptible to its influence as to be poi¬ 
soned by going near it, without actually touch¬ 
ing it. The shrub called poison sumac, also 
improperly called “dogwood,” and still more inac¬ 
curately “poison elder” (the true dogwood being 
harmless), is much more virulent than the “ ivy,” 
and is said to affect persons who are not troub¬ 
led by the vine, and its results are much more 
obstinate and difficult to cure. In poisoning the 
effects vary greatly: some are troubled by only a few 
pustules on the back of the hand and between the 
fingers; others have an eruption upon the face, arms, 
and the insides of the legs, accompanied by the most 
intolerable itching. In severe cases there is a high 
fever, and occasionally the poison is so virplent as to 
cause the face to swell and quite obliterate all the 
features, leaving just an opening for the mouth and 
completely closing the eyes. In such severe cases, 
medical aid should be called, to reduce the fever by 
proper treatment. The effects are exceedingly vari¬ 
able in different individuals, and in the great majority 
they amount to only an eruption annoying for its in¬ 
tense itching. 







POLAND CHINA—POMEGRANATE. 


1041 


Remedies for Poisoning. The great number of 
remedies that have been given show that the disease 
is very variable, and that which is useful in one case 
is not so in another. Attention to the general health, 
cooling the system by saline laxatives, such as Epsom 
or Rochelle salts, is a great help. Among the exter¬ 
nal applications that have been found useful are 
lime-water, strong salt and water, or- the application 
of wet salt, a solution of sugar of lead, etc. Various 
astringent lotions are sometimes useful. In some 
country places a strong decoction of hemlock boughs, 
or of oak leaves, have often given relief. A similar 
astringent effect is given by a solution of sulphate of 
iron (copperas) in a teacupful of hot water, applied as 
hot as can be borne. The medical journals have 
recommended first washing the parts in warm water, 
without soap, and then applying, with a brush or 
feather, the tincture of Lobelia. The fluid extract of 
the yellow jessamine {GeLemium) is said to be very 
efficacious, applied in a similar manner. Another 
medical journal highly recommends the application 
of sweet spirits of niter, first pricking any large pus¬ 
tules that may have formed. The latest remedy is 
the common “ragweed” or “Roman wormwood,” 
abundant everywhere in fields. It is said that if this 
be bruised and the juice that is squeezed from it be 
applied to the poisoned surface, the relief is very- 
marked. From the fact that every neighborhood, in 
which poisoning is frequent, has several “ sure cures,” 
it is probable that there is as much difference in yield¬ 
ing to remedies by poisoned persons as there is in the 
susceptibility of persons to the effects of the poison. 
The better way, in case of poisoning, is at once to 
take some saline purge, with due regard to diet, and 
apply such remedies as have been found useful in 
the locality. 

Poland China, a breed of Swine. See Swine. 

Polecat, a word often used to designate the skunk, 
but incorrectly so. The polecat is an.European ani¬ 
mal, never seen in America, and belongs to the weasel 
genus of the weasel family, while the skunk belongs 
to another genus of the same family. See Skunk. 

Pole Strap, or Band, the strap connecting the 
belly-band with the neck-yoke and passing between 
the fore-legs, to aid in holding back ; also a measure 
equal to i 6]4 feet. 

Polish. In connection with the respective topics, as 
Furniture, Harness, Shoes, Blacking, etc., we give the 
best methods of polishing. We add here a few mis¬ 
cellaneous items. The easiest and most economical 
wood for polishing is black walnut. In oiling it with 
linseed oil, mixing in a little gum copal will prevent 
the oil from entering the wood too much, and the 
latter will in a short time become as smooth and glossy 
as a coach body. To polish a roughened place on a 
piece of mahogany, scrape and sandpaper it, wet it 
and then rub it down with fine pumice-stone, in the 
direction of the grain, keeping the surface moist all 
the while. Let the surface dry and repeat the process 


the third time. If it is not then smooth enough, re¬ 
peat the process, with cold-drawn linseed oil instead 
of water. To jxilish a varnished surface is a tedious 
process, although simple. Put 2 ounces powdered 
Tripoli into an earthen pot or basin, with water enough 
to cover it; then, with a piece of fine flannel four 
times doubled, laid over the end of a piece of cork, 
rub the surface with the powder, regularly and pa¬ 
tiently. Rough brass must first be filed as smoothly 
as possible, then rubbed with Tripoli and linseed oil, 
as above for varnish, by means of a piece of old hat 
felt. For ebony or black rosewood, after the foregoing 
process, apply finely powdered elder coal. To polish 
marble, rub with fine sandstone and water, then finer 
stone and sand, then emery powder with a piece of 
old felt, and finally with putty powder and fine clean 
rags. As soon as a fair gloss begins to appear, con¬ 
tinue to rub with the rags without the addition of 
more powder. 

Politeness: see Etiquette. 

Pollard, a tree which has been frequently top- 
polled or headed down to form a low, brushy top; also 
the fine bran or inner husk of wheat. 

Polled, applied to certain varieties of cattle and 
denoting hornless. The terms “dodded,” “muley” 
and “ humble ” have the same signification. 

The Polled or hornless cattle is a breed but recently 
introduced in this country, although many years ago 
these hornless or muley cattle, as they were known 
among the Western farmers, were bred in some sec¬ 
tions, Among the Polled breeds of cattle there are 
several. Of these the Polled Angus or Aberdeen, 
the Suffolk, the Red Polled and the Galloways are 
being introduced in America. These are bred extens¬ 
ively in England and Scotland, the Galloways con¬ 
stituting one of the most important breeds in Scot¬ 
land. 

Pollen, the organic matter by which impregnation 
is effected in the vegetable kingdom. Though it ap¬ 
pears to the naked eye like a mere powder, yet when 
examined by the microscope it is found to consist of 
grains of definite size and shape, which are uniform 
in the same plant, but often very different in different 
species or natural families; 

Poll-Evil: see page 819. 

Pomace: see Apple Pomace. 

Pomade, a perfumed composition used in dressing 
the hair. To make, see page 634. 

Pomegranate, a small genus of ornamental plants. 
The common pomegranate is a native of Southern 
Europe, is a hardy, deciduous, small tree or tall shrub, 
and is famous for both the beauty of its flowers and 
the medicinal properties of its root, flowers and fruit. 
The juice of the fruit resembles that of the orange, 
and is pleasantly acid; it quenches thirst, and is 
agreeably cooling and gently aperient. A kind of 
orange melon, of a most delicious muskmelon fra¬ 
grance, growing on an herbaceous vine, is also known 












1042 


POMMEL—POPP Y. 


in this country as “ pomegranate.” It is of the size of 
a small orange, perfectly globular, smooth, and striped 
like a citron water-melon, but the colors are alternately 
orange and yellow. Not much raised north of lati¬ 
tude 40^’. 

Pommel (pum'l, the hinder jx^rtion or rim of a 
saddle. 

Pomology, the scientific management of orchards, 
or the scientific principles of everything connected 
with the cultivation of fruit trees. 

Pony, small horse; see page 699. 

Pop-Corn, a small species of maize, the grains of 
which when parched burst open and expand into a 
peculiar, spongy, light mass, and as an edible is a 
luxury. It is raised in a rich garden soil, on the same 
general principles as field corn is raised. The most 
popular varieties are the White, Silver-laced, Nonpa¬ 
reil, Dwarf, Golden and Egyptian. The genuine are 
the smallest-eared, as its aptness to mix with field 
corn has caused most pop-corn in the country to be¬ 
come adulterated, and such does not pop well. To 
pop this corn, it should be dry and well-seasoned; 
and many prefer to have it ix)pped in closed frying 
pans wherein is a little butter or salted lard. Ground 
l)op-corn, under the name of “snow-flake corn,” is 
now furnished to the market, in ten-cent packages and 
in barrels. It will keep good for many months, and is 
always “ ready to be eaten,”—namely, by mixing it 
cold with rich sweet milk or cream. Pop-corn balls, 
sweetened and unsweetened, are sold by street ped¬ 
dlers in all public places. 

To M.\ke Pop-Corn Balls. Make taffy of sugar 
or molasses, a pint of either to a gallon of popped 
corn. Make the taffy in a vessel large enough to stir 
the corn in it while hot; then let it cool, and make 
ball of desired shape with the hand; butter the hands 
a little to keep it from sticking. 

Another: Take a three-gallon pan and fill it nearly 
level full of popped corn, and then take a cupful of 
molasses and a little piece of butter and boil until it 
will set, or try it in cold water; just a drop will do in 
water, and if it sets then pour the molasses all around 
on the corn. Then take a large iron spoon and stir 
well; when well mixed butter your hands well and 
take some corn in both hands, as much as you can 
press well together, and you will have a large and 
splendid ball. You can use sugar in the place of mo¬ 
lasses if you wish it. 

Poplar, trees of the genus Popuhts, of the Willow 
family. White or Silver-Leaf poplar is a familiar or¬ 
namental tree. Its leaves are a brilliant silvery white 
underneath, and conspiculously exhibit this luster 
when up-turned by the breeze. The branches of the 
tree spread like those of an apple-tree, and the roots 
are so given to scion-sprouting as toconstitute a serious 
objection to the propagation of die tree in the land¬ 
scape. Lombardy poplar is admired by some for the 
landscape, but on the windy prairies of the West it 
fares hard and becomes ungainly. It excels all other 


trees in running up a tall, steeple-like top. Balsam 
poplar and the well-known balm of Gilead are two 
varieties of the same species. Much given to sprout¬ 
ing from the roots. Quaking asp or American aspen, 
two species, as well as the Necklace poplar or well- 
known Cottonwood, are also true ^xjplars. But the 
Tulip-tree is often wrongly called poplar; this be¬ 
longs to an entirely different order of trees, and is 
much used as box material and in other ways. 



Figs. I and 2 illustrate two of the more prominent 
gall lice which work upon the leaves and leaf-stems 
of poplars. The character of their work is also 



Fig. 2. —Poplur Gall Louse. 


shown, and the true size of the insects is indicated by 
crossed hair lines in the cut. The figures are fully 
explained on pages 880-1. 

Poplin, a fabric composed of a warp of silk and 
woof of worsted. Irish poplins have long been cele¬ 
brated as dress goods. 

Poppy, a showy flower which has been in cultiva¬ 
tion for many generations. The form, color and size 
are similar to the rose, but they are annuals, and are 
hardy in the Northern States. There are several 
species and many varieties. Opium is obtained from 
one species, and of course characterizes all members 


































PORK—POTASH. 


1043 


of the poppy family. Blood-root is the most common 
wild plant of this order. 

Pork, the flesh of swine after being prepared or 
cut for use. We refer the reader to page 964, where 
some general observations are made on this subject 
under the head of Pork. In the article Swine we 
treat the different breeds of hogs, their care and 
management; in the article Meat we give the modes 
of preserving meat, and in those of Bacon and Ham 
tell how pork may be pickled and smoked; therefore, 
we have here to give only the methods of cooking 
pork before it is cured, or fresh pork. Directions for 
cooking ham is given in the article on that subject. 

Roast Pork. Pork should be well done. When 
roasting a loin, cut the skin across with a sharp knife, 
otherwise the cracking is very bad to manage. A 
spare-rib should be basted with a little butter, a little 
flour and sweet herbs, or sage and onions, as best 
suits the taste. Apple-sauce should be served with 
this dish. 

To Roast a Leg of Pork. The leg to be roasted 
should not weigh more than six or seven iminds. 
Score the rind or skin with a sharp knife all around 
the joint. Baste it well. It will yield sufficient drip¬ 
ping to baste itself without butter. If the crackling 
and fat are not kept on, the joint will not require so 
long a time to roast it. Sauce: brown gravy or 
tomato. 

To Boil a Leg of Pork. Procure a nice, small, 
compact leg of pork, rub it well with salt, and let it 
remain for a week in pickle, turning and rubbing the 
pickle into it once a day. Let it lie for half an hour 
in cold water before it is dressed, to improve the color; 
then put it into a large pot, or stewpan, and well cover 
it with water. Let it boil gradually, and skim 
frequently as the scum rises. On no account let it 
boil fast, or the meat will be hardened, and the 
knuckle end will be done before the thick part. When 
done, serve it on a hot dish with a garnish of turnips 
or parsnips. 

Pork Chops. Cut the chops about half an inch 
thick, and trim them neatly; put a frying pan on the 
fire, with ‘ a bit of butter; as soon as it is hot, put in 
your chops, turning them often till brown all over; 
a few minutes before they are done, season with 
powdered sage, pepper and salt. 

Corned Pork. It should be soaked a few hours 
before boiling, then washed and scraped, and put into 
fresh water. It must not be boiled fast, but put into 
cold water, and gradually warmed through; skim 
frequently while boiling. 

A leg or shoulder, weighing seven or eight pounds, 
should boil slowly for four hours. When taken up it 
must be skinned carefully, though some prefer the 
skin remaining on, as it loses much of the juice by 
skinning. It is very nice cold. 

To Fricassee Pork. Cut a small spare-rib or 
chine of pork into pieces, cover with water and stew 
until tender; remove the meat and flavor the gravy 


with salt and pepper, and thicken with a little flour. 
Serve in a deep dish in the gravy, and garnish the 
dish with rice. 

To Roast a Pig’s Head. Boil it tender enough 
to take the bones out. Then chop some sage fine, 
mix it with pepper and salt, and rub it over the head. 
Hang it on the spit, and roast it at a good fire. 
Baste it well. Make a good gravy and pour over it. 
Apple sauce is eaten with it. 

Pig’s Head Boiled. This is the more profitable 
dish, though not So pleasant to the palate; it should 
first be salted, which is usually done by the pork 
butcher; it should be boiled gently. Serve with veg¬ 
etables. 

Pig’s Cheek. Boil and trim in the shape of ham, 
and if very fat, carve it as a cockle-shell; glaze it 
well, or put over it bread crumbs and brown them. 

Pig’s Tongues. Partially boil the tongue in order 
to remove the skin. Pickle them as you would pickle 
a ham; lay them on the top of each other under a 
heavy weight. Cover the pan in which you place 
them, and let them remain for a week, then dry them 
and put them into sausage skins. Fasten them up 
at the ends, and smoke them. 

To Roast a Pig. It should not be more than a 
month old; it is better a little less. Clean it thor¬ 
oughly and sprinkle fine salt over it an hour before it 
is to be roasted. Cut off the feet at the first joint. 
Make a dressing of bread crumbs, a little salt, pepper, 
sage, sweet marjoram, an onion chopped fine, butter, 
two eggs and a little salt pork, moistened with a little 
milk; stuff the pig with this and sew it up. When 
placed on the spit, confine the legs in such a manner 
as to give it a good shape. Rub it all over with 
butter or sweet oil to keep it from blistering; flour it 
at first a little; as soon as it begins to brown, dredge 
on more flour. Turn the spit every three or four 
minutes; if the flour falls off, instantly renew it. 
When it has all become of a dark brown color, scrape 
it off into a plate and set it aside. Put into the gravy 
in the roaster a piece of butter, and baste the pig 
very often till it is done, which it is when the eyes 
fall out. A pig' weighing nine pounds requires four 
hours to roast. The feet and liver should be boiled 
an hour or two, and the gravy from the roaster be 
poured into the water in which they were boiled. 
The liver should be cut or mashed fine, the brains 
taken out and added, and the gravy thickened with 
the browned flour scraped from the pig. A small pig 
will roast in two hours and a half. 

Porridge: see Oatmeal. 

Post, a piece of timber, stone or iron set upright as 
a stay. For fence posts see page 442, under head of 
Board Fences, and for gate posts see article on Gate. 

Potash, a chemical substance which derives its 
name from the ashes and the pots in which the lix¬ 
ivium from which it is obtained is boiled down. Some 
of its old names were vegetable alkali, salt of tartar 
and alkali of niter: see page 926, under the head of 
Laundry. 









1044 


POTATO 


Potato, a well-known tuber, i[X)pularly, though not 
with botanical correctness, considered as a root. It 
belongs to the family SolancB of Jussieu, almost all 
the species of which are of a poisonous and narcotic 
nature, as Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade), Hen¬ 
bane, etc. It is the most important vegetable cul¬ 
tivated in this country, as well as in many others. 
It is a native of South America, but was introduced 
into England from North America in 1584, and into 
Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, at the same time, he 
having procured some on his first visit to America. 
In Ireland it was more extensively cultivated and 
more relied upon for food than in any other country, and 
has consequently been known as the Irish potato. 
It was introduced into the northern portion of Europe 
in 1620, but its cultivation was not extensive until 
during the last century. The jx)tato is easy of cul¬ 
tivation and will grow in almost any cool climate. 
Humboldt states that the cultivation of the potato in 
the Andes extends to an elevation of 9,800 to 13,000 
feet higher than wheat. In the north of Europe it 
reaches beyond the limits of barley, and consequent¬ 
ly all cereals. In tropical regions, according to 
Johnson’s Physical Atlas, an elevation of 4,000 feet 


appears to be necessary for its growth. It is success¬ 
fully cultivated in Australia and New Zealand, which 
produce no excellent farinaceous root at all—not. 
even the yam. 

This most popular of all vegetables requires cool 
seasons, and therefore the farther North in the United 
States the better the summer climate is for them. 
They require rich ground, moist but not wet; stand¬ 
ing water injures them as much as any other vege¬ 
table. To keep up the quality of the variety, large 
and sound potatoes should be selected and cut in 
pieces having from one to three eyes each, according 
to the necessity of making the most of what seed 
you have on hand. Plant two or three of these pieces 
in each hill, the hills three feet apart each way; or 
plant in drills or rows with the ordinary distance be¬ 
tween them, and 12 to 15 inches apart in the row. 


Lime and plaster are good fertilizers. As soon as 
they are well up, commence hoeing them, and con¬ 
tinue faithful and deep cultivation until the vines 
pretty thoroughly cover the ground. hen they are 
cultivated by the hill system, the hill should be broad 
and low, and dishing, to turn the rain in toward the 
plant. Where high, sharp hills seemed to have been 
the best, the success was probably owing to more 
constant and thorough pulverization of the soil, or 
some other cause. 

Early potatoes can be so planted that other crops, 
as beans, can be started between the rows ; and the 
potatoes will be out of the way in time for the full 
prosperity of the crop. 

From careless propagation, fault in cultivation or 
some other cause varieties deteriorate in quality, and 
the necessity arises of introducing new varieties at 
some expense. While for many years past the two 
most popular varieties of Irish potatoes have been the 
Early Rose and the Peach-blow, they are now about 
to be superseded by the Early Ohio, the Snow-flake, 
Brownell’s Beauty, Compton’s Surprise, Burbank’s 
Seedling, Beauty of Hebron, Clark’s No. i, Moore’s 
Seedling, Late Ohio, Dun more and others. 

More than any other vegetable the potato 
is subject to disease; and it really constitutes 
an objection to their dietetic character, that 
the disease is often imperceptible. The only 
remedy for any and all diseases of the potato 
consists in careful propagation and cultiva¬ 
tion. 

The Colorado ix)tato beetle, which formerly 
threatened to put an end to the cultivation 
of this article, is now fortunately greatly di¬ 
minished in its numbers by the lady-bug and 
other predaceous insects; but when the Col¬ 
orado beetles attack a crop to such an extent 
that offensive warfare is necessary, hand-pick¬ 
ing for a small piece and the use of Paris 
green for a large field are the standard meth¬ 
ods of treatment. Looking for the eggs on 
the under side of the young potato leaves as 
soon as they are up, and mashing them, 
will thin out the bug crop comparatively well; 
leaving small piles of inferior potatoes scattered 
around in the field, will attract the bugs in early 
spring, and early in the morning they can be caught 
and killed. Planting on the outside a few rows of 
such tender-leaved varieties as the Pink-eye, Early 
Goodrich, Mercer or Shaker Russet, is said to be a 
protection ; also planting in the midst of a corn field 
is said to be effectual. The result of all our advice 
is, therefore, to select whichever of the above methods 
is most practicable. Paris green is a poison. To 
apply it, mix it with several times its bulk in flour, 
and sift it over the potatoes when they are wet. Be 
sure and stand across the wind from it and not per¬ 
mit it to alight upon you. Some persons mix this 
poison in water, with which they sprinkle the vines. 
As it is thought that this may poison the tubers, it is 
















POTATO. 


1045 


simply a matter of caution that as little be used as 
will effect the object desired. See Paris Green. 

Two other potato beetles are described, and reme¬ 
dies given, on pages 872 and 875. 

Scab on potatoes is produced by minute animals 
which have not yet been thoroughly studied. The 
scab shows itself first on the surface of the jxjtato, in 
rough spots, which afterward become raised like blis¬ 
ters. These collapse subsequently, and leave irregu¬ 
lar holes or pits of various sizes in the substance of 
the tuber. They do not seem to be confined to any 
particular age of the plant, as they make their ap¬ 
pearance on very young tubers, and in other cases not 
before their full development. About the predisposing 
conditions and prevention of these parasites little defi¬ 
nite is known. Ashes and lime do not prevent or destroy 
them. We have found them plentiful in fields where 
ashes had never been applied, and also with and 
without swine, horse or cow manure, and where pota¬ 
toes had not been planted for several years. In this 
case like does not produce like, for we have seen 
scabby potatoes produce splendid scab-free potatoes; 
on the other hand, some soils which seem to be 
saturated with scab will produce scabby potatoes no 
matter what seed is used. Some varieties are more 
liable to scab than others. 

The digging of potatoes where they are cultivated 
in large quantities becomes a source of great labor, 
and until quite recently no effective ^means of per¬ 
forming this labor with machinery had been adopted. 


Now there are several made and in the market. In 
this connection we present the illustration of one 
made by E. S. Bristol & Co., Chicago, Ill. 

The storing of the potato crop is a very important 
item. Potatoes keep well either in cellars or pits, if 
they are dry and in good order when dug. It is better 
not to put too many in a pile or pit. They are then 
more likely to heat and to sprout in winter or early 
spring. They must also be entirely excluded from 
the frost. They will freeze much easier than apples. 
If they should sprout in the cellar shovel them over 
into a new box or bin. Potatoes may be buried in 
pits, as illustrated by Fig. 16, page 21, also described 
on same page. 

Grafting Potatoes. Grafting potatoes is an 


operation not veiy well known, and is undertaken as 
a means of combining the qualities of two known 
varieties. When varieties are sought by crossing the 
flowers, the result will partake of the nature of a 
lottery; but in grafting the result is a combination of 
the characteristics of both varieties. A potato is 
selected, and every eye scooped out. A single eye 
from the variety with which a cross is desired is then 
inserted. The result is that the eye grows, but in its 
early days feeds uix)n the juices of the potato united 
with it, and the new tubers grown from it partake of 
the character of both parents. A red potato with 
white eyes is the result of the union of a red potato 
with an eye from a white one. From a dark red 
potato and the eye of a flesh-colored one was ob¬ 
tained a dark potato with light eye. A late variety 
grafted into the Snowflake, which is early, produced a 
late potato exactly resembling the Snowflake. The 
new potatoes from the grafted tubers are small, but 
by no means as small as those grown the first year 
from seed. The second year the grafted potatoes will 
grow to full size, whereas it takes four years to grow 
new potatoes from the seed to their natural size. This 
saving of time is a great advantage which is claimed 
for grafting over hybridization by seed. 

To Cook Potatoes. Shnple Boiling. To boil 
potatoes properly they should all be of the same sort, 
and as nearly as possible the same size. Wash off 
the dirt and scrub them very clean with a hard brush, 
but neither scoop nor apply a knife to them in any 
way, even to clean the eyes. Rinse them well 
and arrange them compactly in a sauce pan 
so that they may not lie loose in the water, 
and that a small quantity may be sufficient to 
cover them. Pour the water in cold and when 
it boils throw in one large teaspoonful of salt 
to each quart of water, and simmer the pota¬ 
toes till they are nearly done, but for the last 
two or three minutes let them boil rapidly. 
When they are tender quite through, which 
may be known by probing them with a fork, 
pour all the water from them immediately, lift 
the lid‘of the sauce pan to allow the steam to 
escape, and place them by the side of the 
fire till the moisture is wholly gone ; then peel 
and send them to the table as quickly as possible, in 
a dish in which the lid is so placed that the steam 
may pass off. There should be no delay in serving 
after they have been once taken from the fire. Some 
kinds will be sufficiently boiled in twenty minutes, 
others in not less than half an hour. Pour away the 
water as soon as the potatoes are cooked, and dry 
them. 

Mashed Potatoes. Boil or steam the potatoes half 
an hour, turn them into a basin, and with a wood¬ 
en spoon bruise them into flour; to three pounds of 
potatoes add a teaspoonful of salt, three ounces of 
fresh butter, and a gill of cream or hot milk. Stand 
the basin in a sauce pan of boiling water and beat the 
potatoes for five minutes. Serve on a very hot dish. 











1046 


PO UDRE TTE—PO UL TICE. 


either in a rough cone shape or smoothed over with a 
knife. The potatoes should be well mixed with the 
butter and cream. 

Potatoes and Milk. Have ready some boiled 
potatoes, and when nearly cold, cut them into slices 
and cover them with a clean cloth. Take a stew pan 
and melt 3 ounces of butter with 2 ounces of flour, 
stir with a wooden six)on, and add gradually a gill of 
warm milk; season with pepper and salt and a little 
grated nutmeg. When the sauce comes to the boil 
put in the sliced potatoes, and let them gently boil for 
about fifteen minutes, then set the stew pan aside. 
Mix the yolks of two eggs with a gill of cream and 
pour into the stew pan, stirring until it becomes thick. 
Turn it upon a hot dish and serve. Take care to pre¬ 
pare the sauce carefully. 

Baked Potatoes. Wash and wipe them; put them 
into the oven with the skins on, and bake them from 
three-quarters of an hour to an hour. When about 
half done prick them all over with a fork; or if that is 
not done, break them a little as soon as you find they 
are done; this is to let out the steam and prevent them 
from getting soggy. 

Potato Croquettes. Season cold mashed pota¬ 
toes with pepper, salt and nutmeg. Beat to a cream 
with a tablespoonful of melted butter to every cupful 
of potato. Add 2 or 3 beaten eggs and some minced 
parsley. Roll into small balls; dip in beaten egg, 
then in bread crumbs, and fry in hot lard. 

Fried Potatoes. Wash, trim and dry some nice 
large potatoes; have your frying kettle ready with 
some nice, clean lard, hot, and drop them in it, and 
cover; let them fry briskly fifteen minutes; take them 
out and serve. 

Lyonnaise Potatoes. Half a pound of cold boil¬ 
ed ix>tatoes; 2 ounces of onion; a heaping teaspoon¬ 
ful of chopped parsley; butter the size of an egg. 
Slice the cold jX)tatoes, put the butter into a sauce 
pan, and when hot throw in the onion (minced), and 
fry to a light color; add the potatoes; stir until hot 
and light brown; then mix the parsley and serve hot. 

Stewed Potatoes. Boil the potatoes till tender; 
cut them in thick slices; take ^ a teaspoonful of 
flour, a little salt and butter, and chopped parsley, 
and a teacupful of milk; put them all together in a 
sauce pan and let them stew about 20 minutes. 

Potato Soup. Pare, slice and boil in 3 pints of 
water 6 or 8 common-sized potatoes. Crumb fine and 
brown in butter, 3 large slices of rather dry bread. 
When the iX)tatoes are done, add to them a quart of 
rich sweet milk, and the bread crumbs; salt, pepper 
and butter to suit the taste. 

Potatoes, Watery. Put into the pot a piece of 
lime as large as a hen’s egg, and however watery the 
potatoes may be, when the water is poured off, they 
will be perfectly dry and mealy. Or, when the water 
nearly boils, pour it out and put in cold salted water; 
it makes them mealy without cracking them. 

Poudrette, a French preparation of night-soil em¬ 
ployed as a manure. 


Poultice, a medicinal paste, applied hot and moist, 
and possessing either emollient, anodyne, stimulating 
or astringent properties. The emollient poultice is 
the most common and acts on the same principle as 
a fomentation, but more intensely. Their curative 
action principally depends on the liquids with which 
they are moistened, and the heat retained by the 
mass. The addition of a little lard, olive oil, or, still 
better, glycerine, to a poultice, promotes emollient ac¬ 
tion and retards hardening. 

The object of the anodyne poultices is to subdue 
or kill pain of a local character, as in bruises, sprains, 
etc. Poultices of this nature are usually made by 
preparing a strong decoction of camomile flowers and 
poppy heads, and then filling a small bag of camo¬ 
mile flowers, and after soaking it in the hot decoction, 
applying it, repeating the application as soon as it be¬ 
comes cold. Hemlock is an excellent anodyne 
poultice. 

Stimulating poultices are employed to excite a 
healthier action in the part. They are usually made 
with a mixture of flour and mustard. Sometimes, to 
add to its stimulant qualities, a strong infusion of 
horse-radish is employed instead of water. A blister¬ 
ing poultice is simply a stimulating poultice intens¬ 
ified, and mustard is about the only article employed 
for this purpose. See Mustard. 

Slippery-Elm Poultice. The best poultice for 
every purpose is the slippery-elm bark; it may be 
made with warm milk and water, or with soap-lye. If 
tincture of myrrh be added, it is valuable in boils, 
ulcers, carbuncles, etc. Take a sufficient quantity of 
pulverized slippery-elm bark, stir in hot or warm milk 
and water to the consistence of a poultice. 

Bread Poultice. Take stale bread in crumbs, 
pour boiling water over it, and boil till soft, stirring h 
well; then take it from the fire, and gradually stir in 
a- little glycerine or sweet oil, so as to render the 
poultice pliable when applied. 

Potato Poultice. Boil the common potato, mash 
or bruise soft, and then stir in finely pulverized slip¬ 
pery-elm bark. This poultice has been used with 
success in ophthalmia (inflammation of the eyes) of 
an acute character, when other means have failed. 

Soap Poultice. Dissolve i ounce scraped or 
sliced white soap in pint boiling water, and mix 
with sufficient bread to make a poultice. This is good 
for scalds and burns. 

Charcoal Poultices. These are made by mix¬ 
ing charcoal and flour and linseed meal, in nearly 
equal quantities, in a basin, adding hot water, and 
stirring till a smooth paste is made, which is to be ap¬ 
plied, like the others, on flannel. 

Chloride of Lime. May be made in the same 
way, or by mixing the meal with the solution. 

Alum Poultice. Used generally as an astringent 
in certain chronic inflammations of the eye. This 
poultice is made by mixing the white of two or more 
eggs with a drachm of finely jxiwdered alum; put the 
nnxture within a fold of muslin, and apply. 








POULTRY. 


Poultry. The term poultry is used to designate 
all domesticated fowls, as ducks, geese, fowls, turkeys, 
Guinea fowls and pea fowls, which are reared or kept 
for profit or economical use. These have all been 
treated under their respective heads. In this article 
we have, therefore, but to treat of poultry in general, 
referring the reader for more explicit information of 
any kind to the article on it in its alphabetical place. 

Poultry-raising, like any other branch of business, 
must be well managed in order to be profitable. Suc¬ 
cess largely depends on having a good location. A 
farmer who lives a long distance from a large town 
will derive little profit from sending fowls to market, 
as the cost of packages, expressage and commissions 
will be large. He will, however, find fowls profitable 
to raise for the supply of his own table, as there is 
difficulty in procuring fresh meat on farms during the 
warm months in the year. Generally the farmer will 
do better by using the ^xjultry raised at home and 
sending more beef and pork to market. The cost of 
shipping beef and pork is much less, as business is 
now conducted on railroads and in stock-yards. 
There is much trouble in keeping meat fresh on farms 
during hot weather, and in curing that which cannot 
be consumed within a few days after the animals are 
slaughtered. Fowls, however, can be killed as they 
are wanted for the table without loss. Eggs can be 
produced with profit on almost any farm, as there are 
now good facilities for sending them to market in car¬ 
riers that insure their safety during transportation. 
The improved egg-carrier is of very great value to 
farmers who live at a distance from market. Improved 
methods of shipping live and dressed fowls must be 
devised before it will pay to produce them for market 
on farms that are distant from towns. In France and 
Belgium, cars specially designed for carrying poultry 
are run on most of the railroads. . It is reported that 
poultry-cars are now run once a week on the roads 
that enter Denver. Some of' them contain several 
stories for the use of large shippers, and others are 
fitted up to contain a large number of coops belong¬ 
ing to different individuals. 

Generally fowls can be produced for market with 
most profit on farms located quite near large towns. 
Fowls, to sell well, must present a fine condition when 
they are exposed for sale. They should not be dress¬ 
ed long before they are offered to customers. By 
dressing them at home the feathers may be saved, 
and they will be quite an object where a large num¬ 
ber of fowls are killed on a place. By being near a 
market the prices can be learned from day to day, 
and advantage taken of the information received. 
One can also make arrangements to supply hotels, 
restaurants, boarding-houses and private families, and 
thereby obtain retail prices. If one lives near a large 
town he can generally derive the most profits from 
young chickens that are ready for the market early in 
the season. Chickens that are large enough for the 
gridiron in June will bring more money than the same 
birds will if they are kept till Christmas, or even till 
the following spring. By marketing them early many 


1047 

I ^ " 

losses are avoided and much feed saved. By being 
near a large town another advantage can be secured. 
The waste grains in elevators, the screenings in mills 
and the corn damaged by fire and water can be pro¬ 
cured at low rates. Much refuse meat can also be 
bought at a nominal price from the butchers and per¬ 
sons engaged in slaughtering animals. Fresh meat is 
very desirable for feeding fowls during cold weather, 

' and the lack of success of many poultry-raisers is 
chiefly to be ascribed to their failure to provide meat 
in some form for their birds at times when they can¬ 
not procure a supply of some substitute for it. Fowls 
do not require to be supplied with meat during warm 
weather, as they can, if they h^ve a good range, pro- 
j cure all the insects they desire. 

Turkeys and geese are more profitable to raise to 
supply a distant market than chickens. The former 
are more in demand during cold weather, when poul¬ 
try can be shipped to the best advantage and at the 
least cost. Turkeys are not in good condition to eat 
in the summer, and geese are most desirable during 
quite cold weather, as they contain much oil. Chick¬ 
ens are harder to transport than turkeys and geese, 
and are preferred for eating during warm weather. 
On this account it is desirable to raise them near 
where they are to be marketed. If geese and ducks 
are raised for the market, only the best varieties should 
be used. It costs no more to feed them, and they 
will sell for twice as much to persons who know their 
value. Geese are not desired by many persons, ex¬ 
cept by foreigners, chiefly for the reason that poor va¬ 
rieties are kept, and kept so long that their flesh is 
very tough. Most farmers raise geese for their feath¬ 
ers, and do not fatten them till there is danger of 
death from old age. In European countries, where 
geese and ducks are more generally eaten than here, 
they are fed liberally during the summer and fattened 
before they are old. When managed in this way, 
their flesh is ranked among the luxuries, and com¬ 
mands a ready sale. Poultry-raising is a profitable 
branch of business for persons of small capital, and 
especially so for farmers who have help that cannot 
perform very .hard work. Much of the food consum¬ 
ed by fowls can be raised at very small cost. Geese 
will live several months in the year on grass and clo¬ 
ver, and all kinds of fowls will eat buckwheat, sun¬ 
flower seed, as well as the seed of millet, Hungarian 
and broom-corn. Turkeys can be profitably kept in 
the vicinity of beech woods, as they are very fond of 
the nuts, which are produced without cost. They 
want a wider range than chickens, and cannot be 
kept in confinement. 

Feeding Poultry. If proper food has been given 
to poultry, at regular intervals, in sufficient quantity, 
profit is the natural result of poultry raising, while 
haphazard management results disastrously. In the 
feeding and management of poultry there is more lax 
discipline observed among farmers than with any 
other kind of stock. There is far too much corn, in 
different forms, fed to breeding jxiultry, and to layers 
to secure the best results ; for corn has a great ten- 











FO UND—PREGNA NC V. 


1048 


dency to produce fat, which is not desirable where 
plenty of eggs are expected, the fat forming so thickly 
on and around the ovaries and other organs as to 
effectually prevent the fowls from laying. In cold 
weather, warmth and heat are necessary, and feeding 
corn moderately to the laying hens is not so objec¬ 
tionable as it is during the warm summer months, 
while over-fat fowls are more liable to disease and 
ailments than those only in good condition. For the 
laying fowls no better food can be given for a princi¬ 
pal diet than sound, whole wheat, though it must 
not be given in the same quantities as corn. Screen¬ 
ings are not all objectionable, provided they are not 
musty or spoiled, though the price at which they are 
usually sold makes them more expensive than good 
wheat, for the simple reason that scarcely one-half 
the screenings is wheat or will be consumed by the 
poultry, the greater part being cheat, cockle, weed 
seeds, etc. For the fattening of ix)ultry corn is the 
very best and cheapest food which can be given to 
accomplish it. To secure the greatest profit from the 
poultry it is economy in the end to keep the birds 
growing rapidly from the start, and a couple of weeks 
before they are to be marketed have them penned up 
and fed principally on soft food, such as scalded corn 
meal, well boiled mush, oatmeal mush (if the meal 
can be gotten cheaply), etc., feeding twice a day at 
first and toward the last three times, only what they 
will eat up with an appetite, and confining the birds 
in a darkened room, giving them light only at feeding 
time. 

Killing Poultry. The process of killing and 
dressing poultry for market is quite an art and if 
nicely performed will prove very renumerative. First, 
fatten them well, and allow them to remain in the 
pens twenty-four hours without food previous to being 
killed. Then, when you kill them, instead of wring¬ 
ing their necks, cut their heads off at a single blow 
with a sharp axe or cleaver, and then hang them up 
by their legs and allow them to bleed freely, and pick 
them immediately, while warm. Some, however, pre¬ 
fer to run a small pen-knife into the jugular vein by 
the side of the neck, just under the joles. In this 
case, let the heads remain on. The fowl should be 
bandaged, to prevent struggling; and indeed, this 
ought to be done in all cases where the knife is em¬ 
ployed, afterward hanging up by the feet to bleed 
freely. When the head is cut off, the skin should 
afterward be drawn neatly over the stump and tied. 
Poultry should be plucked or picked whilst still warm, 
when the feathers will be removed with much less 
difficulty. Fowls are generally picked quite clean, 
but it looks better in the case of young chickens to 
leave a few feathers about the tail. They will eat 
best if nothing further is done to them; but it im¬ 
proves the appearance greatly for market to plunge 
the carcass, immediately after plucking, into a vessel 
of boiling water for a few moments, which will 
“plump” it a great deal and make the skin look- 
bright and clean. After scalding, turkeys and fowls 
should be hung by the legs, and water-fowl by the 


neck. For sending to city market they should not be 
drawn, as they will keep much better without, and 
bring a better price; but in selling for home consump¬ 
tion, the birds should be properly prepared for table. 
If after drawing, the cavity be filled with charcoal 
broken in small pieces, the fowl may be kept sweet a 
considerable time. After removing the intestines, 
wipe out the blood with a dry cloth, but no water 
should be used to cleanse them. With a moist cloth 
take off the blood that may be found upon the car¬ 
cass, and hang them in a cool, dry room until ready 
to carry to market, or otherwise to be used. Do not 
remove the gizzard from its place ; but, if the fowl be 
very fat, make a larger hole, turn the leaves out, and 
fasten them with a small skewer. When prepared in 
this way, your poultry will be much nicer, and entilled 
to a better price than when butchered and dressed 
in the ordinary way. There is scarcely any other 
product of the farm which pays so well to be nicely 
prepared as poultry. Much of the poultry exposed 
for sale has been through the process of scalding to 
facilitate picking; this practice should never be re¬ 
sorted to. It turns the rich yellow of the fat into a 
tallowy hue, and oftentimes starts the skin, so that it 
peels off unless very carefully handled. They may 
be plucked with equal facility and with better effect 
in preserving the flesh immediately after death and 
before they have had time to cool. Much care and 
attention is required after the poultry is dressed and 
cool. It should be carefully packed in baskets or 
boxes, and, above all, it should be kept from the 
frost. 

Pound. 5,760 grains, or 12 ounces make a Troy 
pound, while 7,000 Troy grains, or 16 ounces, make a 
pound avoirdupois. 

Power: see Horse-Power. 

Power of Attorney, a written instrument, un¬ 
der seal, by which one or more persons authorize one 
or more persons to do some lawful act by the latter, 
for, or instead of, and in the place of the former.’ 
This authority, given in the written instrument, is 
either general or special. If special, it authorizes the 
transaction of some particular business. If general, 
it authorizes the attorney to transact all the business 
of the maker or constituent. The death of either 
party destroys the authority to act further. 

Powers of attorney require, in addition to acknowl¬ 
edgment, two witnesses. 

Prairie, an extensive tract of land destitute of 
trees, covered with coarse grass. They are usually 
gently undulating or rolling lands but sometimes are 
quite level. The prairies of the West are noted for 
the tall, luxuriant grass, being, in wet, swampy places, 
several feet_ high. On the prairies of Illinois, before 
cultivated, it often grew to the height of from six to 
eight feet. 

Prairie Chicken, the pinnated grouse; see i)age 
6x1. ^ 

Pregnancy, the state of being with young. See 












PREMIUM—PRESER EES. 


1049 


Generation, Gestation, and the respective principal 
domestic animals. 

Premium, in insurance, the sum paid an insurance 
company for assuming a risk. 

Preserves. This mode of keeping fruit was much 
more generally practiced prior to the introduction of 
the present system of canning fruits than at present. 
The process is very simple and can be performed 
by almost any one. It consists in cooking equal 
quantities of fruit and sugar together until the former 
is done. In making preserves, observe the following: 

I. The fruit must be fresh. 2. Fruit and syrup 
must be cooked in separate kettles. 3. Use only 
copper, granite or porcelain-lined kettles; never tin or 
iron; do not allow fruit to stand in other than glass, 
porcelain or earthen-ware, otherwise poison is gener¬ 
ated. 4. Never use wire sieves or iron pots, as they 
mar flavor and color. 5. Stir fruit with either wooden 
or silver spoon, never iron. 6. Preserve jars, when 
filled, should be carefully covered. 7. Store in a 
cool, dry place. 8. Examine occasionally the first 
two months after making to see that fermentation is 
not taking place; whenever it is discovered, boil it 
over, scald the jar and return the fruit. 9. Label, 
giving name and variety of fruit and date of pre¬ 
serving. 

The preparation of the fruit is similar to that for 
canning. Plums may be skinned the same as peaches. 
Remove the cores from crab-apples and the stones 
from cherries. Boil the peach and plum pits and use 
the water in making the syrup. 

Preserves may be put in any kind of vessel, almost, 
to keep. Cans, jars or bottles may be used. To 
cover tightly, which should be done, apply the white 
of an egg, with a brush, to a single thickness of white 
tissue paper, with which to cover the jars, lapping 
over an inch or two. It will require no tying, as it 
will become, when dry, very tight and strong and im¬ 
pervious to the air. 

The process of preserving is simply as follows: 
Put the prepared fruit into the syrup while quietly 
boiling and boil until just soft, without breaking the 
pieces. When done, place carefully in jars, pour the 
syrup over it and seal as above directed. A few drops 
of lemon-juice improves pear, plum and crab-apple 
preserves. Peaches will be firmer by allowing the 
uncooked pieces to lie in the syrup over night. Fruit 
is hardened at the expense of flavor by letting it soak 
10 or 15 minutes in alum-water before cooking. Pre¬ 
serves should be boiled in a kettle without a cover. 

Apple Preserves. Same as quince. Select from 
good fruit ; a few slices of quince or the juice of 2 
lemons to 3 pounds of fruit improves them much. 

Cherry Preserves. Sweet cherries will not do. 
Remove the pits, preserving every drop of juice. Use 
pound for pound of sugar; place in the preserving 
kettle a layer of fruit, then of sugar, until both are 
used up; pour on the juice, and boil gently until the 
sirup begins to thicken, then place in jars. 


Citron Preserves. Pare, core and slice, or cut 
into fancy pieces; take 6 pounds citron, 6 pounds 
sugar, 4 lemons and pound of ginger-root. Slice 
lemons into preserving kettle, boil half an hour in a 
little clear water, then strain. Put slices into another 
dish with a little cold water; cover, and allow them 
to stand over night. In the morning wrap the ginger- 
root, after bruising it, in a thin muslin cloth, and boil 
in three pints clear water until the water is highly 
flavored; remove the bag; place the sugar and ginger- 
water in the preserving-kettle, boil and skim as long 
as scum rises. Put in the citron and juice of the 
lemons prepared the day before; boil until the fruit is 
transparent, but not broken, then place in jars and 
seal. The ginger and lemons may be omitted, but 
they add materially to the flavor of the preserves. 

Crab-Apple Preserves. Select perfect fruit, 
leaving the stems in. The old Siberian is the best 
variety. Put in a kettle with enough warm water to 
cover them; simmer until the skins break; drain and 
skin. Remove the cores with a pen-knife through 
the blossom end. Take one pound of sugar and one 
gill of water to each pound of fruit for sirup. When 
purified, and still hot, put in the fruit, cover the kettle, 
and simmer until the apples are a clear red, and 
tender. Then take out with a skimmer and spread 
upon dishes to cool and harden. Now add to the 
sirup the juice of one lemon to three pounds of fruit, 
and boil until clear and rich. Fill jars three-quarters 
full with apples; pour in sirup, and, when cool, seal. > 

Grape Preserves. Squeeze the pulp from each 
grape, and boil them until tender; press througli a 
cullender, add the skins to the pulp and juice, witli a 
cup of sugar to each pound of fruit, and boil till thic k; 
then jar. 

Musk-Melon Preserves. Take ripe, sound mel¬ 
ons; remove the seeds, peel, and cut in pieces. Put 
in a stone jar and cover with scalding-hot vinegar. 
Let it stand until next day, then pour off the vinegar, 
heat, and ^xjur on again. Repeat daily until fourth 
day, when the fruit should be weighed. For each 
five ix)unds add three pounds sugar, one quart sirup, 
and spices to suit. Put all together, and simmer un¬ 
til tender. The second day after pour off the sirup, 
boil it down until there is just enough to cover the 
fruit, then jar. 

Peach Preserves. Prepare as indicated in the 
remarks on the process of making preserves, extract¬ 
ing the pits to use in the sirup. 

Quince Preserves. Prepare fruit as for canning. 
Take three-quarters pound sugar to one pound fruit, 
with one pint water to two pounds sugar for sirup; 
boil the quinces until they are easily pierced with a 
broom-straw, and no longer; place the hot fruit in the 
boiling sirup, then in jars, and seal. 

Raspberry Preserves. Take raspberries that are 
not too ripe, and put them to their weight in sugar, 
with a little water. Boil softly, and do not break 
them; when they are clear, take them up, and boil 
the sirup till it be thick enough; then put them in 










1050 


PRICKLY PEAR—PROTEST. 


again, and when they are cold, put them in glasses 
or jars. 

To Preserve Strawberries Whole. Take equal 
weights of the fruit and refined sugar, lay the former 
in a large dish, and sprinkle half the sugar in fine 
lX)wder over; give a gentle shake to the dish that the 
sugar may touch the whole of the fruit; next day 
make a thin sirup with the remainder of the sugar, 
and instead of water allow one pint of red currant 
juice to every pound of strawberries; in this simmer 
them until sufficiently jellied. Choose the largest 
scarlets, or others when not dead ripe. 

Tomato Preserves. Small tomatoes are best. 
Red make red preserves; yellow ones make yellow. 
Peel and prick with a needle; boil slowly in preserv¬ 
ing sirup for half an hour, with the juice of one lemon 
to each two ix)unds of tomatoes, and the bag of 
ginger-root, if desired. Sirup should be three-quarters 
pound sugar to one pound fruit. Skim out tomatoes 
and place in the sun two or three hours to dry and 
and harden. Purify the sirup with the white of an 
3,nd skimming. Then pour over the tomatoes 
after placing them in jars. 

Water-Melon Preserves. Same as citron, for 
which they are an excellent substitute, and less ex¬ 
pensive. 

Prickly Pear. There are two species of the 
prickly pear growing native in the United States, be¬ 
sides a number of other species in house cultivation. 
The kind prevailing in the Western States is different 
from that of the Atlantic States. They all grow in 
sand, bear _ large, yellow, lily-like flowers, and a 
fruit which is sometimes pickled and used as sauce. 
This is the most familiar cactus in this country. 

Prince’s Feather, the name of two widely different 
ornamental but coarse herbs. One is a red-topped 
amaranth and the other a crimson-flowered knot- 
weed. The former grows about five feet high and 
the latter often seven or eight feet in height. Their 
name is derived from the similarity of the flower 
spikes to red feathers. 

Prioniis, a large beetle burrowing into the roots of 
poplars, fruit-trees, grape-vines, etc.; see page 885. 

Privy. For the preservation of health, of garden 
manure and for convenience, more attention should 
be given to the construction and care of the privy 
than is generally done. Many of them are so care¬ 
lessly constructed and illy kept as to actually become 
a nuisance and detrimental to the health of the mem¬ 
bers of the household. This is all unnecessary. A 
few dollars’ expenditure, a little extra labor and some 
attention will construct a tasteful, clean and easily 
kept and purified closet. It should be accessible, 
indeed, very conveniently located, and sheltered from 
the storms and hidden from the road Ijy a high fence, 
lattice work or evergreens. Of course, where running 
water can be introduced into a house and the facilities 
for complete drainage provided, closets may be con¬ 
structed in a country residence without great trouble 


or expense. Unless, however, all the arrangements 
connected with them can be made perfectly effective, 
we would not advise their introduction, as they some¬ 
times become intolerable nuisances. 

The accompanying illustrations show the rear 
elevation and transverse section of a form of dry- 
earth closet, particularly adapted to the country. It 
entirely dispenses with the dangerous and offensive 
vault, and substitutes in its place a sled box, say 8 by 
2^4 by 2 feet, inserted under the seat through an 



Sections of a Dry. Earth Closet. 

opening in the rear. It should be of strong plank, 
covered inside with a good coating of tar. At either 
side of the building are attached boxes closing tight¬ 
ly with lids, and communicating with the exterior by 
means of convenient openings. The boxes are to be 
filled with dry muck, road dust or ashes, and from 
two to four quarts of either of these deoaorizers 
should be thrown down every day. If any odor is 
noticed increase the amount. When it is nearly full, 
hitch to it and draw it away to the compost heap. Its 
contents will be found entirely inoffensive. It might 
be located in any outbuilding if found more con¬ 
venient. 

Unslacked lime sprinkled in the vault will be 
found an excellent deodorizer. Carbolic acid is also 
effective as a disinfectant, but copperas water or road 
dust are very effective deodorizers; especially is the 
latter good in a dry closet. The former is used in 
vaults filled with water, by dissolving copperas in water 
in proportion of a pound to the gallon of water, and 
sprinkling in the vault. 

Promissory Note: see Note. 

Propagation, the reproduction and reproductive 
diffusion of organized beings. The propagation of all 
the higher and middle orders of animals is effected 
only by generation, and that of cultivated plants is 
effected, according to the particular constitution of 
classes and species, by one or more of several 
methods,—from seeds, cuttings, buds, grafts, suckers, 
layers, stolons, bulbs, tubers, germs and divisions of 
the roots; see Varieties. 

Protest, in business transactions, is the official 
written declaration of a notary that a bill or note was 












































PROUD FLESH—PUDDING. 


1051 


presented by him for payment, and that such pay¬ 
ment was refused, for reasons specified in the protest. 

Proud Flesh, a popular name given to a fungous 
growth in wounds that do not heal by the first inten¬ 
tion. This prevents the wound froni healing. They 
are red, flabby elevations that spring up, sometimes 
round the edge of the ulcerated surface, or in its 
center, in circumscribed patches, or separate cones or 
elevations, and are indicative of a rapid but weak 
action in the part; they are in themselves perfectly 
harmless, though, according to popular belief, their 
presence is regarded as indicative of serious mischief, 
if not of danger. A lotion of sulphate of zinc, or 
bluestone, in the proportion of 2 or 3 grains to the 
ounce of water, if applied on lint once or twice will 
generally reduce such exuberant growths, at the same 
time that it stimulates the vessels of the parts to a 
more equal and steady action. Should the lotions 
above not answer the purpose, a small quantity of 
burnt alum may be scattered over the granulations. 

Provender, dry food for stock. 

Prunes, dried plums. 

Pruning, the act of trimming or removing the 
superfluous branches or twigs of plants. See the re¬ 
spective article to be pruned and the articles Nursery 
and Orchard. 

Prussic Acid. This, in modern chemistry, is 
called hydrocyanic acid; but it is still popularly 
known by its former name, which was derived from 
its being a constituent of the pigment Prussian blue. 
It is one of the most virulent poisons known, a drop 
or two laid on the tongue being sufficient to occasion 
death. It is a sedative poison, and one which no one 
has any use for except when prescribed as a medicine 
by a physician. The person who has been poisoned 
by it experiences nausea, giddiness, debility, hurried 
pulse, weight and pain in the head, eructations hav¬ 
ing the flavor of the acid (that of peach kernels), 
spasm, tetanus, convulsions and death. Ammonia is 
an antidote, but it should be employed in a very con¬ 
centrated form. Liquid chlorine has also been found 
efficacious. 

Pudding. For boiled puddings you will require 
either a mold, a basin or a pudding cloth; the former 
should have a close-fitting cover, and be rubbed over 
the inside with butter before putting the pudding in it, 
that it may not stick to the side; the cloth should be 
dipped in boiling water, and then well floured on the 
inside. A pudding cloth must be kept very clean, 
and in a dry place. Bread puddings should be tied 
very loosely, as they swell very much in boiling. 

The water must be boiling when the padding is put 
in, and continue to boil until it is done. If a pudding 
is boiled in a cloth it must be moved frequently while 
boiling, otherwise it will stick to the sauce pan. 

There must always be enough water to cover the 
pudding if it is boiled in a cloth; but if boiled in a 
tin mold, do not let the water quite reach the top. 


A pudding boiler, recently invented, is the best for 
boiled puddings. 

To boil a pudding in a basin, dip a cloth in hot wa¬ 
ter, dredge it with flour and tie it closely over the 
basin. When the pudding is done take it from the 
water, plunge whatever it is boiling in, whether cloth 
or basin, suddenly into cold water, then turn it out 
immediately; this will prevent its sticking. If there 
is any delay in serving the pudding, cover it with a 
napkin, or the cloth in which it was boiled; but it is 
better to serve it as soon as removed from the cloth, 
basin or mold. 

Always leave a little space in the pudding basin 
for the pudding to swell ; or tie the pudding cloth 
loosely for the same reason. 

Bread or rice puddings require a moderate heat for 
baking; batter or custard requires a quick oven. 

Eggs for puddings are beaten enough when a s{X)on- 
ful can be taken up clear from the strings. 

Souffles require a quick oven. These should be 
made so as to be done the moment for serving, other¬ 
wise they will fall in and flatten. 

Suet Crust for Puddings. One ix)und of flour, 
6 ounces of beef suet, a cupful of cold water. Strip 
the skin from the suet, chop it as fine as possible, rub 
it well into the flour, mix it with a knife, work it to a 
very smooth paste with a cupful of water, and roll it 
out for use. 

Sauce. For a good or easily made pudding sauce 
take I tablespoonful of butter, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
flour, ^ of a cup of sugar. Pour hot water over these, 
stir well and boil until thick; flavor with lemon or 
nutmeg and a teaspoonful of vinegar. 

Apple Pudding. Peel the apples and put them in 
a kettle in halves, with a pint of water, a small lump 
of butter, a little salt, nutmeg, and a handful of sugar; 
make a soda biscuit crust about one-third inch thick, 
and put it on the top of the apples; make a hole in 
the center of the crust; boil until the apples are thor¬ 
oughly cooked. Serve with a hot sauce. A plate 
turned upside down in a kettle will prevent it from 
burning. 

Apple Dumpling. Three-quarters of a pound of 
flour, 3 ounces of suet chopped fine, 2 teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder, i teaspoonffll of salt; mix with milk 
enough to knead; roll it, but not as thin as for pie 
crust. Pare 7 large apples; core and quarter them, 
keeping each apple by itself, and place the quarters 
together again; cut the paste in squares to cover each 
apple; tie them in pieces of cloth, leaving a very little 
room to swell. Boil an hour, putting them into a steam¬ 
er; cover the steamer with a piece of cotton-flannel, 
cut round; this will absorb the steam that rises to the 
pover, and the dumplings will be drier. Serve them 
with sweet sauce. 

Apple and Tapioca Pudding. Peel and core 6 
large apples, pack them closely in the baking dish 
you intend serving your pudding in; fill the cored 
parts tightly with sugar and a short stick of cinna¬ 
mon ; put a gill of hot water on your apples, cover 






io52 


PUDDING. 


closely and bake for an hour; be careful the apples 
do not brown on the bottom; turn them two or three 
times. Take a teacupful of French tapioca, which is 
finer and more delicate than any other, and soak in 

3 cupfuls of water for three or four hours, keeping it 
in a warm place, but not where it will boil; pour the 
dissolved tapioca over the baked apples and bake for 
another hour in a moderate oven. The pudding can 
be eaten either with pulverized sugar or a hard sauce 
made with an ounce of butter and 2 ounces of sugar 
well creamed together and the beaten yolk of an egg 
thoroughly stirred in; put a teaspoonful of salt in the 
water you soak your tapioca in. 

Batter Pudding. One quart of milk, 4 eggs, 6 
spoonfuls of flour, a little salt. Bake 20 minutes. 

Bread Pudding. Soak the bread in cold water, 
then squeeze it very dry, take out the lumps and add 
boiling milk, about ^ a pint to i pound of soaked 
bread, beat up 2 eggs, sweeten, add a little nutmeg, 
and bake the pudding slowly until firm. If desired 
a few raisins may he added. 

Butter Pudding. One cup raisins, i of molasses, 

1 of sweet milk, ^ cup butter, 3 cups flour, i spoon¬ 
ful soda; steam two hours; cream and sugar for sauce. 

Children’s Pudding. To make a nice pudding 
for the children’s dinner, take 3 eggs, 3 tablespoonfuls 
of flour, I quart of milk and a little salt; make into a 
batter, then have some apples nicely peeled and 
cored, place them in a well buttered pie dish, then 
pour the batter over them. Let it bake one hour and 
a half and make a nice sweet sauce for it. 

CocoANUT Pudding. Grate cocoanut, then stew it 
slowly in i quart of milk; pour this on a half loaf of 
baker’s bread; when cold add i pound sugar, and ^ 
pound of butter, beaten to a cream; then add 6 eggs 
and bake. 

Corn-Starch Pudding. Boil i quart of milk, then 
beat the yolks of 4 eggs, with 4 tablespoonfuls of corn 
starch and a little milk; stir into the boiling milk, 
let it boil up once and turn into a pudding dish; then 
beat the whites of the eggs to a froth and add 4 spoon¬ 
fuls of white powdered sugar; cover the pudding with 
the mixture, and set in the oven and brown lightly. 
Flavor with vanilla, lemon, etc. 

Cottage Pudding. One pint bowl flour, i teacup 
milk, I egg, teacup sugar, i spoon soda in the milk, 

2 spoons cream tartar in the flour; bake half an hour. 

Plain Cracker Pudding. Four crackers, pound¬ 
ed and sifted; a small piece of butter; pints of 
milk, scalded, and poured on the crackers and butter; 

4 eggs; sugar to sweeten; nutmeg. 

Another. Cracker pudding that can be made in 
twenty minutes. Take 2 quarts of sweet milk, sweet¬ 
en to taste, put into a pan over a kettle of boiling wa¬ 
ter, and when hot stir in 5 well-beaten eggs, then have 
ready a dozen crackers, split and buttered; drop in 
with a handful of raisins; flavor with lemon; do not 
stir the pudding after putting in the crackers. 

Cream Pudding. Five eggs beaten light, 2 cups of 


nice sour cream, and i spoonful soda; stir in flour to 
make it as stiff as cake. For sauce, make i quart of 
flour stcarch, add a lump of butter, put in sugar, and 
flavor with lemon. It will bake while your potatoes 
are boiling for dinner. 

English Pudding. Mix i tablespoon of melted 
butter in i pint of sweet milk; beat very light the 
yolks of 7 eggs, then beat the yolks in the milk, with 
flour sufficient to make a thin paste (say 16 table¬ 
spoonfuls) ; beat whites of eggs very light; stir in 
whites, and bake immediately in a hot oven ^ of an 
hour, in a pound-cake or pudding dish. Eat with 
sauce. 

Fig Pudding. Half a pound of bread crumbs, 
pound figs, 6 ounces of suet, 6 ounces brown sugar; 
mince the figs and suet nicely, a little salt, 2 eggs, 
well beaten, nutmeg to taste, boil in a mold 4 hours. 
Serve with wine sauce. 

Boiled Fruit Pudding. One quart crushed wheat, 

I teaspoonful cinnamon, teaspoonful cloves, 2 cups 
sugar, 2 eggs, a pound of suet, chopped fine, i tea¬ 
spoonful cream tartar, Yi ^ teaspoonful of soda, Y 
cup of molasses, Y2, pound of raisins chopped fine, 
citron or lemon peel if desired. Boil 2 hours. 

Hard-Times Pudding. Half a pint of molasses, 
half a pint of water, two teaspoonfuls of soda, one tea- 
si^oonful of salt; thicken with sifted flour, to a batter, 
thick as cup cake, put into pudding boiler, half full, 
to allow for swelling; boil steadily for three hours; 
eat with or without sauce. 

Indian Pudding. Take one quart of sweet milk; 
put it over the fire, and let it come to a boil. Just as 
quick as it boils stir in three-fourths of a teacup of 
Indian meal and one level teaspoonful of salt. Take 
off from the fire immediately, as it burns quickly, and 
that would spoil the pudding. Beat one egg with 
one cup of sugar; add one tablespoonful of molasses; 
stir this into one quart of cold sweet milk ; next add 
this to the hot mush, and stir it real well to beat out 
the lumps, should there be any;^next put it in a bake- 
pan. Grate a little nutmeg on the top, and drop a 
few lumps of butter on the top, just as you put it in 
the oven ; bake nearly three hours. This is good 
without fruit, but is better with two or three handfuls 
of raisins or currants. 

Old-Fashioned Baked Indian Pudding. Take 
a large cup of meal and a teacupful of molasses and 
beat them well together, then add to them a quart of 
boiling milk, some salt, and a small piece of butter; 
let it stand a while in the dish you are going to bake 
it in until it thickens, and when you put it into the 
oven pour over it from half to a pint of milk, but do 
not stir it in, as this makes it pasty. Bake two or 
three hours. 

Lemon Pudding. Five ounces of coffee sugar, 
one of butter, one quart of milk, one pint of stale 
bread crumbs, one lemon, four eggs. Grate the lemon 
rind, and crumble the bread; beat the yolks of the 
eggs in the pudding dish; add, gradually, the sugar, 











PUDDING. 


^053 


lemon rind, and butter rubbed to a cream; then the 
milk and bread alternately. Bake in a slow oven un¬ 
til firm. Beat the whites to a stiff froth with four 
tablespoonfuls powdered sugar, and enough of the 
lemon juice to flavor; spread this over the top and 
brown in the upper part of the oven. To be eaten 
hot or cold. 

Marlborough Pudding. Grate apples enough 
to make eight ounces, add to this eight ounces of 
white, fine sugar which has been well rubbed on the 
rind of a large lemon, six well beaten eggs, three ta¬ 
blespoonfuls of cream, the strained juice of three 
lemons, eight ounces of butter, add quantity at pleas¬ 
ure of orange flower or rose-water. Line a pie dish 
with rich puff paste, put in the mixture and let it bake 
in a quick oven. 

Oat.meal Pudding. Stir half a cupful of oatmeal 
into three cupfuls of boiling milk. Cook for half an 
hour. When partly cool add a cupful of sugar, two 
cupfuls of apple sauce, three beaten eggs and a tea¬ 
spoonful of extract of vanilla. Bake half an hour in 
a moderate oven and serve when cold or partly cooled 
with sweetened cream. 

Orange Pudding. Four sweet oranges peeled and 
picked to pieces, and put in a deep pudding dish, 
with two cups of sugar. Put a quart of milk, the 
yolks of three eggs, and two dessertspoonfuls of corn 
starch on to boil. Take off, cool it, and pour it on the 
oranges. Then beat the whites to a stiff froth, put it 
over the pudding, and place it in the oven until it is 
of a light brown color. 

Peach Roll-Up. One quart of flour, a lump of 
butter the size of a walnut, a pinch of salt, enough 
milk or water to make a soft dough. Roll out half an 
inch thick, put on a layer of nice ripe peaches. Be¬ 
gin at one side and roll up nicely, then lay in buttered 
basin, and steam an hour or longer; or boil in tin pail 
set in a kettle of boiling water. Cut in slices, eat 
with sweetened cream or butter and sugar. 

Pie-Plant Pudding. Take slices of stale bread, 
butter them, put a layer in the bottom of a pudding- 
dish, next a layer of pie-plant, plenty of sugar, and a 
little nutmeg; do so until the dish is full, having 
bread on the top; don’t be too sparing of the butter; 
put in about two cups of water, more or less, according 
to the size of your pudding-dish; it must not be too 
dry nor too juicy; cover with an earthen plate, and 
bake three-quarters of an hour in a brisk oven. 

Cheap Plum Pudding. One cup suet, one cup 
raisins, one cup currants and citron mixed, one egg, 
one cup sweet milk, half a teacup molasses, one tea¬ 
spoonful soda, three and a half cups flour, a little 
salt. Boil three hours. Serve with hard or liquid 
sauce. 

Plum Pudding. A pint of bread crumbs; pour 
over them one-half pint boiling milk and let it cool 
thoroughly. Then add one pound stoned raisins, 
one-half pound currants, one tablespoonful of butter 
minced fine, one tablespoonful of flour, one table¬ 


spoonful of sugar, one small teaspoonful cloves, nut¬ 
meg, and cinnamon, each; five eggs, beaten light. 
Flour your fruit before mixing, and boil three hours. 
Eat with hot brandy sauce. 

Another. One pound of raisins, one-half pound 
currants, one-half cup of suet, two cups sugar, one 
cup of milk, one cup of flour, one pound of bread 
crumbs, four eggs. Mix raisins, currants, suet, sugar 
and bread crumbs in a large pan. Then beat the 
whites and yolks of eggs together and mix with milk 
and pour over the ingredients in the pan; then add 
spice to suit the taste. Flour the pudding bag and 
leave plenty of room to swell. Boil three or four 
hours. 

Mock Plum Pudding. One cup finely cut suet, 
one of dried currants, one-third cup of molasses, two- 
thirds cup of milk or water, one teaspoonful allspice, 
cloves and cinnamon mixed, three cups of flour; mix 
well and steam three hours. 

Pumpkin Pudding. Pare the pumpkin and put it 
down to stew, strain it through a colander; two 
pounds of pumpkin to one pound of butter, one pound 
of sugar, and eight eggs ; beat to a froth; one wine¬ 
glass of brandy, half wine-glass of rose-water, one 
teaspoonful mace, cinnamon, and nutmeg all to¬ 
gether. 

Queen of Puddings. One pint of fine bread 
crumbs, a piece of butter the size of an egg rubbed in, 
a teacupful of fine sifted loaf sugar, the rind of one 
lemon grated, yolks of four eggs, and a pint of milk. 
Mix these ingredients together in a pie-dish, and 
bake in a quick oven until well set, but be careful not 
to let the pudding get leathery; it will take only a 
short time. When cool, spread a layer of apricot or 
strawberry jam over the top. Whip the whites of the 
four eggs with a teacupful of sifted sugar and either 
the juice of the lemon or a small teaspoonful ot 
essence of lemon, into a very stiff froth, and throw 
lightly over, making it as rocky as possible, and piling 
it up higher in the center. Very slightly brown it by 
putting it into the oven for a few minutes, or passing 
a salamander over it. 

Quick Pudding. One pint milk, one pint flour, 
three eggs and a little salt. 

Rice Pudding. For a six-o’clock dinner the rice 
and milk should be put on early in the forenoon. 
The best thing to cook it in is a double kettle. Let it 
simmer on the back of the stove—it must never boil 
—until a couple of hours before dinner. It will then 
be a thick, creamy substance. Then salt and sweet¬ 
en it to taste, put it into a pudding dish, and bake it 
in a moderate oven, until it is of a jelly-like thickness 
and the top is slightly browned. It can be eaten either 
hot or cold. If the latter is preferred, the pudding 
may be made the day before, if that is most conven¬ 
ient. If desired a flavoring may be added. This is 
emphatically the perfect pudding of its kind. 

Snow Pudding. One ounce of gelatine; pour on 
it a pint and a half of boiling water; add two teacups 
of white sugar, the grated peel and juice of two lem- 







1054 


P ULLET—P UjWP. 


ons; strain into a deep dish to cool; when it com¬ 
mences to jelly, add to it the whites of four well 
beaten eggs, beat until the dish is full, put in molds 
and set in a cool place. 

Steamed Pudding. Two eggs, two cups butter¬ 
milk, and half cup of butter, or one cup of cream and 
one of buttermilk, one cup of currants, half teaspoon 
of soda, a little salt; to be eaten with sweetened 
cream. 

Suet Pudding. Mix one pound of flour very dry 
with half a pound of finely chopped suet, add eggs 
and a pinch of salt; make it into a paste with the 
water, beating it all rapidly together with a wooden 
spoon. Flour a pudding cloth, put the paste into it, 
tie the cloth tightly, and plunge it into boiling water. 
The shape may be either a roll, or a round ball. 
When it is done, untie the cloth, turn the pudding 
out, and serve very hot. 

Tapioca Pudding. Soak over night, or melt on 
the back of the stove, in water sufficient to cover 
it, a small teacup of tapioca; add a quart of milk, let 
come slowly to boil, beat two eggs, add a little salt, 
sugar, and flavoring to taste. This is quickly made 
and is wholesome. Or, after the tapioca is melted, 
add milk, sugar, eggs, salt, and flavoring, and bake in 
a moderate oven. A very little butter may be added 
whether boiled or baked. 

Wash-Day Pudding. One pint of flour, three 
eggs, one teacupful of pounded sugar, one cupful of 
milk, half a teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful 
cream of tartar, one full tablespoonful of butter; rub 
the soda through the flour, dissolve the cream of tar¬ 
tar in the milk and stir ail together quickly, just be¬ 
fore dinner is served; bake in a quick oven, and eat 
with sauce, either hard or soft. Bake in small tins 
or open pans. This forms nice tea cakes. 

Pullet. The term chicken is applied to the young 
female fowl till she is four months old, after which 
she is a pullet till she begins to lay, when she is a 
hen. The male is a chicken until he is three months 
old, after which he is a cockerel until he is one year 
old, when he is known as a cock. When deprived of 
the faculty of procreation he becomes a capon. 

Pulse. Pulse is the impulse given to the blood by 
the heart, and is usually felt by pressing on the “ radial 
artery ” at the wrist. The rapidity, regularity, and 
force of the circulation are thus judged. 

The range of the pulse, as to frequency, in a healthy 
adult, is usually 6o to 8o beats; but there are per¬ 
sons whose pulses rarely beat 6o times a minute; 
while there are others not out of health in whom the 
frequency exceeds 8o. The pulse, it will thus be 
seen, is extremely capricious. Before any correct in¬ 
ferences can be drawn from it the peculiarities of 
each individual must be carefully considered. Thus, 
slight mental affections, indigestion, irritability, and 
many other causes producing modification of the 
pulse, do not admit of any general description. The 
terms hard, full, soft, and wiry pulse are used to indi¬ 
cate other obvious modifications independent of the 


number of pulsations. The average pulse of a 
healthy infant is, for the first year, from about 120 to 
108; for the second, from 108 to 90; for the third, 
from 100 to 80; from the seventh to the twelfth year, 
the pulsations are about 70. When the pulse exceeds 
140 beats in a minute it is not easy to count it pre¬ 
cisely. But to this it attains in some febrile-diseases. 
When it is above 90 it is called febrile. The pulse 
of the adult female usually exceeds that of the adult 
male of the same age by ten to fourteen beats a 
minute. The pulse is less frequent as the stature is 
greater, about four beats for a half a foot in height. 
Muscular exertion increases its frequency. It is 
slower during sound sleep. The difference between 
standing and lying, in the former is one-fifth of the 
whole, in the latter one-eighth. In actively breathing 
birds the pulse beats 100 in a minute. 

See page 197 for pulse of lower animals. 

Pumice Foot: see page 820. 

Pumice Stone, a substance frequently ejected 
from volcanoes, of various colors, as gray, white, red¬ 
dish, brown or black. It is used for polishing var¬ 
nished surfaces, highly varnished wood and other 
delicate work. It is used both in powder and the 
lump. It is capable of putting the highest polish 
upon materials of any known substance. 

Pump, a contrivance for raising fluids through 
pipes. The simplest and most common form or style 
is that of the ordinary lift or suction pump. It is 
of great antiquity, being invented in 120 B. C. The 
force pump differs from the common sucking pump 
in having a solid piston-head without a valve, and the 
spout attached below the piston. By suction the 
water cannot be brought from a depth of more than 
33 feet below the piston, but it can afterwards be 
sent up to any height desired in a pipe. These two 
contrivances are sometimes combined. 

We wish lo make the following practical sugges¬ 
tions in buying pumps and 
keeping them in order; The 
value of a pump is determined 
by its durability, simplicity, 
the ease with which it oper¬ 
ates and its protection from 
frost. 

Before buying a pump find 
the exact distance from the 
top of the platform to the bot¬ 
tom of the well. Also learn 
the depth of water in the well 
during dry seasons. Do this 
that you may be able to tell 
what kind of pump to get and 
its length. Never put a pump 
in a well of greater depth than 
it is designed for. Should you 
do this it will be an expense 
and annoyance to you, and 
Fig. 1.—Cistern Pump, will never work easily. 

The cylinder should never be over 20 feet from end 



























PUMP. 


1055 


of suction pipe, for the pump to work easy; therefore, 
after ascertaining the depth of the well, select the 
pump suited for that depth, of such size of cylinder 
as may be desired. 



Fig. 2. —Force Pump. 

See that the small waste hole is open to prevent 
freezing. 

Always allow at least 6 inches between the bottom 
of well and strainer. Never let the cylinder or end 
of suction pipe or strainer rest on the bottom of the 
well, as sand, dirt or gravel are liable to be drawn 
into the cylinder and destroy the valves. 

It is advisable to use a foot valve on the bottom of 
the suction pipe when the pump is required to draw 
water a long distance. 

The platform should be made of ij 4 -inch lumber 
and firmly secured to top of well. 

If the pump loses its priming and .the water runs 
down, the trouble is always below the plunger. 

67 


Either the check-valve in the bottom of the cylinder 
is worn out or something has lodged under it pre¬ 
venting its closing down on the seat perfectly, or the 
bottom of the cylinder is not screw¬ 
ed on tight. Either of these causes, 
although not the fault of the 
pump, will prevent its working 
perfectly. If, on examination, you 
find that a piece of gravel or dirt 
has lodged under the check-valve, 
the suction pipe is probably set too 
close to the bottom of the well. 

The valve should wear for years, 
but if after long service it becomes 
worn out it should be replaced 
with new, solid leather. 

If the pump works hard, and the 
handle on being pushed down is 
inclined to jerk back, the suction 
pipe or strainer is stopped up and 
will not allow the water to enter 
the cylinder freely; in such cases 
it will usually be found that the 
lower end of the suction pipe or 
strainer is embedded in the sand 
or mud at the bottom of the well, 
or that something floating in the 
water has stopped up the entrance 
to the pipe. 

If the pump does not throw a 
full stream, and the water comes 
out of the spout foamy, some of the 
joints are not screwed up tight and 
they leak air. 

Fig. I represents a short cistern 
pump, with 3-inch cylinder, 2 feet 
below the platform. It is well 
adapted to be set upon a sink or 
stand in the house, and is very 
convenie nt b y 

the use of hos'e Force 
for filling reser- Pump. 

voirs on the stove, or tubs at a 
distance from the pump, as well 
as a means of protection against 
fire. 

Fig. 2 represents a force pump 
suitable to wells from 10 to 200 
feet in depth. It is made by the 
Stover Wind Engine Co., Freeport, 
Ill. 

Fig. 3 represents a force pump 
with cylinder several feet below 
the platform. It may be attached 
to a windmill. This and the one 
represented by Fig. i are made by 
Mast, Foos & Co., Springfield, O. 

Fig. 4 illustrates a good iron 
pump, suitable for household pur¬ 
poses. It is made by the Sand¬ 
wich Enterprise Co., Sandwich, Ill. 



Fig. 4. —House Pump. 



























































1056 


P UMPKIN—P YPOME TER. 


Pumpkin, large, coarse edible fruit of the gourd 
family. Both the vine and fruit are the heaviest of 
all the gourd order. In the early settlement of this 
country, and especially of the Northwest, the pump¬ 
kin was extensively cultivated for culinary purposes, 
but of late has been very largely supplanted by the 
squash for this purpose. It is, however, very generally 
raised, usually among corn, as food for stock. The 
cultivation is the same as that of the squash, which 
see. The principal varieties are as follows: 

Sweet. Small, but best for stewing and for pies. 

Large Cheese. Like the crook-neck squash; fine 
for cooking. 

Connecticut or Large Field. Best for stock. 

Michigan Mammoth. A heavy cropper; soft- 
shelled ; good for stock. 

Negro, or Nigger. Small, dark-skinned; the 
pumpkin from which New England grandmothers 
made their famous pumpkin pies. 

Tree. Grows in bush form and bears its fruit in a 
cluster near the base; good for pies. 

Pupa, an insect in the state intermediate between 
the larva state and the fully developed. 

Purging, free and excessive alvine discharge: see 
Cathartics. 

Purslane, often called “ pursley,” is perhaps the 
most common weed in rich, cultivated grounds. It 
is a member of the Portulaca family, has fleshy, mu¬ 
cilaginous stems and leaves and yellow flowers, and 
grows almost prostrate on the ground, forming a heavy 
mat. Pigs are very fond of it, and it is doubtless 
good, nutritious food for them. It is sometimes used 
as greens, being boiled with meat and vegetables, 
especially with mustard, to give the mess some degree 
of piquancy. Medically it is reputed to be a cooling 
diuretic. 


Purulent Matter: see Pus. 

Pus, foul matter which collects in a diseased part; 
as in a common boil. It varies in appearance and 
consistency and chemical composition according to 
the nature of the sore which forms it. In bad and 
refractory sores it is thin, transparent, acrid and fetid; 
and in a healing or well-conditioned one, it is yellow¬ 
ish-white, creamy, opaque, bland and inodorous. 
Healthy pus, as the latter kind is called, is insoluble 
in water, is thickened but not dissolved by alcohol 
and has a specific gravity of 103. It forms a soapy 
whitish fluid with soda Or potash, a transparent jelly 
with ammonia, and seems to be more nearly allied to 
albumen than the other animal principles. The dis¬ 
tinguishing of pus from catarrhal mucus is important 
in diagnosis of chest diseases, and may be effected 
by means of the following tests : when the two are 
mixed with water, the pus sinks and the mucus floats; 
when the two are separately dissolved in potash, the 
pus is precipitated by water, and the mucus is not; 
and when they are dissolved in sulphuric acid and 
water is afterwards added, the pus subsides to the 
bottom, and the mucus continues in suspension. 

Putrefaction, the spontaneous and ultimate de¬ 
composition of organic substances. The more nitro¬ 
gen there is in the substance the more rank and 
repulsive is the odor. 

Pyrometer, an instrument for the measurement of 
temperatures above those which we are able to esti¬ 
mate by the mercurial thennometer. Mercury boils at 
660*^, above which point it is incapable of measuring 
heat, although many temperatures connected with the 
most common processes are greatly above this point; 
as, for example, the heat of a common fire, the melt¬ 
ing of iron, silver, copper and gold. 







Q 



xo UAIL, a most excellent bird of the Par- 
I; tridge family and of the same order as the 
{ domestic cock, prairie-chicken and other 


grouse, turkey, etc. There are several 
species, but the most important is known as 
the quail in the North and partridge in the 
South, and scientifically as Ortyx Virginianus. 
It is also known in many sections as “ Bob White,” 
deriving this name from the note which the male 
gives utterance to. Its clear whistle is composed of 
three notes, the last being the loudest. .In the sum¬ 
mer when his mate is sitting and in the early fall, the 
male bird sits on the fence or on a low tree and 
whistles “ Bob White” for an hour at a time. They 
have quite a variety of notes, which they utter when 
several of them meet, as if in social converse. It is 
ten inches in length; the prevailing color above is a 
brownish red, the under part white, tinged with 
brown before, and marked with obtusely V-shaped 
spots of black; the head is beautifully marked with 
pure white and black. The female has the white 
markings of the head replaced by brownish yellow, 
and the black wanting. They build their nest near 
a tuft of grass, and lay from lo to 18 pure white eggs. 

The Mountain quail of California is the largest and 
perhaps the most beautiful of all the varieties. Be¬ 
sides these are the Texas quail, Arizona quail or 
Gambel’s partridge, and the Valley or Meadow quail. 

In fair weather, the favorite feeding ground of the 
(juail is on the wheat stubble, and generally not far 
from a brook or slough, if there be one in the field. 
It is protected, in certain seasons, in almost every 
State by law. 

Quarter, the fourth part of anything, or the divi¬ 
sion of a carcass comprising one of the limbs; or, 25 
or 28 pounds weight, according as the “ hundred¬ 
weight” is reckoned at 100 or 112 pounds; or a meas¬ 
ure of grain equal to eight bushels. 

Quicksilver, mercury. See Mercury. 


Quidding, throwing out of half masticated food 
from the mouth by horses, as illustrated by Fig. 54, 
on page 772. It is caused by some disease, or sore¬ 
ness of the mouth. 


Quills, the hard and strong feathers of geese, 
swans, turkeys, crows, ostriches and some other birds. 
In former times the quill was in general use for writing 
and drawing, and consequently much more sought 
than at present. 

Quince. This fruit in its raw stale is not fit to 


eat, but is excellent when cooked, made into marma¬ 
lade, preserved or served with other fruits; dried 
quince is a good article of diet. The tree seldom 
grows higher than 15 feet, and when properly grown 
and laden in the fall with its golden fruit, is very 
ornamental. It has large white and pale pink blos¬ 
soms, which appear rather later than those of other 
fruit trees. 

Propagation and Cultivation. The quince is 
easily propagated from seeds, layers or cuttings. 
From the seeds, however, it is somewhat liable to 
vary in its fruit, sometimes yielding the apple-shaped 
and sometimes the pear-shaped variety. Budding 
upon free-growing sorts, as the Angers, is often prac¬ 
ticed, but perhaps the best method is to prepare cut¬ 
tings in autumn, heel them in for the winter, and 
plant them in a shaded situation in very early spring. 
Quince stocks are extensively used in engrafting or 
budding the pear when it is wished to render that 
tree dwarf in its habit. Moist but well-drained ground 
is the best for the quince. High land is better than 
low, and it should be kept rich and mellow. As to 
aspect, a northern exposure is said to be best. For 
a fertilizer, salt, iron cinders or coal dust, or perhaps 
better all three, are recommended. Look about the 
roots and trunk of the tree two or three times a year for 
the borer, probing for him and destroying with a wire. 

Varieties. The three best varieties of quince 
seem to be the following: 

Angers. ‘A strong, rapid-growing sort, an abund¬ 
ant bearer; fruit large, of fine quality, but does not 
cook quite as tender as the Apple quince; will keep 
longer; flesh a little harsher and more acid. 

Orange., Apple., or Apple-Shaped. Large, roundish, 
with a short neck; bright, golden yellow; fair and 
smooth; ripe in October. Tree has rather slender 
shoots and oval leaves; very productive. This is the 
variety most extensively cultivated for the fruit, 
j Rea's Mammoth, a very large variety of the Orange 
j Quince; a strong grower, healthy and productive. 

' Quinine, an alkaline, uncrystallizable, whitish sub¬ 
stance, the active principle of cinchona or Peruvian 
bark. It is the greatest remedy known for intermit¬ 
tent diseases, and is taken quite successfully as a 
* tonic. A full dose for an adult is from 10 to 15 
grains, but as a tonic from i to 2 grains is sufficient. 
The dose for a horse is from 20 to 40 grains three 
times a day. It is good in influenza, lung fever, etc., 
but is too costly for general veterinary purposes. 

Quittor: see page 820. 










R 





V ABBET, a rectangular cut made upon the 
edge of a board, iron or wheel, so that it 
may be kept from sliding off in one direc¬ 
tion; also, a sloping cut made in the edge 


of a board to form a joint with another board 
^ similarly cut. The word is also used to denote 
the action of making such a cut. 


Rabbit, a species of gnawing quadruped of the hare 
genus. It nestles in brush and in the trunks of trees, 
and often ascends their hollow as far as their branch¬ 
es. The Gray rabbit is common throughout a large 
part of the United states, is fifteen to sixteen inches 
in length, the general color yellowish-brown with a 
tinge of reddish, the lower parts pure white. It does 
not turn white in winter. When first started, the 
Gray rabbit runs with great swiftness, but soon stops 
to listen. It is well known to hunters that they can 
stop it when first startled, by whistling. If pursued, 
and if tlie woods be open^ it enters the first hole it 
can find. It often falls a prey to the weasel, as well 
as to other larger enemies. Its flesh is excellent food. 

Domestic Rabbits. While the name rabbit is 
applied to several species of this animal in this coun¬ 
try, it is probable that there is no genuine North 
American rabbit, but our species of this genus are 
hares. They do not construct burrows, as does the 
true rabbit, and are mainly solitary in their habits. 
All of our domesticated rabbits are therefore inqxtrted. 

Dutch Rabbit. The most hardy of all the domes¬ 
tic rabbits is the common white and black or Dutch 
rabbit. This is the smallest variety but its flesh is 
more delicate and palatable than the larger kinds. 
It is occasionally gray, slate color, yellowish or 
brindle, mixed with white. The white is in a 
ring around the neck, a streak up the face, and 
on the tip of each foot. The does of this variety 
are excellent mothers, and will foster and rear 
young ones not their own without the least objection, 
and being good feeders, can take care of a large litter 
without any trouble. They produce from five to seven 
young at a litter, and when full grown will weigh 
from three to five pounds. 

The Lop-Eared Rabbit is the most popular of all 
varieties; it is remarkable for the length of its ear, 
which sometimes reaches 21 or 22 inches. In color 
this variety differs greatly; in fact it may be said to 
be of all colors, but the tortoise shell is a favorite and 
somewhat rare color. It weighs, when in good condi¬ 
tion, from 10 to 12 ix)unds. 

Silver-Gray Rabbit. This is an Asiatic variety. 


being a native of Siam." They are plump and solid 
and weigh from six to nine pounds. When young 
they are black, but as they grow older white hairs ap¬ 
pear mingled with the black, and at maturity they 
are a solid silver-gray, except at the tip of the nose. 

The Belgian Hare Rabbit., which is of a solid red¬ 
dish color, is the largest variety known; it reaches a 
weight of 10 or 12 pounds when fattened. They are 
easily kept, are excellent feeders, are docile and not 
pugnacious although timid, and are alarmed even by 
a mouse. 

The Himalayan or Chinese Rabbit is a beautiful 
little animal, being mostly pure white, excepting on 
the ears, the tip of the nose and the feet, which are 
black. They weigh about five pounds when fully 
grown and fat. They are not difficult to rear if cau¬ 
tion is taken to protect them from the sudden 
changes, and provide them with warm pens and nests. 

There are several other varieties known to fanciers. 
The so-called Patagonian, a cream-colored rabbit 
from Savoy, is very large. The Angora, like the goat 
of that country, has long, silky fur, which has to be 
combed to keep it in good order. 

The Commott rabbit., which is of all sizes, shapes 
and colors, is the most frequently met with. It is a 
cross breed in which the most common varieties have 
mingled until it has no distinctive mark. But 
although common in every respect, it is far from use¬ 
less, because it is the best kind for a person who 
wishes to raise rabbits to begin with, and a pair may 
often be procured for such a moderate sum as to be 
within the means of almost any country boy who has 
the most meager supply of pocket money. 

Care and Management. In beginning to keep 
rabbits, one should avoid the mistake of attempting 
to rear the rarer and more expensive, as well as the 
less hardy varieties. The common gray or black and 
white rabbits can be procured cheaply, and a hutch 
made of a few boards and laths will be a cheap and 
yet sufficient lodging. When these can be kept suc¬ 
cessfully, all the difficulties conquered, and a good 
stock of experience has been gained, then the stock 
may be increased, and the more desirable varieties 
kept. 

In selecting rabbits, those about six months old 
should be procured, and kept for three or four months 
before they are paired. Young rabbits are to be 
known by the short claws, which do not project be¬ 
yond the fur of the foot, and by the small teeth. A 
healthy animal is known by the clearness and the 


X 








RABIES—I^A CIJVG. 


1059 


pure wliite color of the eye. The appearance of a 
yellow tinge to the white portion, with a swollen or 
jK)t belly, are signs of bilious disorder and deranged 
liver, which is the most frequent and dreaded disease. 
This is caused by over-feeding on soft, wet food. In 
good health the droppings are in round balls, having 
no disagreeable odor when fresh, and the animal is 
lively and sprightly. Three does and one buck are a 
safe number to begin with, although six or eight does 
may be mated with a single buck. 

The essentials in rearing and keeping rabbits are 
warmth, dry ness, good food in moderation, and per¬ 
fect cleanliness of the lodging. 

The general management of rabbits varies with the 
manner in which they are kept. The most hardy 
kind may be kept out of doors the whole year, and 
indeed any variety may be kept in open courts in 
mild weather, if warm shelter is provided during 
storms. 

Soft, short oat straw or chaff, or pine sawdust is the 
best bed. Clean oat straw will be eaten very readily, 
and the refuse will serve for litter. The feed should 
consist of some sliced ruta-baga, carrot or cabbage in 
the morning; whole oats or crushed corn will make 
the evening meal for full-grown animals. Young 
rabbits require crushed oats and bran, or ground oats 
and bran as usually used for horse feed. Sweet, fine 
meadow hay, dried lawn clippings, or clover, may 
also be provided for them. Peas or corn steeped in 
water and the water poured off are good food for fat¬ 
tening, and two tablespoonfuls a day will be sufficient 
for a full-grown rabbit. In cold weather a supper of 
thick corn-meal mush, given warm, but not hot, will 
be beneficial; barley and cut potatoes boiled dry and 
mixed with corn meal or linseed meal, may be given 
for a change. The feed should be given three times 
a day, and only so much as will be eaten clean. A 
pinch of sulphur and salt should be given once a 
week. A bed of chiccory may be grown for them, 
and dandelions are also useful. Very little water is 
needed, but if some is offered once a week, a sip or 
two may be taken. A little warm, sweet milk is very 
acceptable to them, but the dish should be removed 
as soon as they have taken what they wish. 

Rabbits should be paired first in February or 
March. The does should not be bred until five or 
six months old, and four litters in a year are as much 
as should be raised. The buck should not be left 
with the doe at coupling for more than a few minutes. 
When the doe is about to litter, she will begin to 
make a nest by carrying hay and straw to a corner of 
the pen. V/hen this is seen, the pen should be at 
once thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a little 
chloride of lime or diluted carbolic acid, and then 
sprinkled with fine sawdust. The dates of littering 
may be known by adding thirty days to the record of 
coupling. The day before littering a dish of fresh 
water should be given to the doe, and this will pre¬ 
vent the killing of the young, which is said to be 
caused by the intense thirst experienced at this time. 

No dogs or strangers should be permitted near the 


pens, and every movement should be so quiet as not 
to startle the doe, which is now very excitable. The 
young rabbits should never be touched. If any die, 
the doe will bring them to the door of the pen. 
Nursing does should have warm milk and bread 
given liberally morning and evening for the first three 
weeks; after that, carrots cut into slices, and thick 
corn mush, and soaked—but drained—peas may be 
given. After fifteen days the young rabbits may be 
seen peeping out of the nest, and in three weeks 
should be removed to a clean, warm pen. When a 
month old the young will leave the nest and will be¬ 
gin to feed with the dam. After two to four weeks 
more they may be removed, one at a time, so as to 
dry up the milk gradually. A little salt maybe given 
to help dry the milk. After they are four months old, 
the young rabbits will begin to quarrel and fight, and 
should be separated, the bucks being put into separate 
pens, and the does left four or six weeks together, 
until ready for breeding. 

At eight weeks old the young rabbits molt, and 
then require a little extra care. Some crushed oats, 
fresh carrots, and plenty of fresh, but not cold, air 
should be given at this time. Young growing 
rabbits will eat constantly, and should be provided for 
liberally. By carefully observing them, their habits 
will soon be learned, and all their necessities soon 
discovered. Prompt attention should then be given. 

To Prepare and Cook Rabbits. Skin the rabbit. 
First cut off the feet and the tail; cut the skin down 
the belly and around the neck; begin at the head 
and draw the skin off whole; open it and take out 
the entrails; be sure and get them perfectly clean; 
put them into cold water and let them soak until the 
blood is all washed out; then have a dressing made as 
for chicken, fill the bodies and sew them up. Roast 
or bake them the same as other game, basting often 
with butter. They require about an hour to cook. 
Make the gravy of the drippings with a little butter, 
salt, flour, and some currant jelly if you choose. 

Baked or Pot-Pie. The same as for pigeons or 
chicken. 

Rabies: see Hydrophobia; for rabies in the horse, 
see page 823. 

Race, a variety or breed of horses or cattle or 
other domestic animals; also, a trial of speed between 
two or more animals, particularly between two or more 
horses. 

Racing. This term is understood to mean a trial 
of speed under stringent conditions or rules, and in 
the way of public amusement and gaming, between 
two or more trained race-horses. We refer to the 
speed made by the fastest horses on this continent 
since racing has received any considerable attention, 
in the article Speed; and in that of Horse, have 
treated the breeds of horses generally used for racing, 
and therefore have little to say here. The general 
spirit of the race-course, however, certainly has a de¬ 
moralizing and immoral tendency upon the young. 
It is this feature in the State and county fairs that has 







io6o 


RACK-RAIL. 


caused so much discussion in every State and county 
and has been a detriment to the farmer. Traveling 
jockeys have taken the money that should have been 
distributed among the home producers. Not only that, 
but they have taken the money of the young men 
(and many older ones, too, that should have known 
better) in the way of bets. Never permit yourself to 
wager money on race horses; for though you may be 
a judge capable of selecting the best horse, you must 
remember that it is but seldom that the race is really 
a test of the speed of the respective animals. It is 
almost always arranged beforehand which horse shall 
win the respective heats and the race. Knowing 
this, the jockeys send out men to make bets in their 
behalf. Thus not only are the large purses captured 
but hundreds of dollars are carried away through the 
medium of bets. Therefore, never risk your money 
on horse-racing, especially of this character; for if you 
do it is rarely ever you win. 

We are aware that horse-racing is very popular 
with many; and none can deny that it is a grand 
and exciting scene to witness several magnificent 
specimens of this noble animal flying through the air, 
as it were, exerting every muscle and straining every 
nerve, and seeming to enjoy the contest as much as 
the enthusiastic spectators. Certainly such a scene 
will attract the attention of almost every lover ot the 
horse; but what is it all for.^ We do not require fleet, 
long-winded horses as they do on the deserts of Arabia, 
or the dashing speed needed on the plains of South 
America; and therefore these contests are not to de¬ 
velop any useful merit in the animal, but simply to 
gratify an abnormal desire of merciless men and 
women. As above remarked, the moral tendency of 
the race-course is evil, and one of the most demoraliz¬ 
ing outgrowths is that of learning young men to be 
reckless with their money. The habit of betting 
once contracted the train of evil that follows it will 
often prove disastrous, morally and financially. . On 
this basis, more than any other, is the race-course to 
be condemned. 


Rack, a frame for holding articles like a box, or 
large chamber: see page 189. 

Radish, a plant of the mustard family. The radish 
is supposed to be a native of China, but has long 
been cultivated here. They contain little else than 
water, woody fiber and acrid matter, which resides in 
the external part; they cannot, therefore, be very nutri¬ 
tive, and are very hard to digest. For summer use 

sow in early spring, 
either broadcast or 
in drills, taking care 
not to sow too thick 
and sow in soil 
which is well pul¬ 
verized to a good 
depth; cover the 
. „ , seed a half an inch 

Fig. I. —Extra Ea^ly Red Turnip Radish, , r 

deep; water fre¬ 
quently in dry weather; the more rapid the growth 



the better the quality; for a succession, sow every 

t w o weeks. The 
olive-shaped varie¬ 
ties are more ten¬ 
der, sweet and 
early than the long 
kinds, and not so 
apt to be worm- 
eaten. As soon as 
the plants are up 
commence sprink¬ 
ling freely with 



A standard 


Fig. 2. —Golden Globe Radish. 

ashes, to keep away the little black fly. 

Varieties. Red Turnip-Rooted. 
early variety. 

White Turnip-Rooted. For sum¬ 
mer and winter use. Sow in summer. 

Yellow Turnip. Rich color; early. 

Olive Scarlet. Early, quick growth, 
tender, handsome. 

French Breakfast. A beautiful 
variety of the Olive Scarlet, white at 
the extremity. 

Wood’s Frame. Excellent for cul¬ 
tivation under glass; in shape between 
Olive and Long. 

Chinese Rose Winter. Best for 
winter use. 

Black Spanish Long, and also the 
Round. Good for winter use. 

White Russian Winter. Largest of 
all for winter use. 

Figs. I, 2 and 3 illustrate the best 
new varieties. 

Rag-bolt, an iron pin with barbs 
on its shank to retain it in its place. 

Ragout (ra-goo'), a dish made of 
fragments of meat, sometimes of more 
than one kind, mixed, stewed and 
highly seasoned. Differs from hash only in not hav¬ 
ing vegetables cooked up with it. 


Fig. 3. —Long 
Scarlet Strap- 
Leaved Radish. 


Ragout of Cold Beef. Slice rare cold beef 
thiiily; put a piece of butter the size of an egg into a 
frying pan; lay in the slices of meat and brown it 
slightly; add to it a blade of mace, or a little nutmeg, 
Cayenne pepper and salt, a wine-glassful of mush¬ 
room catsup and a tablesjxionful of browned flour; 
stir all together over the fire, and add fz pint of the 
broth made of the trimmings of beef, and simmer 
5 minutes. 

Ragouts of other meats may be made in a similar 
manner, and those who are not prepared to add all 
the ingredients above mentioned can make the dish 
palatable enough in a simpler style. Some go so far 
as to add Port wine and a little browning to their 
ragouts. 


Rail, a piece of timber or metal extending from 
one post or fastening to another, as in fences, balus¬ 
trades, staircases, etc. Also, several species of water- 











RAIN—RAPE. 


io6i 


fowl, of the order of Waders. The most common 
species in this country is of a greenish-brown color 
above, and ashy blue with white markings below. 
Next are the Virginia rail, the Clapper rail or mud- 
hen, the King rail or marsh'hen, and the Little Black 
rail, most of which range near the ocean. 

Rain: see Climate and Weather. 

Rain Gauge, a graduated vessel for measuring 
the amount ot rain which falls during each storm. 
Sufficient exactness can be attained by setting out 
into an open place, uninfluenced by objects on the 
ground (on tfie top of a building is a good place) a 
cylindrical vessel. After the rain is over the number 
of inches (and fraction) of depth of water in the vessel 
will indicate the average amount of rain for that 
section. 

Raisins (ra'zns), dried grapes, especially certain 
kinds of grapes dried in a particular manner, so as to 
produce a highly flavored sugar. Raisins are used 
in so many culinary preparations and in so many ways 
that we cannot even enumerate them here. The 
skins and seeds are indigestible and yet innoxious. 
The fresher this fruit is the better. Old raisins be¬ 
come sour and wormy. Raisins stewed with other 
fruits make a very good sauce. 

Rake, a toothed implement for gathering hay, 
cleaning stubble, pulverizing small beds of soil, cover¬ 
ing small garden seeds, etc. This implement as used 
in mal ing hay is described in that article. The 
sharp-edged lawn rake has been replaced, since the 
introduction of the lawn mower, by one similar to the 
old hay rake, only with teeth much closer. Likewise 
six and eight inch rakes in company with wheel hoes 
have displaced the common rake for gardening 
purposes. 

In purchasing a garden rake it is false economy to 
select a cheap cast-iron one, instead of the lighter 
and stronger steel implement. See that the handle 
is long, tough and flexible, for in manipulating the 
soil, the backward movement is of greater importance 
than the forward one. In wooden rakes the handle, 
and especially the teeth, should be of tough, second- 
growth wood. 

Rake Head, the cross bar of a rake, which holds 
the teeth. 

Ram. A hydraulic or water ram is an apparatus 
for raising water several times higher than its source 
by the momentum of the current, in successive beats 
or strokes. A battering ram is a heavy beam which 
is thrust endwise against an object. The word also 
means a male sheep, known also as a tup and buck. 
This word however, and that of doe for the female, are 
incorrect, as they only refer to the deer. See Sheep. 

Ramie (ra-mee'),or Grass-Cloth Plant, is a mem¬ 
ber of the Nettle family from China, valuable for its 
textile fibers. It is a perennial and grows three to 
four feet high, with ovate leaves, which are white- 
downy beneath. Within the last 20 years it has been 


extensively planted in the South. The chief objection 
to its manufacture lies in the difficulty of economical¬ 
ly separating the fiber. In India and China, where 
labor is so wonderfully cheap, the cost of separating 
the fiber is said to be about S150 ^ ton, and the prod¬ 
uct in England is valued at $375 a ton. Ramie 
fiber differs from that of other members of its family, 
in that it cannot be separated from the stalks by the 
usual rotting process ; and the English have succeed¬ 
ed in inventing machinery, which they keep secret, that 
cuts off the fiber by a complication of knives, and 
they are therefore monoixjlizing the trade in Europe 
and in this country. Almost all the dress goods, 
mixed with brilliant materials and imitating silk fab¬ 
rics, are made in part of ramie. 

Cultivation. The soil must be deep, rich, light, 
moist and well drained; and it must also be thor¬ 
oughly cleared of weeds, plowed eight or ten inches 
deep, twice if possible, and thoroughly harrowed. 
Plant, in winter, the toots, “ratoons” or rooted layers, 
which have been carefully cut, and not torn, from the 
mother plant. Furrows five or six inches deep and 
five feet apart are opened with the plow, and the 
roots are laid lengthwise in them, in close succession 
if the fiber is the object; for nursery purposes they 
are given much more room. These are covered with 
a hoe, and during the spring and summer are cultiva¬ 
ted like corn. The stands are thickened by layering, 
so that after the first cutting the stems grow smooth 
and straight. 

Rancid (ran'sid), having a rank smell; strong- 
scented; sour; musty; as, old oil or butter. To pre¬ 
vent and rectify rancidity, see the respective articles^ 

Range, a word of considerable “ range ” of signifi¬ 
cation. Following are those coming within the scope 
of this volume: 

1. A Cooking Apparatus. This is a large cooking 
stove, with reservoirs for heated water. More strictly, 
a kitchen range is an extended cooking apparatus of 
cast iron, set in brick work, and containing pots, oven, 
etc. They are needed only in establishments where 
a great amount of cooking is done, as hotels, board¬ 
ing-houses, etc. 

2. Distance of Shot; the horizontal distance to 
which a shot or other projectile is carried; sometimes, 
though less properly, the path of the shot, or the line 
it follows from the gun to its final lodgment. 

3. Pasture; the extent of land over which live 
stock usually wander; as, cattle range. 

4. Direction from a Given Meridian. In the 
land system of the United States, the term is applied 
to a row or line of townships lying between two suc¬ 
cessive meridian lines six miles apart, and numbered 
in order east and west from the “ principal meridian ” 
of each great survey, the townships in the range being 
numbered north and south from the “base line,” 
which runs east and west; as, township No. 6 N., 
range 7 W., from the fifth principal meridian. See 
Township. 

Rape, or Colewort, a plant resembling the. brown 











Io 62 


RASH—RASFBERR Y. 


mustard and used for greens. The seed, which also 
resembles that of the mustard, yields oil, and is fed 
to caged birds. 

Rash, or Nettle Rash: see Hives. 

Rasp, a kind of coarse file, on which the cutting 
prominences are distinct, being raised by the oblique 
stroke of a sharp punch, instead of a chisel, as is the 
case with a file. Every farmer needs one for rasping 
iron and another for rasping wood. 

Raspberry. This most excellent fruit is fast becom¬ 
ing a favorite, both as a delicious edible fruit and as a 
profitable and easily cultivated variety. The cultiva¬ 
tion is simple, the yield generally large and the mar¬ 
ket price sufficiently high to make its culture gener¬ 
ally profitable. 

Propagation and Cultivation. The raspberry 
is propagated by suckers or new plants from the tips 
of the canes, some varieties mainly by one process and 
some by the other. The black-caps, yellow-caps and 
purple cane varieties are generally propagated by 
lightly burying the tips of the canes in the latter part 
of August or the beginning of September. If unmo¬ 
lested, however, they generally succeed in reaching 
the ground spontaneously, but in the garden the proc¬ 
ess can be advantageously aided by the hoe. The 
red varieties, not counting the purple cane, propagate 
themselves mainly by suckers, that is, plants from the 
roots. Some of the red varieties indeed are so given 
to sprouting in this way that the tendency is consider¬ 
ed a serious objection to their cultivation. The rasp¬ 
berry can also be propagated by sections of the roots 
two or three inches in length buried in the spring: 
this method is virtually that of forcing suckers. 

Transplanting is generally done in the fall, and in 
the spring it is almost impossible to get at them be¬ 
fore vital activity commences and the plants are 
somewhat sensitive or tender. If the two fields are 
near together, however, the young plants can be 
taken up early in the spring, with as much earth at¬ 
tached to the roots as ixissible, and transplanted with 
as great success as in the fall; but some horticul¬ 
turists wait in the spring until the young shoots are 
about six inches high before setting them out. 

The best soil is a deep, rich loam, kept tolerably 
moist. In those sections of the country which are 
subject to drouths it is advised to water the ground 
by pipes running underneath the surface and supplied 
by wind-mill pumps. The raspberry is very dependent 
upon an abundance of water. The better varieties are 
said to yield the best and most fruit if grown on the 
north side of a tight board fence, in the latitude of 
Iowa, while the poorer varieties do better on the 
south side of the fence. 

The distance between rows, and especially of the 
plants in the row, depend a great deal upon the kind 
of plants and style of cultivation contemplated. 
Western gardeners generally adopt the “hedge” 
method, making every row a hedge as compact as 
possible, one to two feet wide, to keep down the 
weeds and grass and for mutual support of the 


branches in fruit. Large and bushy varieties sliould 
be set about three feet apart in the row in rows eight 
or nine feet apart, while the lighter-growing kinds 
may be set i8 inches apart in the row, in rows about 
six feet distant; but in each case every rod or so 
there should be left a space wide enough for a wagon- 
track. It is the practice of some to put several plants 
in each place, thus making a broad and heavy stool. 
As soon as the plants are set mulch heavily with 
straw, stable manure or litter, which has no grass 
seed. Some gardeners think it is better to put it on 
from 6 to 12 inches-deep after the first season, for 
winter protection, keeping the ground moist and pre¬ 
venting the spattering of loose earth up upon the ripe 
fruit by rains. They take pains to press this mulch¬ 
ing in between the canes. The second season the 
mulching is either left on the ground and the weeds 
pulled by hand as they appear, or it is removed some¬ 
what and clean cultivation given. This cultivation 
should always be shallow, and with the strong-suck- 
ering kinds so managed as to cut off the suckers as 
much as possible. Deep plowing injures the roots. 
Some give clean cultivation from the start. Ln all 
cases level cultivation is advisable. 

As to pruning, there is a great difference of doc¬ 
trine as well as of practice among Western horticul¬ 
turists. Amateur cultivation, of course, contemplates 
a great deal more care than can be expected in 
ordinary field culture, which is followed only for profit. 
It is generally advised, however, to give the plants at 
least two pinchings or clippings a season,—the first 
in June, to keep the principal canes shortened back, 
and the second later, to shorten back both the prin¬ 
cipal canes and the branches. The smaller kinds 
are kept back to about 2 or 2^4 feet, and the larger 
kinds to 3 to 4 feet, while the branches are shortened 
back to 10 or 20 inches respectively. The second 
pinching of the branches leave them 3 to 6 inches 
longer than the first had. This plan, of course, is 
more necessary with the large-cane varieties. The 
Antwerps, Black-caps and Purple Canes are often 
neglected until the March following, when the scythe 
or shears or knife is very liberally used. Directly 
after the fruiting season is over all the old and useless 
wood should be cut out, leaving, among the strong¬ 
growing kinds, the canes 10 to 15 inches apart. By 
tying the Black-caps to stakes and careful pruning 
and adjustment, the branches will be more evenly 
distributed, an advantage in respect to both the ap¬ 
pearance of the hedge and the amount and quality of 
fruit. Bear in mind always that the main point in 
training is to bring the foliage into the direct sunlight 
as much as possible. 

As the raspberry field should be renewed every few 
years, a good general plan is the following; Plant 
the Black-caps in rows about 9 feet apart and about 
2j^ feet apart in the row; raise the first season cab¬ 
bage, beets or some other early vegetable between 
the rows; the second season plant strawberries mid¬ 
way between the rows, keep them clean and let the 
runners run as they please; after that cultivate only 











RASPBERR Y. 


1063 


with the scythe. In this way full crops of both rasp¬ 
berries and strawberries may be realized for five or 
six years, when all may be plowed under and the 
ground planted to something else. In this method 
summer pruning is superseded, the old wood being 
broken down in the spring. They are left standing 
through the winter, to protect the younger plants. 

Continuous cold east winds in the spring are 
thought to blast the raspberries. 

Varieties. It is a good plan to have a trial bed 
for new varieties, and not plant extensively of any of 
them until they are fully tried. 

Brandywine. Large, bright red, firm, beautiful; 
good for shipping a long distance, and is one of the 
most profitable varieties in Central and Southern Illi¬ 
nois; prolific, but not a strong grower. 

Bristol. A variety by this name does well in some 
places. 

Burns' Seedling. This is a new variety which 
promises well for the West. It originated at Manhat¬ 
tan, Kansas. 

Clarke. Large, conical, rather soft, juicy, sweet; 
grains large, quite hairy, bright crimson ; canes very 
strong, vigorous, upright; spines purplish, rather long 
and stiff; foliage large, flat, thick, and endures heat 
and cold better than any European kind we have; 
better suited to light, sandy soil, not entirely hardy, 
yet a good variety for Northern Illinois. It is one of 
the Antwerps. 

Cuthbert, Queen of the Market. Fruit hardly as 
rich as that of the Turner, but is large, of a bright 
red color, very firm, and the variety is immensely 
productive; foliage thick and leathery and holds on 
well in autumn. 

Davisons Thornless. This is a well-tested variety 
of the Black-Cap, being very profitable in the hands 
of some, but entirely abandoned by others. It is sub¬ 
ject to an insect which causes a rust or blast on both 
leaf and stalk. 

Doolittle's Dnproved Black-Cap is the best known 
cultivated black raspberry, and in the hands of many 
is still one of the most profitable. 

Florence. This variety is hardy and productive, 
but is not yet very extensively planted. 

Franconia. Large, obtuse conical, dark purplish 
- red, of a rich and fine flavor; canes hardy, spreading, 
yellowish brown, with scattered, rather stout purple 
spines; leaves rather large, very deep green; suckers 
badly. 

Ganargua. Very large, round oblong, very pro¬ 
ductive, fair to very good dessert and cooking and 
canning, but poor for market on account of its dirty 
looking color, having a thick bloom; does not sucker. 

Gregg. Very large, round, black-cap, pulpy, good 
flavor, enormously productive, and one of the most 
profitable varieties for the West, if not altogether the 
most profitable. 

Highland Hardy. This is scarcely distinguishable 
from the Kirtland, and is a profitable kind for Central 
and Southern Illinois. 

Hudson River Anhverp. Large, conical, firm. 


rather dull red, with slight bloom, not very juicy but 
of a pleasant, sweet flavor; canes short but of sturdy 
growth, almost spineless, of a peculiar gray or mouse 
color; an old variety, not much planted at the pres¬ 
ent day. 

Kirtland. Medium size, grains small, light crimson, 
slight bloom, tender, not very juicy or high flavored; 
separates freely; a vigorous, upright grower, nqt much 
branched; spines whitish, not very stout or numerous; 
the earliest to ripen; suckers freely; a most valuable 
early variety in Southern Illinois. 

Manwwth Cluster., McCormick., Miami Black-Cap., 
Large Miami Black-Cap. Medium to large, obtuse 
conical, fair dessert, very good cooking and market; 
canes strong, vigorous, immensely productive, bearing 
large clusters outside of the leaves, on which account 
one can gather them more rapidly than any other 
variety; its grayish bloom hinders its sale among ’ 
strangers, as it looks like mildew; somewhat late; 
subject to blight in some situations; under the man¬ 
agement of some horticulturists it is the most profit¬ 
able variety they can raise. Some think the Miami 
is a distinct variety, not quite so large as the Mam¬ 
moth Cluster, but it may be confounded with the 
Little Miami Black-Cap, which is indeed of a more 
brownish red, not quite as sweet and not quite as late 
in ripening. 

Miller s Daily. Large, juicy, and of excellent 
flavor; plant hardy,'productive, and said to produce 
a few berries for several months after the fruiting 
season. 

New Rochelle. Large to vtxy large, juicy, subacid, 
blackish, with a clay-colored bloom, good dessert, best 
cooking, but poor for the market on account of itscolor. 

Ohio Ever-Bearing. A black-cap variety, bearing 
fruit until very' late in the season, on which account 
it is esteemed by some, but when not productive the 
picking is too tedious. It should therefore be very 
highly cultivated. The fruit is of very good quality. 

Orange, Brinckle's Orange. Large, beautiful orange, 
a little soft, sweet, and of excellent flavor; canes 
strong, branched; spines white and strong; very 
productive. 

Philadelphia. Medium to large, dark crimson or 
purplish red, rather soft, moderately juicy, mild sub¬ 
acid, but of a peculiar, unsatisfying flavor; separates 
freely, indeed, too freely, and is yielding its place to 
better varieties; canes vigorous, tall, branching, al¬ 
most free from spines, and suckers most vigorously; 
subject to insects and in some places is winter-killed; 
its liability to the last calamity is thought to be due 
to the work of small insects which destroy the leaves 
in summer and prevents the ripening of the canes. 
With all these draw-backs some extensive growers 
make more money out of this variety than any other. 

It is very good for canning. 

Purple' Cane. Medium size, purplish maroon, 
slight bloom, soft, juicy and rich, good dessert, best 
cooking, but poor market on account of its softness. 

Reliance. Good, moderately firm, hardy, and 
prolific. 





1064 


/^ AT . 


Senecciy Seneca £lack-Cap. Medium to large, pur¬ 
plish black, light brown, juicy, the sweetest and best 
of the Black-Caps; showy ; canes vigorous and pro¬ 
ductive; spines reddish, strong and numerous. 

Saveet Home. Same as the Mammoth Cluster ex¬ 
cept that the berry is a little longer, according to 
some. 

Thwack. Very hardy, productive, canes short, not 
exceeding four feet; requires no pruning, but suckers 
extensively; fruit large, firm and good. 

Turtier. A red variety of the Antwerp class, and 
one of the most profitable varieties in Central and 
Southern Illinois. Should be planted in rows five or 
six feet apart, with very few canes to the hill and the 
hills about eighteen inches apart in the row; give 
clean cultivation and keep free from suckers, to which 
it is very Subject. It is comparatively free from in¬ 
sects and the red rust; it ripens its fruit rather grad¬ 
ually,—too gradually when the crop is not heavy, as it 
makes the picking too tedious. This variety also fails 
in the hands of some gardeners. 

Winant. A hardy and good berry. 

The three best Black-Cap varieties for the latitude 
of Northern Illinois and Iowa are the MammothClus- 
ter, Gregg and Seneca, and the three best red varie¬ 
ties are the Cuthbert, Turner and Kirtland. The 
Miami and Doolittle are among the best in the esti¬ 
mation of some; but so much is due to situation, 
season, and cultivation that no general classification 
of the “ best’’can be regarded as infallible. 

Hat. The rat family comprises rats, mice, and 
their immediate allies, in all more than 300 species, 
some of which are found in every country on the 
globe. None are of large size, the muskrat being the 
largest, and some are the smallest quadrupeds known, 
except the shrews. There are four species of the 
genus Mus, or rats and mice, in the United States. 
These are the Norway or brown rat, the black rat, 
the roof rat and the house mouse. 

Norway or Brown Rat. The common brown or 
Norway rat, now so extensively diffused over this 
country, vyas conveyed to England about 1750 in the 
timber-ships from Norway; and hence it has received 
one of its common names. Many years subsequently 
it was brought to this country in European ships, and 
has been gradually propagated from the seaports over 
the greater part of our continent. 

The brown rat takes up its residence about wharfs, 
store-houses, cellars, granaries etc., and destroys the 
common black rat and mouse, or entirely expels them 
from the vicinities it frequents. To chickens, rabbits, 
young pigeons, ducks, and various other domestic 
animals it is equally destructive, when urged by hun¬ 
ger and opportunity. Eggs are also a favorite article 
of food with this species, and are sought with great 
avidity ; in fact, everything that is edible falls a prey 
to their voracity, and can scarcely be secured from 
their persevering and audacious inroads. When at¬ 
tacked, and not allowed an opiX)rtunity of escaping, 
he becomes a dangerous antagonist, leaping at his 
enemy and inflicting severe and dangerous wounds 


with his teeth. The most eager cat becomes imme¬ 
diately intimidated in the presence of one of these 
rats thus penned up, and is very willing to escape the 
dangers of an encounter. The brown rat is amaz- 
ingly prolific, and, but for its numerous enemies and 
its own rapacious disposition, would become an in¬ 
tolerable pest. Happily for the world, in addition to 
man, to the weasel, the cat and some species of dog 
etc., rats frequently find destructive enemies in each 
other, both in the adult and young state. The 
strongest of the species prey upon the weaker, and 
are the most merciless destroyers of their own kind. 
The cunning of these rats is not less than their impu¬ 
dence; it is almost impossible to take them in traps, 
after one or two have been thus caught, as the. rest 
avoid it with scrupulous care, however tempting may 
be the bait it contains. 

Black Rat. The black rat was much more com¬ 
mon previous to the introduction of the brown rat 
than at present. It is now found only in situations to 
which the brown rat has not extended, and is almost 
as injurious and destructive, resembling it closely in 
manners and habits. It is of a deep iron-gray, and 
indeed nearly of a black color above, and of an ash 
color on the lower part of its body. Its legs are near¬ 
ly naked, and on its fore feet, instead of the rudimen- 
tal thumb, it has a claw. The length, from the nose 
to the root of the tail, is seven inches; the tail itself 
is almost eight inches long. The black rat was also 
carried from Europe to this country. 

Roof Rat. The roof rat, or white-bellied rat of 
the Southern States, is smaller than the brown rat. 

It was originally from Egypt, where it frequented the 
thatched roofs of houses; hence its name. 

Mouse. The house mouse, originally from Europe 
and Asia, is grayish-brown, finely lined with darker, 
passing into ashy lead, with reddish tinge on, the 
belly; the feet are ashy brown. 

d o Destroy and Drive Away Rats and AIice. 
The preparations for driving away and destroying 
these pests are numbered by hundreds, so that it 
would be quite out of place to attempt to give all of 
them. We therefore will give a few of the effective. 

As above referred to, it is often very difficult to catch 
any considerable number in traps," however good the 
trap may be, for they are so cunning as to avoid them 
after two or three have been caught. The surest way 
to get rid of them, perhaps, is by some special poison, 
or by means of peculiarly scenting the traps. Arsenic 
has been extensively used for this purpose, but the 
fatal accidents which frequently occur when this 
poison is kept about the house render it a very ob¬ 
jectionable resource. Whatever poison is prepared 
for rats or mice, it is well to place close beside it a 
shallow vessel of water. If the animal can obtain 
water it will drink as soon as it has swallowetl the 
poison, and die directly on the spot instead of running 
to its hole, perishing there, and so causing a disagree¬ 
able smell. 

Gum camphor placed about the haunts of mice will 





















J^A TAFIA—REAPER. 


1065 


drive them away: so will most odoriferous drugs. 

Recent experiments have shown that squills is an 
excellent poison for rats. The powder should be 
mixed with some fatty substance and spread upon 
slices of bread. The pulp of onions is also good. 
Rats are very fond of either. 

To Drive Rats Away From a Building. Dis¬ 
solve 2 ounces glue, 2 ounces tincture assafcetida and 
2 ounces potash in water, and add ounce phos¬ 
phorus to the mixture. Then, in a wire cage trap, 
baited with corn meal scented with oil of anise, 
catch two or three rats; if they are very numer¬ 
ous, more rats will probably be necessary; singe 
the hair partly off these in such a way as to hurt 
them as little as possible, then give them a slight 
coating with the above mij^ture, heated warm; let 
them loose into their holes, and there will be no more 
trouble with the rats for months to come. This mix¬ 
ture will last two years. Or, take chloride of lime, 
and scatter it dry all around and into their holes, and 
wherever they haunt, and they will leave at once. 

Ferrets are very successful exterminators of rats. 

As prevention is better than cure, it is wise to make 
all buildings rat-proof, which we show how to do in 
the article on Residence and elsewhere in this 
volume. 

Ratafia (rat-a-fe'a), a fine spirituous liquor, flavored 
with cherries, apricots, peaches or other fruit and 
sweetened with sugar. It is made chiefly for the 
purpose of flavoring pies, puddings and other dishes. 

Ratchet, a bar or mechanism turning upon a pivot 
while the other end falls into the teeth of a wheel or 
rack, allowing the latter to move in one direction on¬ 
ly,—used for preventing backward movement, or for 
converting reciprocating into forward motion. A 
ratchet wheel is one with slanting teeth, which catch 
a ratchet, and is thus prevented from turning back. 

Ratchet Wheel, a wheel cut with teeth like those 
of a saw, against which a click or ratchet presses, 
admitting free motion to the wheel in one direction, 
but insuring it against reverse motion. 

Ratoon (ra-toon'), a sprout from the root of the 
sugar cane, ramie, etc., raised in the Southern States. 

Rat-tail, like a rat’s tail in form; as, a rat-tail 
file, which is round, rasped or roughened and taper¬ 
ing. The term rat-tail is also a name for an excres¬ 
cence growing from the pastern to the middle of the 
shank of a horse. See page 823. 

Rattlesnake, a snake with a series of horny but¬ 
tons on the end of the tail, which rattle. More 
strictly, it is a snake of the genus Crotalus., of yael- 
lowish-brown color, and having rattles, with which 
they make a noise on the approach of danger. 

The common rattlesnake is three to four feet long, 
sulphur-brown above, with two rows of confluent, 
lozenge-shaped brown sjxits; tail black; it has but 
few teeth, and in the place of a couple it has a pair of 
sharp-pointed, movable fangs, so arranged as to con¬ 
vey poison from a gland at their base into the wound 


which they inflict upon an animal. It has a deep 
pit between the eye and the nostril. The snake is 
generally sluggish and never attacks animals unless 
disturbed or hungry; but the slightest noise will 
arouse it, when it will immediately coil, rattle vio¬ 
lently and strike at whatever comes within reach. It 
never pursues the object of its anger, as some people 
imagine, but strikes on the spot, recoils and repeats 
the blow as often as it can until it ascertains that its 
enemy, real or imagined, is gone. Its food is young 
rabbits, squirrels, birds and toads, which it secures by 
lying in wait for them. The number of rattles do not 
indicate the number of years of age of this snake, as 
has been sup^xised. 

The Diamond rattlesnake of the Southern Atlantic 
States is eight feet long. 

The Prairie rattlesnake, or Massasauga, is of an¬ 
other genus than the foregoing, growing to the length 
of 20 or 30 inches. 

The Copperhead and Water Moccasin are members 
of the rattlesnake family, but are of different genera 
from all the foregoing. The latter flourishes in the 
Southern States only and is more dangerous than the 
Common rattlesnake, as it hangs on low branches of 
trees over the water and attacks everything that 
comes along without giving the slightest warning. 

As the country becomes more densely ^xipulated, 
all these venomous reptiles are gradually killed off, 
until they will finally disappear altogether. For the 
treatment of their bites, see page 89. 

Razor. For instructions to hone, strap and keep 
razor in order, see Shaving. 

Reach: see Coupling Pole. 

Ready Reckoner, a book w'hich contains extended 
mathematical tables, to supersede tedious arithmetical 
calculations. Many kinds have been published, but 
they are generally found to be more tedious to operate 
than the ordinary common-school method. To the 
farmer they are therefore of no practical value. 

Reaper, a machine for cutting cereal grains, by 
means of horse labor. It is one of the grandest agri¬ 
cultural inventions of modern times. While as far back 
as 2,000 years ago there were machines used for cut¬ 
ting grain driven by oxen, yet it is only within the 
past quarter of a century that the modern machine 
has been considered a success. Inventors, how¬ 
ever, have been triumphant in overcoming all 
obstacles and objections, and now the American 
reaper has a w^orld-wide reputation. 

The successful introduction of these machines was 
an immeasurable step in advance upon the old meth¬ 
ods of cutting grass. They come in at a season when 
the work of a farm is peculiarly laborious, when labor 
is held at higher than the usual high rate of wages, 
when the weather is often fickle, either ojipressively 
hot and trying to the physical system, or catchy and 
lowering, and they relieve the severest strain iqxjii 
the muscles at the time of harvest. Our reapers are 
at the same time self-rakers. We can reap and gather 






io66 


REAR — REFR/GERA TO R. 


from 15 to 20 acres a day in the most satisfactory 
manner. 

In 1870 inventive talent was earnestly directed to 
self-binding machines. The first successful attempt 
in this direction was the Marsh harvester, which cut 
the grain and carried it to tables at which two ex¬ 
pert binders would tie the bands as fast as delivered, 
working from 8 to 12 acres per day according to the 
heft and standing of the grain. It will not be neces¬ 
sary to follow inventive talent further in the perfection 
of reaping machines: suffice it to say, the earlier in¬ 
ventions have been improved on and elaborated. 
Lightness of draft combined with great strength 5 the 
avoidance of undue friction, and last, motion; the 
power of starting with a clean cut in heavy, and, in- 
deed, green and tangled bottom; automatic raking, 
and later automatic binding, and the delivery of the 
bound sheaves in piles ready for shocking,—all these 
points have been successfully elaborated within the 
last decade. Besides this, machines do not now 
easily get out of order. 

Rear, to raise up the fore part of the body and 
stand on the hind feet only : said generally of horses. 

Rearing, of horse : see page 721. 

Receipts and Bills. One of the simplest trans¬ 
actions of business is that of taking a receipt for the 
payment oLmoney. As a general rule, receipts should 
be taken for the payment of money, and a receipted 
bill in payment of all things purchased. A bill re¬ 
ceipted is especially important when one is in the 
habit of buying on credit, for the most careful mer¬ 
chant may present you a bill you have already paid 
and a careless merchant is more liable to do it. See 
that the bills are dated and signed. Kxamine the 
extensions and footings. 

Red-bud, or Judas Tree,, a low tree common in 
the^ eastern portion of the United States from latitude 
41° southward. Its principal merit is in yielding a 
showy head of crimson flowers in early spring before 
the leaves appear. Its seed is produced in pods like 
peas. A European species has larger flowers, and is 
barely hardy m_ the Northern States except as a 
shrub, where it is sometimes set in the landscape. 
Still another variety flourishes in California and Texas. 

Red Clover: see Clover, page 251. 

^ Red Lead, the red oxide of lead; used principally 
in painting, plumbing and the manufacture of flint 
glass. 

Red Pepper: see Pepper. 

Red-top, a well-known grass raised for hay,_ 

probably next in value to timothy: see page 597. 

Red Water, a common and severe disease in cattle 
and sheep. For Sheep see that article, for Cattle see 
page 217. 

Reel, the revolving frame of a reaping machine, 
to throw the standing grain against the knives; also 
the instrument attached to the but of an angling or 


fishing-rod for winding in the line: see page 470. 

Refrigerant (re-frij'er-ant), cooling, freezing. 

Refrigerator, a box for keeping articles cool in 
summer by means of ice. In the articles Ice and Ice 
House we spoke of the value of ice during the sum¬ 
mer season, and gave instructions for building ice¬ 
houses, putting up and preserving ice. In con¬ 
nection with the plans illustrated in the latter article 
we wish to give a most excellent design for a large 
refrigerator, one which requires but one filling during 
the year. The plan represents a building 25 feet 
square, inside measure, and 22 feet from the floor of 



A Large Re/rigerator. 

the cold room to the ceiling over the ice. The ice 
^m is 12 feet high and the cold room nine feet. 
Pillars are required under the center of the ice. The 
opening for putting in the ice, shown just under the 
pulley in the illustration, has two doors, with a space 
between. Each door is a foot in thickness. The 
window in the cold room has three set of sash. The 
walls are 13 inches thick, of brick, lined with 17 
inches sawdust. Thirty-six inches of sawdust are 
put on the floor over the ice. 

The drainage of the ice is carried off by a series of 
V-shaped tin or iron troughs, which run between the 
joists, all of which carry the water to one point, where 
It IS conveyed outside by a trap pipe. These troughs 
reach over to the center of the top of the joists, and 
are solaered together, so that no water will drip on 
the floor below. It will be seen that in this plan 
there is no sawdust or other preservative in contact 
widi the ice, and the air of the room circulates around 
and over the ice. As long as the temperature of the 
goods stored is above the temperature of the room 
there will be a gentle draft around the mass of ice[ 
and of course all the moisture in the air, vapors and 
odors Lorn the goods, w-ill condense on the ice and 
pass off, so that you can keep milk, cream, butter, 










































































1067 


REIN—RESIDENCE. 

4 


fruits and meats all in the same chamber without 
danger of injuring the flavor of either. The atmos¬ 
phere of the room is always dry, sweet and pure, and 
the temperature will range from 34® in winter to 
36® in summer, and will preserve fruit perfectly from 
season to season. The ice does not rest directly on 
the joists; but there is a bed of oak lath, about 
by 3 inches, laid across the joists, about 4 or 5 inches 
apart, on which the ice is laid. 

Rein, the guiding strap of a bridle,—generally used 
in the plural, as “the reins.” 

Remittent or Bilious Fever. This form of 
periodical fever is scarcely less common than the in¬ 
termittent fever or fever and ague. It differs from 
it in being more violent in its attack, as well as in 
having its first and last stages less distinct, and its 
middle or hot stage of much longer continuance, so 
that the intermission is very short, and in some cases 
scarcely observable. 

Marsh miasma is considered the general remote 
cause of remittent as well as intermittent fever. Thus 
it is mostly confined to low grounds or marshy dis¬ 
tricts, and places bordering on sluggish streams. 
The disease is more common in Southern latitudes 
and occurs mostly in autumn. 

Symptoms. A sense of languor or debility, and re¬ 
laxation, attended with lassitude and peevishness, or 
irritableness of temper. Generally there is a remark¬ 
ably increased sensitiveness to cold, and shortly before 
the febrile paroxysms set in, there is a distressing ten¬ 
derness of the skin, so that the slightest touch causes 
pain. At times, transient chills, alternated with 
slight flashes of heat, are experienced at this stage. 
These symptoms continue, longer or shorter, until 
finally the fever is fully established. The sufferings 
of the patient are now much enhanced by intense pains 
in the head, eyes, back and limbs, particularly in the 
bones of the legs. There is also an intolerable sore¬ 
ness of the flesh, lasting for many days. The skin is 
dry, and the mouth and eyes also lack moisture. The 
tongue is covered with a thick brownish-yellow fur, 
and the thirst intolerable. These symptoms, accom¬ 
panied with a high fever, run on for a longer or shorter 
period, when they moderate down somewhat, or give 
way entirely, for a short time, to a slight perspiration. 
This remission generally occurs in the morning, and 
lasts only an hour or two, when anoth^ paroxysm, 
perhaps much more severe, sets in. 

Treatment. If treatment is begun in the heat of a 
paroxysm, and the pulse is hard, full and quick, the 
first thing to be done for the comfort of the patient is 
to cool the surface, either by a cold shower bath, wet 
sheets, or sponging, as. the strength of the patient, or 
other circumstances, may indicate. The paroxysm is 
usually broken up by this means, and a free perspira¬ 
tion and refreshing sleep will often ensue. The bath¬ 
ing should be continued until the desired effect is 
produced. An emetic composed of equal parts of 
lobelia and sanguinaria may now be given, and its 
operation promoted by liberal draughts of boneset tea. 


If, after the operation of the emetic, the pulse be 
soft and, in the adult age, not over 7 5 or 80 to the 
minute, and the skin is moist, it may only be neces¬ 
sary to follow up the use of some diaphoretic drink, ak 
the infusion of boneset, or the acetate of ammonia. 

On the following day, a cathartic should be given. 

The bowels must be kept free. As soon as an inter¬ 
mission is produced, and in cases where there is no 
delirium or tendency to congestion in the head, the 
best anti-intermittent tonics, as quinine, should be 
employed. When there is much headache or delirium^ 
a mustard plaster applied to the ankles and nape 
of the neck, will be serviceable. 

Rennet, a liquid preparation for coagulating milk. 
See page 226. 

Renting. The renting of a farm is very fully dis¬ 
cussed on page 421; the directions of renting or 
leasing is in article Lease, and the manner of keeping 
books where a farm is rented on the shares is shown 
on page 102. 

Reservoir (rez-er-voir), a place where anything is 
kept in store; especially, a place where water is col¬ 
lected and kept for use when wanted, as to supply a 
fountain, a canal, or a city, by means of aqueducts, 
or to drive a mill-wheel, and the like; a tank for 
holding hot water on a stove or furnace; a cistern; a 
mill-pond; a basin. See Stove. 

Residence. The erection of a residence, the 
building of a house which one expects to call home, 
is certainly a matter of vital importance. Especially is 
this true to the fanner, who spends a much larger 
share of his time at home than do men in villages 
and cities, who are following other vocations. All of 
the conveniences, comforts and attractions possible 
should be provided for his family. There is no other 
place where the expenditure of money and labor will 
be so greatly appreciated and enjoyed as in the home. 
The lives of the farmer and his family are whiled 
away in their rural homes, and therefore every exer¬ 
tion should be made to please and accommodate 
every member of the household. With the proper 
care and due amount of attention, and perhaps with 
the expenditure of a little extra money, all the neces¬ 
sary conveniences and comforts may be provided, 
even for a small cottage. 

A farmer should not begin the erection of even 
the smallest building without having previously pre¬ 
pared or adopted a well digested plan. He should 
not be satisfied with merely a general idea of the size 
and style of the building he wishes to erect. The 
style and plan of the exterior should be fully matured 
and every detail of internal arrangement should be 
determined before the ground is broken. The size 
and location of the various rooms, halls, closets, 
pantry, etc., and the exact place of doors, windows, 
stairway and chimneys should all be settled upon be¬ 
fore commencing, or serious delay and much extra 
expense will be occasioned. 

Location. After having determined to build, one 





io68 


RESIDENCE. 


of the first things, and a most important thing, to 
determine, is the location. We have discussed the 
location of farms in the article u^xm that subject, but 
there are several items to consider in locating a resi¬ 
dence on any particular spot upon the farm. First 
among these is that of healthfulness. Very often the 
most attractive location, with reference to the sur¬ 
rounding landscape, is not the most desirable for the 
health of the family. This feature should not be over- 
Iwked by any means. Other things being equal, the 
site should be the most beautiful on the farm. If 
the luxury of a clear running stream, or a sheet of 
water in repose, present itself, it should be enjoyed if 
possible. The vicinity of stagnant swamps and 
niarshes, the borders of sluggish streams, and situa¬ 
tions where the soil is too retentive of moisture and 
cannot be easily drained, should be avoided. Elevat¬ 
ed places in the immediate vicinity of marshes or 
swamps are liable to be quite as much affected by 
the malaria as the low grounds themselves. 

The sife of the dwelling should be dry and slightly 
declining, if possible, on every side. The north side 
of a high hill or ridge, where the direct rays of the sun 
are excluded during a greater portion of the time, is 
entirely unfit for a location of a residence. In a 
northern climate, a southern or a southeastern expos¬ 
ure with sheltering hills on the north is generally pre¬ 
ferred. The house should be situated so as to present 
an agreeable appearance from the road by which it 
is approached or from the main }X)ints from which it 
is viewed. It should be so located that all the out¬ 
buildings may be easy of access. A grove or belt of 
well grown forest trees or evergreens to serve as a 
shelter, adds greatly to the value of the location. 
What the surroundings or landscape should be after 
the residence is built, is very 'fully shown in the ar¬ 
ticle on Landscape Gardening, and that of planting 
trees for protection, in Forestry. 

A good supply of water is essential, and should be 
one of the first things inquired about in choosing a 
spot to build upon. The supply should not only be 
abundant, but the water should be of the best quality. 

Style of the Plan. The site selected, and 
the character of the scenery surrounding it, have very 
much to do with the general style of the residence. 
It should harmonize with the surroundings as much 
as it should be symmetrical in itself. A plan may be 
admirable in itself, yet unsuited to a particular spot. 
The amount desired to be expended in the erection 
of the house of course is the ruling point in deciding 
the style, for a large house must necessarily be differ¬ 
ent in general architectural outline from a small one. 
After having selected the location and decided on the 
amount of money desired to be invested, the plan 
should be decided upon and well studied. Do not 
be too hasty in accepting any plan. Look it over 
carefully. Remember this is to be your home. See 
that every room, door, window, etc., is in the most 
convenient and suitable place. 

There is no national style of rural architecture in this 
country, nor is there any style properly adapted to 


every section. Every locality and every farmer may 
have a style particularly adapted to its or his wants and 
tastes without infringing on any established rules of 
architecture. The materials to be used in construc¬ 
tion will necessarily have an influence in selecting 
the style. A given style may perhaps be executed in 
either stone, brick, or wood, but will not be equally 
adapted to each. Whatever size or style may be 
decided upon, proper attention should be given to 
neatness, symmetry and architectural taste in the con¬ 
struction of the residence. Costly ornament is not 
recommended, but rather a tasteful simplicity. 

It is hardly necessary to speak of the great advan¬ 
tages which a dwelling with beautiful surroundings 
possesses over one that is unattractive or positively 
repulsive. But it may be well to remark that an 
agreeable home must have three essential requisites, 
and these are a neat, well-arranged and pleasing in¬ 
terior ; a symmetrical, architectural and home-like 
expression of the house outside (not necessarily ornate 
or elaborate, but rather the reverse); and handsomely 
planted and well kept grounds around it. Men often 
put too much money in ambitious buildings and cost¬ 
ly structures, when a twentieth part of the difference 
between these and more modest dwellings, would 
secure infinitely more beauty in the grounds. You 
can see in almost any neighborhood a striking con¬ 
trast between homes. Here you may see a large, 
showy and expensive dwelling with an unplanted and 

bleak exterior, and 
with nothing to 
make it really at¬ 
tractive; and an¬ 
other house, costing 
much less,converted 
into a rural paradise, 
by blooming shrub¬ 
bery, brilliant flow- 
, er-beds, a green 

velvet of grass, and ornamental trees nearer the 
boundary. It was once not very unusual to see the 
contrast between the cheaper class of cottages—the 
one marked with neglect, with dilapidated walls— 
hats and rags thrust into broken windows, obsolete 
boxes, heaps of rubbish, and slop 
puddles about the premises, as shown by Fig. i ; 
and the other a gem of neatness—a white-walled, 

V 1 n e - e m 4 )o wered 
home, with its glad 
surroundings as aptly 
illustrated by Fig. 2. 

We need not ask 
which would have the 
best educating influ¬ 
ence on the young 
members of the fam¬ 
ilies who occupied 

them, and whether it is possible to make a better in¬ 
vestment of time and labor than in the few minutes 
expended daily morning and evening in brushing up 
and improving such a home. 



Fig. 



Fig. 


















RESIDENCE. 


1069 


Materials. The material most universally used 
in this country for the construction of farm buildings 
is wood. This is the result of its abundance and 
cheapness, and its suitableness for the kind and style 
of buildings generally desired. Where permanence, 
however, is desired, and the style of architecture will 
admit, stone or brick is the better material. Stone is 
more durable than wood, requires no paint, its color 
is a natural and agreeable one, be it what it may, 
although some shades are more agreeable than others, 
and some more durable than others. As the farmer 
will generally be controlled in his selection by the 
abundance and cheapness of the various materials in 
his locality, we cannot urge upon him the adoption of 
either in preference to the others; but never use any 
false materials. Never try to imitate stone or brick 
with stucco or plaster. It never pays. When brick 
is used’see that they are well burnt and of uniform 
color, especially those placed on the outside. The 
walls of such dwellings should be hollow, thus pre¬ 
venting dampness, affording better ventilation and a 
saving of materials. \Vhen not hollow, however, 
they, as well as stone walls, should be “furred off.” 
This is a method of leaving a space of from one to 
two inches between the walls and plastering, by 
means of perpendicular strips nailed to pieces of wood 
laid in the walls, and upon which strips the lathing is 
nailed. 

Foundation. To secure the stability of a house 
the foundation must be laid in a sound and substan¬ 
tial manner. This point is too often neglected and the 
result of settling are cracks in the walls and plaster¬ 
ing, unevenness of the floor,etc.,—defects generally in¬ 
curable except at great expense. No general rule for 
the depth of foundation can apply to every case. 
This must be regulated by local circumstances,—only 
caution should be always used and sound, hard earth 
reached upon which to begin the foundation. Should 
tlrere be soft places arches should be turned over 
them. The thickness of the foundation walls, which 
should always be of stone or well burned brick, must 
be regulated according to the height and size of the 
building and the nuterial used, but always be sure 
to have them sufficiently heavy. The lowest part of 
the wall or footing should be considerably thicker 
than the wall above. 

Cellar. This is certainly an important depart¬ 
ment of the farm residence, yet often they are so 
poorly constructed as to be wholly unfit for the pur- 
jioses intended, and frequently are the means of 
breeding foul air, which finds its way throughout the 
house. See pages 849-850, under sub-head of Air. 

cellar should be cool in summer, free from frost in 
winter and dry at all times. It should be well drained 
and thoroughly ventilated. Unless these jxjints are 
observed the cellar will be a detriment instead of 
the useful and valuable feature of the farm house it 
is intended to be. The cellar wall, if of brick, should 
be hollow, which will make it dry and keep the frost 
from going through it; and if of stone it should be at 
least 18 inches thick, well laid in good mortar. It 


should rise two or three feet above the surface of the 
ground, be provided with double windows and outside 
door, with stairway convenient and well protected. 

To render a house rat and mouse proof, first lay 
bricks tightly in over the sills between the base-board 
and siding; secondly, ix)ison the lower edge and seems 
of the base-board with corrosive sublimate or arsenic 
just before it is nailed in, so that a mouse or rat will 
not undertake to gnaw through without getting 
poisoned; thirdly, have all the furniture in the house 
out far enough from the wall, so. that when a rat or 
mouse takes refuge behind them he can be easily at¬ 
tacked with a stick or a cat. 

Ventilation. Perhaps there is no subject of such 
vital importance so much neglected as ventilation. 
Poor ventilation is the cause of many headaches and 
ills. The farmer and his family, however, have 
many advantages over those residing in cities, in that 
the surrounding atmosphere is generally sweet and 
pure and their calling takes them much into the open 
air. It is not our purpose to go into all the details 
of this subject, it being admitted by all that pure air 
is essential to health. We will therefore only give 
the most simple means for securing the proper amount 
of such air. Ventilation includes the removal of 
foul air and the introduction of pure air, and this 
process must be carried on without producing injuri¬ 
ous currents, for a blast of cold air direct upon a 
person is far more detrimental to him than foul air. 

Ventilation is not always easily, cheaply and satis¬ 
factorily secured. Much has been written upon this 
subject and yet there is a variety of opinion as to the 
most effective methods of securing a proper amount 
of pure air in each room of a residence. Where there 
is an open fire-place in a room no other means for 
ventilation is required, as this forms one of the very 
best of ventilators. But these are not in every room, 
nor even in every house. To secure perfect ventila¬ 
tion every room in the house, even closets, and es¬ 
pecially .sleeping rooms, should be so arranged that 
a current of out-door air may pass through them. 
During much of the year windows that may be easily 
lowered from the top, together with the opening and 
closing of outside doors, afford ample ventilation for a 
residence ; but this does not answer in cold weather. 

Where buildings are heated with hot-air furnaces 
ventilation may be effected by means of large air-pipes 
with suitable ducts for the discharge of the air of the 
room. If sufficient water is evaporated to prevent 
dryness they afford good means for both heating and 
ventilating a house. Many advocate, as a simple 
means of ventilation, the arrangement of an opening 
near the ceiling for the escape of the foul air, while 
others contend it is better to be placed near the floor, 
the latter claiming that the air, being colder near the 
floor and warmer toward the ceiling, the colder is sent 
out and the warmer retained. They further claim 
that no material difference exists in the purity near 
the floor and near the ceiling, as they soon become in¬ 
timately intermixed. They further advocate that if 
the escape is made near the ceiling, as is sometimes 








loyo 


RESIDENCE. 


done, the hot air rushes to the top and passes out 
without heating the rest of the room, which remains 
cold, as well as impure, at the bottom,—which, as Dr. 
Kedzie remarks,“is like the housewife throwing away 
the cream that rises to the top, while carefully pre¬ 
serving the skim-milk that remains at the bottom.” 
The occupants of the room, therefore, while they may 
have the head warm will inevitably suffer from cold 
feet. 

Air may be admitted through a perforated zinc 
plate, or fine wire gauze inserted in a window instead 
of a pain of glass. But a perfect system of ventila¬ 
tion, effective at all seasons and operating in all the 
apartments of the house, requires a series of ventilat¬ 
ing flues, provided with necessary valves, and all 
leading into a larger flue or shaft in which a current 
is constantly kept up, both winter and summer. 
This may be done through the medium of the kitchen 
fire, which may be applied in various ways according 
to the circumstances and the ingenuity of the builder. 

Chimney. This is certainly an important item in 
house building, and though it would seem simple and 
easy to construct a good chimney, yet many of them 
are so badly made as to be a continual source of 
annoyance and even danger. In building chimneys, 
the joints between bricks should be well filled with 
mortar, and they should be smoothly plastered up on 
the inside. They may be carried to one side or the 
other without damage if it is done evenly and the 
inside well rounded. No timber should rest on the 
chimney or extend into it. The opening at the top 
should be contracted so as to break the force of any 
downward currents of air which may be thrown into 
it. In windy or exposed situations the top should be 
contracted to one-third less than the area of the flue. 

Much taste should be shown in the construction of 
the chimney top, for nothing adds more to the beauty 
of the exterior of a house than the style of its chim¬ 
ney tops. They should be of proper height and pro¬ 
portion so as to look tasteful as well as draw properly. 

The shape of a chimney as well as its size has 
much to do with its efficiency to draw. A chimney 
with flue four by eight will take five brick to the 
layer. This will not answer for more than one stove. 
A chimney with flue eight inches square will only 
require six bricks to the layer or 30 to the foot, and 
will accommodate three stoves. The same number 
of bricks to the layer will also build a flue four by 12 
inches, if made 20 inches wide and 12 deep instead 
of square. In this, however, the capacity is not so 
great, as may easily be seen, although the quantity of 
brick used is the same. In the square chimney 
there are 64 square inches in the flue while in the 
other there are but 48. Not only this but the square 
flue will never fill up so easily and will always draw 
better. 

Color. The color used in painting a residence 
may add much to its beauty, or, on the other hand, 
detract from it. Light, cheerful but unobtrusive col¬ 
ors, harmonizing with the prevailing hues of the 


country, are most suitable. The various shades of 
fawn, drab, gray and brown are very tasteful, and if 
the cornices, door and window frames, etc., are nicely 
trimmed with a darker or lighter shade, much will be 
added to its beauty. All the positive colors, such as 
red, yellow, blue, green, black and white should never 
be used. It is poor taste to use white, although it is 
very frequently done. For small cottages deeply 
embowered in evergreens white may be used, as the 
foliage greatly relieves the harshness of this color. 

A very large house should have a somewhat som¬ 
ber hue; one of moderate size, a light and pleasant 
shade; and a small cottage a still lighter tint. A 
residence exposed to view should have a darker hue 
than orie hidden by dense foliage. If the main walls 
be a dark color the trimming should be light, but if 
the prevailing color of the structure be light the trim¬ 
mings should be of a darker shade. 

Interior Arrangements. Much of the comfort 
of a house depends upon the judicious arrangement 
of the several apartments, and this should receive 
the especial attention of the one who expects to build. 
The convenience of the ladies of the household should 
be consulted on this point. Do not sacrifice the con¬ 
venience of the entire house to promote the comfort 
of a single apartment, but try to so arrange that the 
convenience of all will be observed. In presenting 
the plans of many styles and sizes of houses in this 
article, we have ever borne in mind comfort and con¬ 
venience of the entire family. The saving of labor is 
an item well to be considered and one that should 
receive the careful attention of every person who 
wishes to construct a house. It will be noticed that 
in the designs presented in this connection this feature 
and that of providing the most room in each residence 
have been studiously kept in view. 

It may be that the designs we present will not ex¬ 
actly suit the taste and wants of all, as scarcely 
two families will require the same accommodations; 
however, but little difficulty will be experienced in 
modifying or changing any of these to suit the fancy 
of anyone. 

The modes and styles of finishing the inside are so 
varied and withal so changeable that it is quite im¬ 
possible to lay down any rules for this. Let it be 
well and neatly done, and the wood-work painted a 
suitable color, agreeable neutral tints, perhaps, being 
the most desirable. The ceilings should be lightest, 
the side walls a little darker and the wood-work a 
darker shade still, and the carpet darkest of all. The 
halls and staircases sould be of a cool, sober tone of 
color and simple in decoration. 

DESIGNS OF RESIDENCES. 

In presenting the following designs for rural resi¬ 
dences, much care has been exercised in their prepa¬ 
ration to make every arrangement, as above indicated, 
convenient and pleasing. They may be modified in 
any way to suit the wants and tastes of any person. 
Any competent carpenter or builder can construct a 
house according to the designs and specifications 




RESIDENCE. 


1071 



given. Of course, it is quite impossible to give the 
exact cost of the construction for every locality, as 
that will be controlled largely by local circumstances 
and the time. The estimates, however, are given, 
that a general idea of their cost may be had. In 
every case liberal allow¬ 
ances are made both in 
price of labor and cost of 
material, so that but rarely 
will the cost exceed the 
estimate given; 

A Modern Farm 
Residence. The princi¬ 
pal features of a farm 
house are comfort and 
convenience, but archi¬ 
tectural beauty and sym¬ 
metry should not be ig¬ 
nored. The farmer should 
have as handsome and 
tasty a residence as the 
village lawyer or doctor, 
and in its general features Fig. 3.—.-/ Moiicm 

it need not differ widely from that of either. It is 
mainly its adjuncts, its barns, stables, piggery, poul¬ 
try house and other out-buildings, that give the resi¬ 
dence of the agriculturist its peculiar appearance. 

In the design repre¬ 
sented by Fig. 3 we 
have attem pted t o 
furnish the farmerwith 
the plan of a tasty resi¬ 
dence. The exterior is 
planned principally for 
architectural beauty, 
having an observatory, 
higher gables than are 
really necessary for any 
thing but appearance, 
but which gives a high 
and well lighted garret. 
'Fhe roof is of tin, the 
cornices wide, and the 
house set three feet 
above the ground. A 
large tank is provided 
in the garret, from 
which is carried water, 
hot and cold, wherever 
wanted in the house, 
for all purposes except 
drinking and cooking. 
For these purposes a 
cistern should be built 
under the room used 
for fuel. 

This building may be 



Fig. 4. —Main Floor, 


built of wood or brick, as the relative cheapness of the 
material in different locations, or the taste of the 
farmer, may select. 

The house is warmed by a furnace of full capacity 


to give pure air from outside the house, heating and 
sending it wherever wanted on both floors. Ventila¬ 
tion is secured by having flues in the walls, extending 
from the base boards to the top of the house, and in 
the family living room a grate is provided. 

Drainage of the house 
and cellar is secured by 
tiles that go around the 
outside of the cellar walls, 
some inches below their 
foundations. Under the 
cellar bottom, drains of 2- 
inch tile concentrate any 
water that might rise, and 
by proper descent carry it 
all far away from the 
house. 

There are two cess-pools 
—one for the drainage of 
the kitchen refuse, the 
other for the water-closets. 
The cellar is eight feet be- 

Farm Residence. tWeeU joistS. Its floor is 

covered by cement; its ceiling is matched boards, nailed 
on the joists; and several inches of mortar on this ceil¬ 
ing, between the joists, not only deaden the floor of the 
rooms above, but cut off any possible exhalations from 
the cellar. Division walls of bricks divide the cellar 
into convenient rooms, and windows hung on hinges 
light and ventilate it. 

The side entrance is 
under a veranda, and is 
used for a waiting and 
business room, at the 
same time furnishing 
conveniences for wash¬ 
ing, for umbrellas, over¬ 
coats, over-shoes, etc. 

The adjoining closets, 
for robes; brooms, etc., 
are readily accessible 
from this entrance. 

These closets, taken 
from the space other¬ 
wise allotted to the pan¬ 
try, without abridging 
the space for pantry 
shelves, actually im¬ 
prove them by bringing 
them nearer the center, 
and making them there¬ 
fore more convenient 
for use. 

There are no winding 
stairs, but when corners 
are to be turned, they 
are turned on square 



Fig. 5. —Second Floor. 


platforms. The main flight, standing in a recess be¬ 
tween the front room and the dining-room, rises 
about eight feet, which, at 8 inches to the step, 
would make about twelve steps; then a platform 


68 



























































































107 2 


RESIDENCE. 



about eight feet long by three and a half feet wide 
makes the half turn to the remainder of the flight. 
Over this platform is an oriel window that lights 
the stair, as well as the back end of the lower hall 
and the upper hall, and gives facilities for admitting 
air and sunshine. Under this main flight are stairs 
that lead to the cellar, and under the stair platform 
is the store-room opening into the dining-room. 

d'he following is the arrangement of the main floor 
(Fig. 4); P represents the parlor, H the hall, S the 
sitting-room, V vestibule, and M a large panel mirror. 
D indicates the dining-room, B bed-room, K kitchen, 
L laundry, P pantry, E entry from side, W wardrobe, 
C closets, L (just to the rear of bed-room) lavatory, 
S T store-room and S shed. 

On the second floor B indicates bed-rooms, of 
which there are four large, well-lighted ones, D dry¬ 
ing-room, S servants’ rooms, and C closets. 

Any competent mechanic can make out a bill of 
specifications from these illustrations. 


window, glass of single strength; all other glass to be 
double strength American. 


Fig. 6. —Perspective Vieiv of a Handsome Dwelling. 


By Fig. 6 we give the prespective of a fine two- 
story frame dwelling; one that will please the eye of 
almost any one. Not only has beauty of exterior re¬ 
ceived attention, but the house is commended for its 
convenience of interior arrangements. 

In the ground plan shown by Fig. 7, P represents 
parlor 14 x 14 ft.; S, to the rear of this room, shows a 
sitting-room or back parlor lox 14, S, to the right, a 

sitting-room 13x15, H hall 
6x15, D dining-room 10 x r8, 
K kitchen 9x18. 

In second story (Fig. 8) C, 
at front, indicates bed-room 
14 X 14, C, to the right, a bed¬ 
room 13 X 15 and C in the rear 
one 10x14. B shows bath¬ 
room 10x14 and G girl’s 
room 9 X 15. 

Specifications. The bay- 
windows are 2 feet 6 inches 
by 6 feet. The windows in 
first story are single, 3 feet 6 
inches by 7 feet; the second story windows are 
double, 2 feet 6 inches by 6 
feet each; attic windows 2 feet 
6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches. 

Front door of two panels, with 
moulding around each, 4x8 
feet, with plate glass; closet 
doors 2 feet 10 inches by 6 
feet; all other doors 3 feet 2 
inches by 7 feet, with com¬ 
mon mortise locks. Founda¬ 
tion walls 12 inches wide. 

Piers 8 x8 inches. Firststory 
12 feet high; second story ii t-oc 
feet; attic 7 feet. All chim- Fig-(> 

neys of two 6-inch flues. Interior finish of pine, with 
moulding to base, door and window jamb. Attic 




Fig. 7. — Ground JPlan of 
Fig. 6. 


Amount of Material. 

42 joists 10 feet long, 2 x 10 inches. 

84 joists 11 feet long, 2x10 inches. 

36 joists 15 feet long, 2x10 inches. 

48 joists 14 feet long, 2 x 10 inches. 

354 studs 12 feet long, 2x6 inches. 

600 feet of plates, girts and braces, 2x6 inches,, 
convenient lengths. 

164 feet sills 6x6 inches, convenient length. 

Estimate of Cost. The following estimate of cost 
of material and labor will vary much according to 
location and condition of the times, but the farmer 
can form a good idea of the cost of a residence by 
these figures. He can easily find out the average 
value of material in his locality and then add or de¬ 
duct, as required, from the estimate: 

Excavation, 160 yards at 20 cents. ... $ 30 00 


Brick work, 23,800 at $8. 190 40- 

Joists . 114 00 

Flooring, 3,200 feet. 160 00 

Rafters. 69 00 

Studding and framing. 228 00 

Weather boarding, 4,500 feet. 215 00 

Shingles, 23,000, at $5. 115 00 

Sheathing, 6,600 feet. 165 00 

Gutters and cornices, 180 feet at 38 cts. 68 40 

Doors, including hardware, 22 at ^10,. 220 00 

Windows, complete, 33 at $8. 297 00 

Bases, 600 feet at 6 cents. 36 00 

Porches, stairs, etc. 160 00 

Painting and glazing. 156 00 

Plumbing and gas. 98 00 

Galvanized iron and tin work. 89 00 

Iron crestings. 15 00 

Lathing & plastering, 1,314 yds at 20 c. 262 80 

Grates and mantels. 140 00 

Sundries. 50 00 


Total.. ^2,878 60 


In brick, with stone foundation... $3,670 00 















































































RESIDENCE. 


1075 


Gothic Farm Residence. A substantial farm-house 
of the Gothic style is represented by Fig. 9. It is 
built of stone. The cellar is constructed only under 
the main building, 
as shown in the cel¬ 
lar plan. However, 
if the demand for 
room of this kind re- 
(juires it, the cellar 
may be constructed 
under the entire 
building. 

As a preventive 
of dampness the first 
courses of stone 
above ground should 
be laid in cement. 

Between the stone¬ 
work and the plaster¬ 
ing is an air space, 
produced by furring 
out with two-by-four 
studding, to which 
the laths are nailed. 

This space prevents 
dampness and should 
always be done in 
houses built of stone, 
and also those con¬ 
structed of brick when the walls are made solid. 

In the general arrangement of rooms, closets, etc., 
it will be observed that convenience has been a ruling 



Eig. 10 .—Cellar Plan _/or Fig. q. j 

feature. The house is large and admits of ample ac- j 
commodations for a large family. The main part is ‘ 
42 feet wide by 33 in depth, while the rear portion is ' 


18 X 29. The rooms are commodious, the stairways 
and halls large and the stories high. The arrange¬ 
ment of the first-floor plan might be altered to suit 

the tastes and de¬ 
mands of any one 
who desires a large 
dwelling. For in¬ 
stance, folding-doors 
could be put between 
the parlor and libra¬ 
ry, thus making two 
elegant parlors. A 
large dining-room 
could be provided 
where the bed-room 
and pantry are. 
Other modifications 
and changes may be 
made in all stories as 
one may desire. 

The size and names 
of all rooms are in¬ 
dicated on each floor 
plan; it is therefore 
unnecessary to refer 
to them by any spe¬ 
cial remarks. The 
interior finish or 
trimming should be 
plainly and neatly executed. Elaborate moldings, 
carvings and panelings are not required to make a 
tasty, comfortable home. The style of finish should 



Fig* irst-’Floor Plan/or Fig* 9. 

be in keeping with the character of the house and 
position of the owner. 

Residence Erected in Parts. It often happens 


































































1074 


RESIDENCE, 


that a man who may reasonably expect to be able, in 
the course of a few years, to build a larger house, is 
obliged to commence with a very limited amount of 



shed; V V, veranda. The summer pantry can be 
used in winter as a place to keep meat; and being 


S-p ' 

0 


[TTTTTTTT^, 

S 1 





Fig. 12.—i 


Fig. 


Second-Floor Plan Jor Fig. g. 

13 is suggested and designed to meet 


means 

the requirements of such a case. At first, the kitchen 
(designated by K on the ground plan), with the 
veranda (V), in front was built. At the end of one or 

two years he _ 

added the por- 
tion represent- 
ed by 
and 13 


He 

prospers and 
wishes to en- s 
large, builds 
what is shown 
as the main 
part of the 
house in the 
perspective. 

This will make 
a very conven¬ 
ient and com¬ 
fortable house, 
and by no 
means devoid 
of architect ‘ _ 
ural beauty^’ 
and symmetry. 

Below we give an explanation of the ground plan, 
specifications, estimate of the amount of material, etc. 

L, in the plan, represents the living-room, 12 x 13 
feet; K, kitchen, 12x14 feet; D, dining-room, 9^^ 
X 12 feet; B B B, bed-rooms, 9x8 feet and 8x8 feet; 
B, pantry, 8x8 feet; SP, summer pantry; VV, wood¬ 



Fig. 13. —Perspective of a House with Successive Addition. 


• Fig. 14. —Ground Plan for Fig. 13. 

away from the kitchen fire it will keep it a long time. 

Specifications. Use good single-strength glass for 
all windows; size, 2.6 X4 feet, 12 panes to the sash. 
Front door to be of 3 raised panels, with moldings; 
inside doors to have 3 raised panels, without moldings; 
all doors to be 2 feet 10 inches wide by 7 feet high, 
except pantry door, which is 2 feet 6 inches; all doors 
to be supplied with good, plain locks, with plain 
knobs; outside doors to have bolts. Flues to be 6 
inches. First story, 11 feet 6 inches high ; attic, 9 feet. 

To erect a house in this way advantageously, the 
whole building must be planned at the commence¬ 
ment. For if this is not done, it will be found quite 
impossible to have everything in its construction work 
harmoniously. It should be known beforehand where 
each door, window, room, closet, etc., of the expected 

addition be- 
longs, that 
those in the 
portion under 
course of con¬ 
struction may 
b e properly 
arranged. It 
is the same in 
l| this respect in 
building this 
kindofahouse 
as with eveiy 
other kind. 
No one should 
be so foolish as 
to attempt to 
build a resi- 
dence without 
having p r e - 
- - viously settled 
upon a plan, 
and then thoroughly studied it in every detail. If 
this is not done invariably, the result will be delay, 
extra expense and dissatisfaction. Every feature 
of the plan should be carefully weighed and thought¬ 
fully considered, so that every arrangement may be 
the most convenient and satisfactory. 










































































































































RESIDENCE^ 




1075 


Quantity of Material. 

402 feet of joists, 8 feet long, 2x6 inches, 

117 feet of joists, 12 feet long, 2x6 inches. 

85 feet of joists, 9^4 feet long, 2x6 inches. 

4 posts, lox 10 inches. 

100 feet of joists, 6 feet long, 2x6 inches. 

625 feet of studding, 12 feet long, 2x4 inches. 
125 feet of studding, 9 feet long, 2x4 inches. 
TOO feet of studding, 8^ feet long, 2x4 inches. 


160 feet of girders and plates, 4x6 inches. 

800 feet of sheathing. 

1,500 square feet of shingles. 

Estimate of Cost. 

Excavation, 56 cubic yards, at 20c. $ti 20 

Bricks, 13,180, at ^10 per 1,000. 131 80 

Joists for floors, r,020 feet, 2x8 inches, 

at ^18 per r,ooo feet. 18 36 

Ceiling, 900 feet of joists, 2x6 inches, at 

$18 per 1,000 feet. 16 20 

Studding, 3,000 feet, $18 per 1,000 feet.. 54 00 

Studding for roof, 1,300 feet, at ^18 per 

1,000 feet. 23 40 

Sheathing and weather-boarding, 1,200 ft. 48 00 

Plastering, 426 sq. yds., at 20 c. per yard. 85 20 

Pine flooring, 1,400 ft. at ^3 per 100 ft... 42 00 

Sheathing for roof, 1,507 feet, at $18 per 

1,000 feet. 28 12 

Shingles, 15,000, at $5 per 1,000. 75 00 

Veranda. 60 00 

Plain frame doors, complete with hard¬ 
ware, 13, at $ro. 130 00 

Windows, complete, 12 panes to sash, 16, 

at $8. 128 00 

Flight of stairs to attic. 30 00 

Painting and glazing. 160 00 

Roof-rafters, 1,500 feet. 22 50 

Sundries. 85 00 


Total, including labor, etc.$1,148 78 


The above estimate is based upon first-class 
material and workmanship. It is much higher than 
both can often be furnished for. The proper reduc¬ 
tion or addition may easily be made. 



Fig. 15. —Front Elevation o/ Frame Cottage. 

Small Cottage. Design represented by Fig. 15 
is a small cheap building, yet neatness, symmetry 


and architectural taste have been observed in planning 
it. In such small structures, no attempt should be 
made for ornament or show alone. A manifest utility 
should be displayed in everything. The beauty of 
fitness should be constantly obvious and a tasteful 
simplicity ever exhibited. 

This house is built of frame, story and a half high, 
four rooms on lower floor, and two above. The house 
may be cheapened one-third by leaving off the shed 
kitchen and using the dining-room for a kitchen. 
There is a neat balconied porch in front—a very 

pretty design for 
the money it 
costs. One pecu¬ 
liarity of a house 
like this rests in 
the fact that no 
matter from what 
direction you ob- 
.^erve it there is a 
pleasing harmony 
in its appearance, which is not true of all designs. One 
looks pretty and pleasing in front, but ugly in the 
rear, side or end. Being upon the square plan it con- _ 
tains no waste space. Open fire-places may be pro¬ 
vided in parlor and sitting-room, or either if desired. 

In the ground plan, A represents the parlor, 12 x 
x6 feet; B, sitting-room, ii x 16; C, hall, 6 feet wide; 
D, dining-room, 12 x 12; E, kitchen, 8 x 17 and F, 
pantry. The second story or attic is divided into two 
large bed-rooms, each 12 x 17 feet, represented by A 
and B. C indicates the lobby at the head of the 
stairway. 



Fig. 16. —Ground 
Plan for Fig. 15. 


Fig. 17. —Second 
Story for Fig. 15. 


Specifications. Pantry windows, 2x4 feet; first- 
story windows, 3 feet by 6 feet 6 inches; second story 
windows, 2 feet 10 inches by 5 feet. Double front 
door, 2x8 feet each, with bronze lock; 4 raised panels, 
with molding; pantry and closet doors, 2 feet 10 
inches by 6 feet; all other doors, 3 feet 2 inches by 
7 feet, with 4 panels, without molding, and common 
lava or porcelain knob locks. Foundation walls, 12 
inches. First story, 12 feet high; second story, 10 
feet. Interior finish, of pine, with one molding to 
door jambs, base boards and windows. Glass to 
pantry windows, of single strength; all other glass of 
double strength, American. Chimneys to be of two 
8-inch flues. 


Bill of Quantity. 

24 joists 16 feet 10 inches long, 2 x 10 inches. 

9 joists 12 feet 8 inches long,2 x 8 inches. 

13 joists 8 feet 10 inches long, 2x8 inches. 

24 joists 16 feet 10 inches long, 2 x 10 inches. 

9 joists 12 feet 8 inches long, 2x8 inches. 

13 joists 8 feet 10 inches long, 2x8 inches. 

205 studs 12 feet long, 2x4 inches. 

no feet of plates, 4x6 inches, convenient lengths. 

45 rafters 17 feet long, 2x4 inches. 

no feet of sills, 4x6 inches, convenient lengths. 

112 feet of girts, 4x6 inches. . 

19 rafters 13 feet long, 2x4 inches. 






































































1076 


RESTDENCE. 


» Estimate of Cost. • 

Excavation, 18 yards at 20 cents___ $3 60 

Brick work, 10,600, at $8. 8480 

Joists. 00 

Flooring, 2,200 feet. 99 00 

Rafters. 27 50 

Studding and framing. 96 00 

Sheathing, 1,100 feet. 25 30 

Weather-boarding, 2,100 feet. 94 50 

Shingling and shingles, 11,000. 55 00 

Gutters and cornices, 280 feet at 20c... 56 00 

Doors, including hardware, 10 at $8.. .. 80 00 

Windows, complete, 14 at $7.50. 105 00 

Bases, 298 feet at 16 cents. 17 88 

Porches, stairs and steps. 48 00 

Painting and glazing. 10000 

Lathing and plastering, 670 yds. at i8c.. 120 60 

Sundries. .. .’. 30 00 


Total, labor, etc., included. SluS 18 

A Large Country Residence. This building. 


represented by Fig. 18, differs greatly in many respects 
from the usual country dwelling. No special refer¬ 
ence to any conventional rules of architecture are 
complied with, but there are many commendable 
features about it. It is quite large and presents a 
very pleasing appearance from any point of view. 
The outer walls of the first story are built of rough 
stone, and for the windows brick trimmings are used, 
which very pleasantly relieves the stone work. The 
second story is constructed of wood, and is surmount¬ 
ed by the somewhat abruptly receding slated roof. 
The chimneys are a combination of brick and stone. 

The L contains a large kitchen with three sleeping 
rooms above for servants. Should the building be 
erected on sloping ground, a large basement story' 
might be easily provided. The body of the house is 
thoroughly protected. The first floor is provided 
with a spacious parlor, sitting-room, library, dining- 



Fig- 18 .—A Large Country Residence. 

room, kitchen, besides pantry, milk-room, cloak-room, 
etc. The second floor (Fig. 19) contains six cham¬ 
bers, with accompanying dressing and bath rooms. 
In many of the rooms are alcoves for the beds, as will i 


be noticed in the plan. The third floor may be 
divided to suit the requirements of the family. Many 



Fig. 19.' — Second-Floor Plan o/"Fig^ 13 . 

very pleasant rooms may be provided in this story* 
This is a large house and may not please the tastes 
of many in an architectural point, but may afford some 
excellent practical suggestions. Tlie plan might be 
changed to suit many who desire a large house. 

Rustic Cottage. A very simple, yet tasty cot- 



Fig. 20.— Rustic Cottage. 

tage is represented by Fig, 20. It is intended for a 
family of small means 
and is therefore designed 
economically, but will 
nevertheless be attract¬ 
ive. It is built of wood, 
filled in with soft brick 
on edge, and covered in 
the vertical and batten¬ 
ed manner, with rough 
boards and heavy bat- . 

. 1 • 1 riG. 21. —Interior Arrans^ement. 

tens, care being taken 

in nailing on the boards that the splinters of the wood 











































































































RESIDENCE. 


1077 


made by the saw in sawing the log point downward 
instead of upward, to more effectually shed the water. 
The roof is covered with shingles, and the projections 
of the gables, which are quite heavy, are relieved by 
ornamental verge boards sawn from heavy plank. 
'I'he windows all 
have bold trim¬ 
mings, and those 
on lower story are 
p r o t e ct e d by 
broad hoods, and 
glazed with dia¬ 
mond -shaped 
glass. The veran¬ 
da, or front stoop, 
is made with ce¬ 
dar posts and 
trimmings, but 
has a plank floor 
and tight roof. 

T h e chimneys 
represented are 
terra-cotta chim¬ 
ney tops of large 
size, resting upon 
a blue-stone base 
cut for the pur- 
IxDse. 

The interior 
arrangement is as 
follows; The hall, 

No. I, measures eight feet by eleven, and contains 
stairs to the chamber and cellar. The principal 
stairs are three feet wide, and the cellar flight is two 
feet eight inches, inclosed by a partition with a door 
at the top. No. 2 is the living room, 14 feet square, 

provided with an 



Fig, •z'2.»^Elevaiion cX a Residence ivith BaseniKK*. 



open fire-place for 
burning w o o d, 
and also having 
on one of its sides 
a recess or bay, 
with side lights 
onlv, the back be¬ 
ing made to serve 
the purpose of a 
book-case or cup¬ 
board. No. 3 is 
the kitchen, 12 by 
14, well lighted 
by two large win¬ 
dows, and having 
a large closet 
opening out of 
the side beyond 

Fic;. i^.—Plan of Basement for Pig. 22. the firC-plaCC. 

No, 4 is a pantry, measuring five by eight, and open¬ 
ing out upon the back stoop. This pantry may have 
a sink in it, and may be fitted up with shelves and 
cupboards. Additional room may be got by putting 
the kitchen in the basement, and using the upper 


roym as a living or dining room, and the front_ room 
as a parlor. This would give an opportunity for 
finishing the parlor in a little more expensive man¬ 
ner, and on that account may be more desirable. 

The second floor contains two good-sized chambers 

and four large 
closets. There 
is no attic to the 
house, but a space 
of about five feet 
in height is left 
above the cham¬ 
ber and below the 
peak of the roof, 
which serves a 
good purpose as 
a ventilator. 

The posts are 
14 feet high, and 
the lower story is 
finished nine feet 
high in the clear. 
The finish of the 
interior is all of 
pine, and put up 
in a simple man¬ 
ner. The walls 
are all plastered, 
and finished with 
a rough white- 
sand finish, which 
may afterward be tinted in any desirable shade. The 
outside should be painted two or three tints. 

House WITH Basement. By Fig. 22 we present 
one of the neatest and most desirable plans for a 
rural residence yet designed. It is adapted for a 
hillside or rolling 
section, and if 
the surrounding 
landscape be 
picturesque will 
afford one of the 
most attractive 
dwellings to be 
met with any¬ 
where, The gen¬ 
eral conformation 
of this house to 
the declivity of 
the grounds, to¬ 
gether with its 
rustic details of 
finish,giveit very 
much the appear¬ 
ance of a Swiss house. Fig. 22 illustrates the front 
elevation facing the main road. 

It will be seen that the grounds at the right are one 
story higher than those on the left. The principal 
walk or drives are along the higher grounds at the 
right, contiguous to the veranda, from which the 
main entrance is conveniently reached. 



Fig. 24. —Plan cX ^icoizd IPoryXo** 22. 














































































































































1078 


RESIDENCE. 


The walled or basement story appears full height 
above ground, giving increased prominence to this part 
of the building. The height of the ceiling in finished 
parts of basement is 8^ feet; cellars, 7 feet. This 
story (Fig. 23), contains a dining-room, kitchen, hall, 
pantry, cellar and closet. The two principal rooms 
have doors leading directly to the porch, and to the 
hall, which contains a stair-way leading to the floor 
above. The kitchen and dining-rooms are well lighted, 
and have open fire-places. The cellar is cemented 
on the bottom; all other rooms, in this plan, have 
wooden flooring. 

Fig. 25 shows the main-floor plan. The height of 
this story is ten feet. The divisions include a hall, 
parlor, sitting-room, library and bath-room. The sit¬ 
ting-room and library also have a closet each. The 
main hall has double entrance doors and connects 
by doors with each of the four apartments. Fig. 
24 represents the second story. Height 9 feet. 
There is a hall, two chambers, three bed-rooms, 
and three closets on this floor. 

Specifications. The foundations should be of bro¬ 
ken stone, laid in mortar, 18 inches thick, extending 
in the earth below the reach of frost, and neatly 
pointed where exposed to sight. The beams for the 
basement floor should be of 3-by-8-inch timber, with 
a 4-by-8-inch girder supporting their centers, and 

leaving a clear space 
of from 6 to 20 inch¬ 
es below them for 
the passage and 
circulation o f air 
under the porch. 
The cellar should 
have a concrete 
bottom, with two 
steps of masonry 
upward from the 
hall. The upper 
frame should be of 
square, sawed tim¬ 
ber, thoroughly 
framed and secured; 
the horizontal sid¬ 
ing of 6-inch clap- 
Fig. 0/Main Floor of Fig. 22. boards ; the Vertical 

of 9^-inch tongued and grooved ceiling boards, belt¬ 
ed ; all on sheathing felt. The roofs should be of 
slate, with tin valleys, gutters, and leaders. Windows 
should have four lights, with ij4-inch sash, hung to 
weights. Doors should be made of pine, paneled and 
molded. Stairs, pine, with black walnut, newel and 
rail, and balusters. Closets shelved and hooped in 
the usual manner. All wood work usually painted 
should have two coats of paint. The appended es¬ 
timate will furnish additional information. 

There are many advantages in a house of this ar¬ 
rangement. The kitchen and dining-room are pro¬ 
tected in winter from the cold and in summer from 
excessive heat by their location in the basement. In 
mgst sections of the country this protection is much 



needed during a portion of both seasons of the year, 
and in no other way is it so easily obtained as in the 
basement portion of this kind of a house. There are 
also other advantages by these to be obtained in this 
class of houses. The odors arising from cooking may 
be more easily prevented from pervading other por¬ 
tions of the house, communication with the outside 
and with the provision store-house or cellar is more 
convenient, •a larger amount of room may be given to 
the kitchen, dining-room and pantry in a house of 
any given size, than in the ordinary two-story house, 
and the convenience of thehousewifemay be furthered. 
Estimated Quantity and Cost of Material 
and Cost of Labor. 

5,000 feet timber, at $20 per M. 100 00 

2 sills 4x8 in. 32 ft. long. 

2 sills 4 X 8 in. 20 ft. long. 

1 sill 4 X 8 in. 24 ft. long. 

2 sills 4 X 8 in. 16 ft. long. 

I sill 4x8 in. 6 ft. long. 

9 posts 4x7 in. 20 ft. long. 

I post 4x7 in. 16 ft. long. 

1 ridge 3 x 8 in. 68 ft. long. 

2 ties 4 X 6 in. 32 ft. long. 

2 ties 4 X 6 in. 20 ft. long.' 

6 ties 4x6 in. 16 ft. long. 

2 plates 4x6 in. 32 ft. long. 

2 plates 4 X 6 in. 20 ft. long. 

75 beams 3x8 in. 16 ft. long. 

56 rafters 3 X4 in. 13 ft. long. 

I veranda 3x8 in. 60 ft. long. 

142 yards excavation, at 20c. per yard... $ 28 40 
1,800 feet stone work (complete) at 6c. 

per foot. 

4,000 brick in chimneys (complete) at 

$12 per M. 

759 yards plastering (complete) at 20c. 
per yard. 

24 joists, at 15c. each. 

360 wall strips, at loc. 

130 horizontal siding (6-inch), at 15c.. .. 

150 vertical siding (9-inch), at 27c. 

150 battens, at 4c. 

Cornice materials. 

164 hemlock boards, at 15c. 

16^ square slate, at ^8. 

330 tin gutters, valleys, and leaders, 

at 8c. 

480 flooring (4^ inches), at 12c. each.. 

5 basement windows (complete), at $5... 

3 cellar windows (complete), at ^2 each. 

27 plain windows (complete), at $6 each. 

2 stairs (complete). 

25 doors (complete^ at $7 each. 

Pantry and closets, finished, complete. .. 

Carting. 

Painting, complete. 

Carpenters’ labor, not included above.... 

Incidentals.. 


Total cost of the building, completed.. $ 1,600 00 


108 00 

48 00 

rsi 80 
3 60 
36 00 

19 50 

40 50 
6 00 
30 00 

24 60 
132 00 

26 40 

57 60 

25 00 
6 00 

162 00 

35 00 
175 00 
15 00 
25 00 
100 00 
200 00 
44 60 




















































RESIDENCE 


1079 


Model Farm House. This design (Fig. 26) is 
presented as a model farm house, suitable for a farm¬ 
er in easy cir 
c u m s t a n c e s B 
and with the fi 
taste and cul- S 
t u r e which 
should attend | 
such station in 
life. The kitch- t 
en, which as has | 
been said “ is 
the heart of the 
farm-ho use,” 
is large, well 
lighted, well 
ventilated, pro- 
V i d e d with 
large pantry, 
and convenient 
of access. Do¬ 
mestic help is 
not abundant in 



the farmer’s 


w 





A 

■ cl] 



Fig. 27.— First-Floo-r Plan, 

bell-pull could be carried into the 


Fig. 26.— Perspective of 

family. Too much 
labor a t best 
devolves upon 
the mistress. 
The plan also 
provides for a 
conveniently , 
situated din- 
i n g room. 
Then there is 
a large sitting- 
room, library 
and bed-room. 

The upper 
hall is three 
and a half feet 
wide and 
makes a fine 
appearance 
with its round¬ 
ed closets 
and generous 
length. It is 
proposed to 
supply the 
principal 
chambers, the 
bath-room and 
the kitchen 
reservoir with 
cold water 
from the sec¬ 
ond-story tank, 
and the sink 
and the bath¬ 
room from the 
reservoir, A 
men's hall to 


awaken them in the morning; if so desired; also to 
the girl’s room. All inside finish should be of hard 

wood, oiled 
M and varnished. 
T h e different 
oaks, black 
walnut, cherry, 
and locust 
make excellent 
finish. Black 
walnut and 
cherry should 
be used spar¬ 
ingly, as bead 
work, or for 
contrast, as the 
first is too dark 
and somber, 
and the last 
1ackin g in 
grain. The 
casings should 
wide. 


eight inches 


B 

8 


3 

9 


i 


E) 

6 


L 


B 


J 


> 


B 

7 


a Model Farm House. 

be heavy—at least 
The cost of 
this dwelling 
will range be¬ 
tween $ 3,000 
and $ 4,000 ac¬ 
cording to lo¬ 
cality and the 
man who builds 
it. 

In the first- 
floor plan (Fig. 

27) P represents 
the parlor, 
which is 18 X 
18 feet; S R, 
sitting room, 15 
x2o; L, library', 

12x12; B, bed¬ 
room, 12x13; 

D R, d i n i n g- 
room 12 x 15 ; 

B, bath-room, 5 
X 7 ; C, closets, 

5x7; K, kitch¬ 
en, 15 X 16; P, 
pantry, 6 x 6 ; S, 
store-room, 10 
X 11 ; W, wood- 
room, 10x16; 

V, veranda and 
H, hall, 7 X 18. 

In the second- 
floor plan (Fig. 

28) B, one rep- 

resents bed¬ 
room 13X18* Fig. 28. — Second-Floor Flan. 

B two, B three, B four and Bfive bed-rooms 12 X13 


B 

5 


B 

I 


I 


B 

3 


P R 






















































































































































io8o 


RESIDENCE. 


feet in size; B six and B seven, bed-rooms 8 x 15 ; B 
eight and B nine, bed-rooms 8x 14; C, closets; T, 
tank, P R, children’s play-room. 

Specificatious. All windows to be 2 feet 6 inches 
by 5 feet, 2 panes to the sash, except rear windows to 
the kitchen, which are 2 
feet 6 inches by 3 feet, 

4 panes to the sash, glass 
of single strength; all 
other glass to be of dou¬ 
ble strength. The front 
door is of oak, with three 
panels, walnut molding, 

8 feet high, 3 feet wide; 
all interior doors to be of 
pine, 7 feet 6 inches by 
2 feet 10 inches, with 3 
raised panels, except 
closet doors, which are 
2x7 feet, good Berlin 
bronze-face locks and 
mineral knobs to all in¬ 
terior doors. Closets to 
be provided with 20 
bronzed coat-hooks; 
good B e r li n bronze 
catches to closets and 
pantries. Outside rear 
doors to be provided 
with plain locks with bolts. 



Fig. 29. —Rural Cottage. 


There are also one good 
tinned bath-tub, one good china-bowl water-closet, one 
wvought-iron tank 3 feet deep, 5 feet wide. The 
first story is 12 feet high; second, 11 feet 6 inches. 
Good pine shutters are used, i foot 3 inches wide, 
hung with cast-iron hinges, with hold-backs and 
catches. Foundation walls 3 feet deep, 2 feet above 
ground, and 4 good stone jxjsts 6 inches square, 3 
feet 6 inches high. 

Bill of Quantity. 2,564 square feet of joists 13 

feet long, 2x6 inches; 720 
square feet joists 8 feet long, 
2x6 inches; 376 square feet 
_ joists 11 feet long, 2x6 inches ; 
I 400 feet of joists 7 feet long, 2 
X 4 inches ; 12 posts 4x4 

inces, ii feet long; 2,807 
square feet of studs, 12 feet 
long; 44 bunches of pine 
i shingles; 44 shutters, i foot 2 



inches by 5 feet. 
Rural Cottage. 


A 


nice 

□ a design for a country cottage 

Fig. 30.—Cellar Plan. is sllOWlI by Fig. 29. It is 20 

feet square and 20 feet high. .Square outlines in build¬ 
ings are the most economical in furnishing space. They 
not only have this advantage but are more easily warm¬ 
ed, especially if the chimney is near the center, and 
need less repair. Though in every way complete and 
thoroughly fitted for a small family, it may be en¬ 
larged easily by additions at the side or rear, or a por¬ 


tion of the cellar may be finished as a kitchen. Fig. 
29 represents the front elevation, which has consider¬ 
able variety of finish, and, though not expensive, 
adds much to its beauty. The sides are quite plain, 
but tire projections are in harmony with the front. 

The roof may have two 
belts of diamond-pointed 
shingles, arranged equal 
distances apart, which 
will add much to the 
appearance. The rear 
should be finished in 
harmony with the front. 
A neat but plain orna¬ 
ment, or projection, may 
be extended from over 
the door. Tastefully 
painted this will be a 
pleasant little cottage 
and can be erected for 
about $600. 

The cellar, which is 
six and one half feet in 
height, is shown by Fig. 
30. It extends two feet 
above the ground. It 
is provided with two 
windows, and an outside 
area way. An opening 
is made in the chimney to admit of a stove-pipe. 
The cellar might be divided along the line of the 
girder, if desired, and a kitchen made of one part 
and a cellar of the other. If this is desired the 
walls should extend one foot higher above ground, 
and one foot less in depth. 

The height of the ceiling in the first story (Fig. 3r) 
is nine feet. The front entrance is from the porch 
directly to the living room. If in an exjxjsed situa¬ 
tion, “ storm doors ” may be 
hung in the frame of the outside 
doors to open outward; or the 
porch may be inclosed witli 
portable panels of narrow ceil¬ 
ing with a door at the entrance, 
which may be set up or re¬ 
moved, as required. The rear 
entrance is through two doors 
and a lobby. If a rear window 
is wanted, the upper portions 
of these doors may have glass 
sash. The living room is com¬ 
modious, has an open fire-place, Fid. 31.—First .story. 
two windows, and inside doors leading to the adjoin¬ 
ing rooms, and to the stairway to the second story. 
The sitting-room is small, but, if neatly finished, will 
serve as the parlor of a small family. 

It has one window opening to the front. Another 
window may easily be added oj^posite the chimney, 
though it would diminish the wall space for furniture, 
etc. The bed-room is also small, but will admit the 




LODBI 



UVINQRDOM'' 
JU16 


BED R3DM 
7 y 8 


iSlTTIHCRODM 
sx-ia 















































































































RESIN—RHEUM A TISM. 


io8i 


necessary furniture, and a proper adjustment of the 
window sashes will insure the required ventilation. 
The space under the stairs is used as a closet, unless 
needed for stairs to a basement kitchen. 

The height of the second story is three and one- 
half feet at the plates and follows the rafters to the 
height of eight feet. This may be divided as required. 

Estimates of Amount of Material and Cost. 


45 yards excavation, at 25 c. per yard.$ii 25 

780 feet stone work, at 8 cents per foot.... 62 40 

1,500 brick in chimneys at $12 per M. 18 00 

260 yards plastering at 20 cents per yard.. 52 00 
1,600 feet timber, at $15 per M. 24 00 


4 sills 4x7 inches 20 feet long. 

4 posts 4x7 inches 13 feet long. 

1 girt 4x6 inches 20 feet long. 

18 beams 3x7 inches 20 feet long. 
4 ties 4x6 inches 20 feet long. 

2 plates 4x6 inches 20 feet long. 

I beam 3x7 inches 28 feet long. 

22 rafters 3x4 inches 16 feet long. 


20 Joists, at 15 cents each.3 00 

200 wall strips, at 12 cents. 24 00 

100 siding, at 28 cents. 28 00 

Qjrnice materials. 12 00 

130 shingling lath, at 6 cents each. 7 80 

22 bunches shingles, at ^1.25 each. 27 50 

85 flooring, at 28 cents each. 23 80 

8 plain windows, at $6 each. 48 00 

2 cellar windows, at $2 each. 4 00 

8 doors, at ^6 each. 48 00 

2 stairs. 15 00 

2 stoops. 18 00 

Closet finish and shelving. 12 00 

Nails. 9 00 

Carting. 8 00 

Carpenters’labor, not included above. 75 00 

Painting. 50 00 

Incidentals. 19 25 


Total cost of the building, completed. . .$600 00 

Resin (rez'n), or Rosin (roz'n), a solid, inflammable 
substance, of vegetable origin, insoluble in water but 
soluble in alcohol and the essential oils. It exudes 
from trees in combination with essential oils, and in 
a liquid or semi-liquid state. In burning it yields a 
great amount of smoke, from which lampblack is ob¬ 
tained. Pine resin is most common in this country. 
The gum oozing from fresh wounds in pine trees con¬ 
sists of resin and turpentine. The uses of resin are 
too numerous for mention here. Gum resins are of a 
consistence between gum and resin, as asafoetida, 
gamboge, myrrh, etc. 

Resin Ointment. Gently melt together 8 or 10 
ounces of resin, 4 ounces of yellow wax and lys 
pounds of lard or simple ointment (lard and wax), 
strain while hot through a flannel and stir constantly 
until cool. Valuable for blistered surfaces, indolent 
ulcers, burns, scalds and chilblains. 


Resin Ointment, Compound: more stimulating 
than the above. Melt together 12 ounces each of 
resin, suet and yellow wax, 6 ounces turpentine and 
7 ounces of linseed oil. Keep it from the air, to pre¬ 
vent its becoming tough. This is known as “Desh- 
ler’s Salve.” 

To Remove Resin Spots from Silk, rub with al¬ 
cohol, after soaking the spot a few minutes with this 
liquor. 

Resin Soap : see Soap. 

Retch, to make an effort to vomit; to strain as in 
vomiting. Generally caused by nausea. If sips of 
pure hot water do not immediately stop it, flavor the 
water with ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon, coffee, tea or 
other substance that is most palatable. 

Retina (ret'i-na), the nervous expansion in the 
posterior part of the eye-ball which receives the im¬ 
pressions of light. These impressions are communi¬ 
cated by the optic nerve to the “sensorium” in the 
brain. This organ is subject to several affections, 
which cannot be treated by “ domestic medicine,” but 
strict care of the general health will do good in all 
cases and never any harm. 

Retriever. A land retriever is a cross between a 
setter and cocker or springer spaniel; a water re¬ 
triever is a cross between a setter and Newfoundland 
dog; a dog especially trained or qualified to bring 
game to hand. See pages 313-4. 

Rheumatism. This is an inflammatory affection 
of the fibrous tissues, and is chiefly confined to the 
articulations, particularly the large ones, as the knees, 
ankles, hips, shoulders and elbows. The inflamma¬ 
tory symptoms exhibit various degrees in their 
violence and duration, and hence the disease has 
been divided into two varieties, the acute and the 
chronic. 

Symptoms. Acute rheumatism comes on with severe 
pain, which in a day or two is followed with swelling 
of the joints. There is usually considerable stiffness, 
or want of mobility. In the chronic variety the skin 
is never discolored, but in the acute it is generally a 
little red. The pain is very apt to shift from one 
joint to another, and sometimes it runs along the 
course of the muscles connected with the affected 
joints. 

The disease may arise at any time of the year when 
there are frequent vicissitudes of the weather from 
heat to cold, but the spring and autumn are the 
seasons in which it is most common. Young persons 
are more subject to the acute variety, while in older 
people the reverse obtains. 

Rheumatism is occasioned by cold, and is brought 
on most generally by wearing wet or damp clothes, 
working in cold and wet places, etc. 

Treat 7 nent. In the first place, clear the stomach 
and bowels by aperients and emetics. If the skin is 
hot and dry, sponge the body all over with warm 
water and carbonate of soda, or common soda. If 
the skin is not very hot and dry, give a vapor bath. 



































Io 82 


RHUBARB—RICE. 


Dry well, and apply a siimulant liniment. Tincture 
of aconite given as follows will often prove a soecidc 
in chronic cases: Put from 8 to 12 drops in a glass 
of water. A teaspoonful taken from four to six times 
a day. When rheumatism becomes chronic, the 
general health, particularly the diet in connection with 
the digestive jxiwers, must be attended to with great 
care. The attacks otten arise from pure debility, and 
will then be best cured by tonics and good food. 

A diaphoretic ppwder is very useful in this disease; 
also an aperient of senna, manna and cream of tartar 
in solution. 

The following is said to be a good remedy for 
rheumatism: Kerosene oil 3 ounces, skunk’s oil i 
ounce; mix, and shake when applied. Put it on 
quite freely, and heat it in by the stove, or by means 
of a hot shovel. Another remedy for acute rheuma¬ 
tism is a dose every hour of i to 10 drops of the 
tincture of macrotys. 

Rhubarb or Pie-Plant. This is one of the most 
useful and best of all productions of the garden that 
are put into pies. The part used is the stalk of the 
leaves, which, peeled and cut into small pieces, are 
put into pies and stewed for sauce. It is very gener¬ 
ally cultivated throughout the United States. 

In cultivating sow the seed in drills 18 inches 
apart and cover one inch deep; 'when the plants are 
up thin them to one foot apart; when one year old 
prepare the ground for the final bed by trenching two 
feet deep, mixing a liberal quantity of manure with 
the soil; set plants five feet apart each way; do not 
cut until the second year, and give a dressing of 
manure every fall. When it is desired to increase 
the bed, the roots may be taken up in the spring and 
divided. The seed will not always give plants like 
the parent. To encourage leaf growth cut out the 
seed stalk when it first appears. The Giant Seedless 
never produces a seed stalk except from a diseased 
plant. Forcing the pie-plant can be practiced by 
putting an old barrel over it, open at both ends, but 
with a loose head to cover the upper end, as the 
occasion may require; pile fresh stable manure 
around it, from a foot thick at the bottom to six inches 
at the top; put the cover on only in freezing weather; 
if successful the plants will soon fill the barrel with 
its huge stems and leaves. The barrel must be re¬ 
moved as soon as you judge that a fair amoupt of leaf 
has been taken from the plant, and the operation, 
which is really a severe taxing process, should not be 
repeated upon the same plant two years in succession. 

The stem should not be cut from the plant, but 
deftly slipped off by a twisting, sidewise pull. 

The leading varieties are Linnaeus, Myatt’s Victoria, 
Mammoth and New Emperor. 

Rhubarb Curculio {Lixus conclavus, S). This- 
beetle has, of late years, taken to the rhubarb, and it 
may become troublesome. It is often covered with a 
yellow material like pollen when it first makes its ap¬ 
pearance about the first of June, but its color is 
grayish black. It is thought this beetle originally. 


and does yet, where the rhubarb is not at hand, breed 
in burdocL It is easily taken by hand, which is the 
only remedy now known. 

Medicinal Qualities of Rhubarb. Rhubarb is 
one of our most valuable medicines; in it we find a 
singular combination of two properties, which in their 
effects are of an opposite character, the cathartic and 
the astringent. But when the medicine is taken, 
these properties do not exhibit their several effects at 
the same time; the cathartic power is always ex¬ 
hausted before the other takes a permanent effect. 

1 his circumstance is what so eminently adapts this 
medicine to the treatment of dysentery, cholera in¬ 
fantum and cholera morbus. Rhubarb is likewise 
very good in the diarrhoea that often attends dyspep¬ 
sia, and the last stages of consumption. It is very 
mild in its operation as a cathartic, and is not apt to 
produce watery discharges, but rather such as are of 
a faecal character. 

Rhubarb is recommenaed by authors in cases of 
habitual constipation attending dyspepsia; but as 
will readily appear to any thinking individual, it 
certainly is illy adapted to such cases, in view of its 
astringent qualities, which always leave the bowels in 
a confined condition. 

Rhubarb is a tonic and i purgative in dogs and 
other carnivorous animals, but in horses and cattle it 
has scarcely any effect w'hatever, further than im¬ 
proving the appetite. The dose of the spiced rhubarb 
is from one to two teaspoonfuls, repeating it tw'o to 
three times a day. 

Rice is a native of warm climates and differs in 
the mode of its cultivation from any other grain that 
is grown. Those spots where various animal and 
vegetable substances are washed down by rivers, are 
most favorable to its growth. The marshy parts of 
Hindostan and Carolina are among the chief jxirtions 
of the globe where rice is brought to perfection. But 
the American rice is generally considered as being 
much better than that which is grown in the East 
Indies. 

The rice fields of Carolina lie adjacent to the 
larger rivers which flow toward the sea, and down 
whose rapid currents the floods of each spring bring a 
fresh deposit of soil. They are enclosed in some 
places by neat embankments, through openings in 
which the water is allowed to run at such times as it 
is needed. The rice-seed is sown in a rich plot of 
ground, and allowed to attain the height of a few 
inches, when the plants are removed into the fields 
where they are to grow, the ground having been 
previously prepared by being overflowed with water 
until_ it IS thoroughly saturated. These plantations 
require to be kept constantly moist, and as they 
usually lie below the level of the river, by opening 
the sluices in the embankments they are readily 
watered; this operation is repeated several times 
during its growth. 

A field of young rice is a beautiful and interesting 
sight, but the great amount of decayed vegetation 














RIDDLE—ROADS. 


which the soil contains renders the atmosphere very 
unhealthy and few persons besides the negroes em¬ 
ployed in cultivation can remain in the neighborhood 
with safety. 

Baked Rice. Boil ^ cup of rice in i pint of water 
30 minutes, and then add i quart of new milk and boil 
30 minutes longer; then beat together i cup of sugar, 3 
eggs, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and a little lemon or nut¬ 
meg ; stir this into the rice and turn the mixture into 
a buttered pudding-dish and bake 30 minutes. To 
be eaten without sauce. 

To Boil Rice. First wash the nee by rubbing be¬ 
tween the hands in three changes of water; to each 
cupful of rice add 2 of water, with salt to season; boil 
slowly in a covered vessel, never stirring nor adding 
water; when the water is all boiled away the rice is 
done; take the cover from the vessel and allow the 
steam to escape for a moment, then shake the dish 
and turn out the rice. In serving at the table the 
curry should be put over the rice as you would gravy 
over potatoes, not mixed in before going to the table, 
as some do. 

Frosted Rice. Boil i cup of rice in milk till 
very tender; salt or season it; beat the yolks of 3 
eggs with the rice in a deep dish; beat 3 whites to a 
stiff froth with a little sugar and a little lemon; spread 
over the rice and brown in the oven. Put it on ice 
and serve cold. This may be made of tapioca and 
corn starch, is cheap, wholesome and delicious and 
may be afforded often. 

Rice Snowballs. Six ounces of rice, i quart of 
milk, flavoring of essence of almonds; sugar to taste; 
I pint of custard. Boil the rice in the milk with sugar 
and a flavoring essence of almonds until the former is 
tender, adding, if necessary, a little more milk should 
it dry away too much; when the rice is c^uite soft, put 
it into teacups or small round jars and let it remain 
until cold. Then turn the rice out on a deep glass 
dish, pour over a custard, and on the top of each ball 
place a small piece of bright-colored jelly. Lemon 
peel or vanilla may be boiled with the rice instead of 
the essence of almonds, but the flavoring of the cus¬ 
tard must correspond with that of the rice. 

See Pudding. 

Riddle, a sieve' with coarse meshes, usually of 
wire, for separating coarser materials from finer, as 
chaff from grain, cinders from ashes, gravel from 
sand, etc. The sieves of fanning-mills are often 
called riddles. 

Rinderpest (rin'der-pest), the German name of the 
European cattle-plague, a disease not yet introduced 
into this country. It seems to have been imported 
into Europe in ancient times, from Central Asia. Its 
character is that of violent inflammation of the mucous 
membranes, and is generally fatal. 

Ring-Bone, a bony excrescence around the pas¬ 
tern joint on the horse’s foot. See page 824. 

Ring-Worm, a disease consisting of red rings, 
formed by small pimples or blotches, containing a 


1083 


watery, corrosive fluid. It is attended with itching 
and when scratched produces a discharge of a fluid, 
which by touching other places, spreads the eruption. 

Treatment. To i part of sulphuric acid add 16 
to 20 parts water; use a brush or Rather and apply it 
to the parts night and morning. A few dressings will 
generally cure. If the solution is too strong, dilute it 
with more water; and if the irritation is excessive, 
rub on a little oil or other softening application, but 
always avoid soap. 

Another remedy for ring-worm is to wash the part 
with soft-soap every morning and apply the following 
lotion at night; i dram sub-carbonate of soda dis¬ 
solved in ^ pint of vinegar. 

Rip-Saw, a hand-saw with the teeth projecting 
forward, for cutting in the direction of the grain, as a 
kind of substitute for splitting the timber. 

Rive, to split with a frow (pronounced fro)., which 
is a heavy knife, with a handle at right-angle to the 
blade, for splitting staves and clapboards. The frow 
is driven into one end of the “ bolt” (large stick) of 
timber with a heavy mallet and is waved up and 
down and toward the end of the bolt until the board 
comes off. To guide the splitting properly, the bolt is 
alternately turned first one side up and then the 
other, as indicated -by the progress of the splitting, 
which must be constantly watched. A heavy fork 
from a tree is fixed a few inches above the ground, in 
which to turn the bolt and press upon the frow. This 
operation is much practiced in pioneer times in a 
timber country. 

Roaches: see Cockroaches. 

Roads. Roads and roadmaking are certainly im¬ 
portant items to the farmer, for almost all the pro¬ 
ducts of his farm must be transported over them, and 
the cost and comfort of transportation depends verj-^ 
largely on their quality and their condition. The 
roads through a farming district must therefore have 
no little influence upon the value of the land in such 
locality. -Every farmer well knows that good roads 
means big loads, to and from markets, in quicker time 
and with a vast deal more pleasure, and less wear 
and tear on vehicle and team, than rough and poor 
ones. It will be seen, therefore, that this question is 
one deserving the attention of the flirmers in all sec¬ 
tions. In most sections of this country comparatively 
little outlay has been made in constructing roads, but 
as the country grows older and richer roads will be 
made better and more durable. In Europe, for in¬ 
stance, where the nations have had time, experience 
and wealth, they have roads of very superior character. 

In making roads there is one thing to secure, and 
that is a hard, smooth surface, impervious to water. 
This may be obtained, practically, by the use of vari¬ 
ous materials and in various ways, but in general 
country roads are made of the soil. We will first 
consider the process of making roads of this material. 

Earth Roads. The roads of a country must ob¬ 
viously be, as a rule, made of material found in the 










1084 


ROADS. 


vicinity, and that will combine in the greatest degree, 
cheapness, durability and smoothness of surface. 
In many sections, however, there is no other material 
accessible than the common earth, and this must be 
worked in such a manner as to provide a good high¬ 
way for both heavy and light vehicles. In construct¬ 
ing an earth road the following rules or suggestions 
will be of practical value: 

1 he road should be about 40 feet wide from out- 



Fig. I.— The Proper Form of a Road Surface. 


row, flat and rough or miry, as represented in Fig. 2. 

In repairing an earth road plow upon the outside 
of the ditch, always throwing the furrows toward the 
road. Then begin to scrape from the outside of the 
new plowing, and you will doubtless have sufficient 
earth to broaden and round up the road. This will 
form an oval road-bed, as shown in Fig. i, so that 
travel may be effected clear to the bottom of the 
ditches. The principal feature to be ever borne in 

mind is to have such ditches 
as will carry off the water. Any 
road will become dry that has 
good ditches, and nothing short 
of that will make a dry road. 

Another method of draining 
is by tiling. This has been 


proven a very effective way of 


side to outside of the ditches, and the bed, or the 
portion between the inside of the ditches should be 
25 feet wide. If the road is 40 feet in width the 
ditches should be seven and one-half feet wide. 

They should be of gradual slope from the edge of the 
road-bed to the outside, and at the latter point should 
be one foot deep. Where the surface is uneven, the 
ditches should be deeper through the higher s{X)ts, 
for they must have a uniform grade so as to run off 
the water. 

In making a dirt road of the width indicated above, 
first stake off the road-bed 25 feet wide, in such a 
manner as to be a guide in plowing. Then plow the 
sod on either side seven and one-half feet wide, or 
the width of the ditches. Scrape all the turf or sod 
upon the center of the road-bed, striking the furrows 
endwise with the scraper, and having the team pass 
around in a circle. When all the sod has been scraped 
to the center, plow again and remove the earth to the 
road-bed, rounding up the center, and making the 
surface uniform. After this has been done plow 
three or four furrows upon the outside of the ditches, 
scrape in the dirt leaving the surface highest in the 
center and curving gradually to the outside of the 
ditches as represented by Fig. i. 

The ditches by this are lowered 
one foot on each side, the road¬ 
bed raised six inches by'the dirt 
from the ditches; hence the drain¬ 
age is 18 inches in half the width 
of the road or in 20 feet from the 

center of the road to the out- Fig. ^.—improper Way 0/ Draining and Ditching Roads. 


draining a road, and that is theimportant item. Roads 
may be constructed as above described, and a line of 
tile placed close to the lower edge of the embankment 
at a depth of from two and a half to three feet. To do 
the work thoroughly, a line should be laid on each 
side of the embankment. These lines should be laid 
very accurately and upon a true grade. If it is pos¬ 
sible the drain should have a grade of at least 2 to 4 
inches to 100 feet. The most important thing to look 
after is the rapid removal of the water. This neces¬ 
sitates the most accurate work in laying the drain, 
and also larger tiles than would be sufficient to drain 
the same area of land for farming purposes. If there 
are small sags communicating with the road ditches, 
branch lines should extend to them so that they may 
not overflow and discharge large quantities of water 
in the road ditches. Should there be a hollow along 
the line of tile, a catch-basin will facilitate the remov¬ 
al of the water. This is a pit, two feet square, dug 
as deep as the tiles are laid. After the tiles are laid, 
the pit is_ filled with gravel or small stones. The ob¬ 
ject of this basin is to take the water which gathers 
so quickly in such places, and give it a rapid ingress 
to the tile. 



side. This should make a good, solid road-way, as 
the mellow soil soon packs and becomes hard upon 
the original hard earth, and the loose earth, being 
scraped from the ditch, leaves that free to' carry off 
the water. The road-way is represented by that por¬ 
tion above the dotted lines in Fig. i. 

'I'he general tendency is to make the road-bed too 
narrow in first making a road, and each time it is re¬ 
paired to encroach upon it. The ditches are usually 
deepened abruptly close to the road, thus forcing 
travel in one place. This soon makes the road nar¬ 


Placing three or four inches of coarse sand ten or 
fifteen inches below the surface of the road, in the 
original grading, will make an efficient drain. 

A road-way 20 feet wide will afford ample room for 
two teams to pass, even when loaded with unusually 
.bulky articles, as, for instance, hay ; but should the 
side ditches be made as abruptly as is often done, as 
shown in Fig. 3, there will be danger of tipping over. 
They should have a gradual slope, as shown by Fig. 
4, where a team may travel on any part of it without 
danger. The principal implements required in mak- 





















ROARING—ROBIN. 


1085 


ing a road as described above are a plow and a road- 
scraper. Perhaps the best of the latter kind are 
made by the Chicago Scraper & Ditcher Co., Chica¬ 
go, Illinois. 

(travel Roads. In localities where sharp gravel 
is obtainable, there is no doubt but that a covering of 
from 10 to 15 inches upon a perfectly graded and 
well drained road is one of the best and most econom¬ 
ical ; at the same time it is easier to keep in repair 


for county roads, for the reason that it costs merely 
the digging and hauling. Washed and rounded 
gravel should never be used, for it will never cement 
together to form an even surface. It may, indeed, in 
time become so incorporated with the soil as to in¬ 
crease the solidity of the road-way, but it can never 
become a really efficient medium over which loaded 
vehicles can pass at all seasons of the year. 

The great cost of hauling material of any kind to 
form the superstructure of a road, renders it impera¬ 
tive that the most careful calculation be made as to 
the amount of traffic thereon. If, for instance, the 
heavy travel be nearly all one way, as in country 
places, ten feet of ballasted portion will be ample; 
14 feet will easily allow for turning out, and for the 
passage of loaded teams; 18 to 20 feet will allow 
teams to go in contrary directions continuously; and 
24 to 32 feet will admit of the road being thronged in 
both directions, and yet leave sufficient room for 
turning out and the passing and repassing of lighjt 
vehicles, swiftly driven. 

Plank Roads. These are suited only for a heav¬ 
ily timbered country; at the best they 
are but temporary affairs, and are 
the worst roads possible if not kept 
in the best of repair. As our country 
grows older they must of necessity 
be replaced by roads of more per¬ 
manent character. 

Broken-Stone Road. The best 
road we can command is the broken- 
stone or macadamized road. The 
method of making, in its earlier stages, is very 
similar to that of the gravel road, viz.: by preparing 
a well drained and neatly graded road bed slightly 
convex at the center; to this apply the road metal 
(which, in this case, consists of angular fragments of 
stone, not over 0/2, inches on any side), in layers of ar 
few inches in thickness, allowing each layer to harden 
under the traffic before the next is applied._ The 
thickness of the broken stone should vary with the 
amount of traffic from 8 to 16 inches. Once made. 


the broken-stone road is the cheapest of all roads. It 
is a road over which a single horse can easily draw 
nearly two tons against eight-ninths of one ton on a 
gravel road. 

Culverts. One of the most important essentials 
in road-making is sluice-ways or culverts, at proper 
intervals, so that the water may readily be conveyed 
from one side of the road to the other, as the confor¬ 
mation of the surface may demand, to keep up the 
continuity of the drainage ; for, if water 
be permitted to stand in the ditches at 
all, the road-way must remain moist 
and consequently soft. 

One of the greatest nuisances is the 
rough, uncouth wooden culvert. When 
these ditches receive the accumulated 
waters of fields, as when the road-way 
crosses natural water courses, substan¬ 
tial culverts or bridges must be provid¬ 
ed; but when the accumulation is simply the drain¬ 
age of the road, with, perhaps, some addition from the 
adjacent land, a simple line of tile sunk to the level 
of the bottom of the ditch, and extending across and 
under the road, is all that is necessary. These, be¬ 
sides offering no obstruction to travel, are far cheaper 
than even the simplest culverts formed of wood. 

These should always be of vitrified tile and may 
be ordered in any city. They are made of any size, 
from six inches to two feet or even larger in caliber. 
If one is not enough, lay two or more alongside ,each 
other, and forever do away with the severe shocks 
that torture horses, drivers and passengers, whenever 
the wheels of a vehicle strike those plank water ways. 

Roaring of horse : see page 7 36. 

Robin, a familiar bird of the thrush family, the 
Turdus 7nigraiorius, so called because he migrates 
to the South to pass the winter. A few, however, re¬ 
main North during the winter, in thick swamps and 
on the sunny sides of woods. They appear in the 
Northern States in very early spring, “ singing their 


sweetest.” From an economical point of view, it is 
still an unsettled question whether they do more 
harm than good; but from the “esthetical” stand¬ 
point, it is evident that their song is far preferable to 
the everlasting “ chip-chip ” of the English sparrow, 
which will eventually drive out our native song-birds. 
The robin subsists upon worms and larvae and upon 
cherries and some other small fruits in their season. 
This is not the “ robin red-breast,” of the Old World, 
which belongs to another genus of this family. 



Fig. 3 .—Improper IVay of Ditchin^. 

















io86 


ROCHELLE SALT—ROOT CROPS. 


Rochelle Salt (ro-sher), the tartrate of potassa 
and soda. This is a colorless, transparent, slightly 
efflorescent and crystalline substance, with a saline 
and slightly bitter taste. It is a mild and cooling 
purgative, well suited to delicate and irritable 
stomachs and is among the least unpalatable of the 
neutral salts. It is not incompatible with tartar 
emetic, and may be given in connection wilh it when 
the double effect is desired. It is an ingredient of 
Seidlitz powders. The dose for a purge is from to 
I ounce. Given in small and repeated doses, it does 
not purge, but is absorbed and renders the urine 
alkaline. 

Roller, an implement for compressing, smoothing, 
pulverizing, or otherwise finishing off cultivated land, 
whether in grass or in tillage, in preparation for sow¬ 
ing or subsequent to sowing. Rollers vary greatly in 
form and the material of which they are constructed, 
but those in general use are made of wood. Iron 
rollers^are, however, commonly used in some sections. 
It has been found that very frequently instead of 
crushing the clods of hard earth a roller simply presses 
them into the loose soil. For use on clay land, which 
has become hard and baked, a heavy iron roller sup¬ 
plied with a large number of teeth upon its outer 
surface will be found the best. For lighter work as a 
clod crusher a log drawn over the ground without 
rolling will answer every purpose. Such an imple¬ 
ment can be made for either one or two horses. If 
for the former a pair of shafts will be required, while 
for the latter a ix)le similar to that of the wagon. 
However, besides the work of smoothing the surface, 
a roller is a good implement for covering grass seed. 

Rolls, light fancy bread in the form of rolls. 

Coffee Rolls. Take six cups or three pints of 
flour, half a cup of white sugar, a piece of butter the 
size of an egg, half a cup of yeast, two eggs, and a 
little nutmeg. Mix with warm milk, and let it rise 
over night; if well risen in the morning, knead and 
set in a cool place until afternoon, then shape into 
long rolls and let them rise an hour and a half. Bake 
in a moderate oven. When done, glaze them with a 
little milk in which some brown sugar has been dis¬ 
solved, and set them back in the oven for a few 
minutes. These are for tea. 

Parker-House Rolls. Sift two quarts of flour, 
make a hole in the center. Take one pint of warm, 
milk, half a cup of melted butter in the milk, let it 
cool, then add two tablespoonfuls of sugar, a gill of 
yeast and a little salt; pour this into the hole made in 
the flour; let it stand till morning, then thoroughly 
mix it, not adding any more flour; let it rise again 
until noon, then knead it stiff enough to roll out; cut 
it in rounds and give them a roll with the rolling-pin 
to make them oval; lap them over, having put a 
crumb of butter under each before lapping. Let 
them rise in the pah before going into the oven. 
Breakfast Rolls: see page 107. 

Rolly-poly Rolly-po-ly), a kind of pudding made 


of sheets of paste sjjread with sweetmeats, etc., roll¬ 
ed up. Make a biscuit dough with a quart of flour, 
2 large teaspoonfuls of condensed baking powder, sifted 
into the flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of chopped suet, and 
sw'eet milk enough to make into a dough. Roll into 
an oblong sheet a little more than a quarter of an 
inch thick, and spread thickly with fruit, as berries or 
chopped apples, sliced peaches, etc., or jam preserves, 
etc. In putting this in, leave an inch at the edges 
uncovered; roll it up tight, lap the edges over to 
prevent the escape of the fruit, and sew it up in a 
bag, having first dipped the bag in hot water and 
dredged it with flour. Boil the pudding i ^ hours, 
and when done cut it crosswise in slices inch 
thick and serve with wine or fruit sauce. 

Root, the part of a plant which strikes downward 
or inw'ard into the soil. It directs its course down¬ 
ward or inward with a tendency apparently as 
invariable and stubborn as the force of gravitation; 
it does not carry branches or leaves or scales in the 
inanner of a stem; it never becomes green in its 
tissue by ex}X)sure to the action of air and light; and 
it comprises all the points of the plant’s basal attach¬ 
ment, and also all the bibulous organs of the plant’s 
functions of nourishment. 

Root Crops, crops of roots raised to feed to stock. 

1 he raising of such crops is of growing imjx)rtance in 
this country. In Europe the practice has enabled 
the people to raise 25 per cent, more cattle, and to 
raise them better. Of beets nothing is exjxjrted but 
the sugar, while the remaining pulp is a most valuable 
food for cattle. In this country beets, carrots, tur¬ 
nips and pumpkins afford a healthful variety to break 
the dull monotony of corn, oats and hay. Indeed, 
the feeding of these juicy articles are absolutely 
essential to the greatest degree of perfection and of 
health in farm animals. Feeding upon these prevents 
constipation and excessive drinking of water, while it 
is a general “corrective” of all the digestive j)rocesses. 
Of course, pound for pound, there is theoretically 
more nutritive matter in grain than in roots; but the 
point is, there is more az'aihible (digestible and assim¬ 
ilable) matter in a varying mixture of the two classes 
of articles than in either alone, wfliile the juices of the 
roots, pumpkins, etc., are physiologically purer and 
more welcome to the animal economy than any other 
water that can be obtained. 

In the West the usual drouth of late summer and 
early fall stand in the w^ay ot the successful raising of 
turnips, but_ carrots and beets can be raised with 
profit. Dairymen and stock-breeders, especially, 
would be justified in raising these on a large scale, 
d he mode of raising these vegetables is given in their 
places in this volume. For field culture, of course, 
everything is planted in rows or drills 2% \o ^ feet 
apart, to allow for horse cultivation, and such large and 
coarse varieties ofthe vegetables as will yield the most 
per acre. These varieties are also indicated in the re¬ 
spective articles in this work. If you have a good piece 
of land, passably clear from weeds, upon which you wish 














ROOT CROPS—ROSE. 


1087 


to raise roots, sow plenty of carrots, provided you can 
get good reliable seed. This is quite difficult, but, if 
possible, try to raise your own seeds of various kinds. 
Should you fail in your carrots, you can sow to ruta¬ 
bagas or Russian turnips; and in case these happen 
to fail wholly or in part, you can still fall back on the 
flat turnip. Next in value comes the beet. See 
pages 83-4. 

Preparation of Land. In the month of May, or 
earlier, plow your land (any good land will do, a stiff 
sod excepted), a good depth, at the same time apply¬ 
ing a good coat of fine stable or compost manure. 
Harrow and roll it well. The rolling will irrsure it 
against drouth, which frequently happens about the 
seeding time of the varieties, which for ruta-bagas or 
Russian turnips should be from the loth to the 25th 
of June; for carrots or beets, same time in May, 
or from the 25th of May to the loth of June will do, 
other conditions being favorable; and for flat turnips, 
the last half of July. Having thus prepared your 
land, some little time before sowing, some of it at 
least you will need to see to on account of the weeds, 
and if necessary harrow to keep them down. Just 
before seeding time, whether it be carrots, beets or 
turnips, put your land m drills or ridges, about two 
feet apart,—not to exceed that distance,—on the top 
of which sow your seed, being sure to put in plenty of 
it, as it is much easier to thin out than to trans¬ 
plant or fill with later varieties. 

Use a large plow, first measuring off from one side 
of the piece at a given distance, say three rods. Then 
strike a straight furrow through the piece and back, 
making one ridge; then set your clevis over so as to 
make the ridges the desired distance apart by cutting 
and covering, and so on until you have finished the 
field, giving the ridges one day to settle before sow¬ 
ing, if the weather is likely to be fair. 

After CyLTiVATiON. As soon as your plants 
reach a suitable size, which will be in three or four 
weeks, use an old-fashioned five-toothed cultivator, 
taking out the two center teeth and bringing in the 
sides toward the center as much as you can, which 
makes a cultivator just the right width. After going 
twice in a row with this, there will be a strip six to 
eight inches wide where the plants are, which has to 
be worked with a hoe. Do not think it will hurt your 
plants, ruta-bagas and turnips in particular, to handle 
them a little roughly, cutting away with the hoe. 
Carrots need more care, and it frequently becomes 
necessary to use the hand in order not to disturb the 
plants; and it is a slow job at that, especially if neg¬ 
lected for a few days. If the first weeding is well 
done, the after culture can nearly all be done with the 
cultivator. Beets require about the same process in 
cultivation as ruta-bagas and Russian turnips. The 
flat turnip is of so much less value for feeding that 
we do not recommend raising them, except where 
there may be blanks in your other root crops, or 
where you may have been prevented from getting 
your ground ready in season for other varieties. 

69 


You may reasonably expect from 500 to 800 bush¬ 
els to the acre. 

Carrots and beets are preferable as food for milch 
cows, as they do not give the milk that unpleasant 
taste sometimes noticed when feeding turnips or 
ruta-bagas. This, however, can be nearly or quite 
all avoided by feeding cows in the morning immedi¬ 
ately after milking; or, in case there should be a little 
of it still remaining, put one teacupful of hot water 
to a pail of milk before straining. 

Harvesting. Beets and carrots should be gath¬ 
ered before very heavy frosts. A little freezing may 
cause the top to become hollow and soft. A ixjtato fork 
is very valuable for loosening the ground, after which 
the root is readily pulled out with the hand and the 
top broken off before laying it down. They will keep 
better and be nicer at time of feeding if allowed to 
dry a little before pitting. The beet or carrot will 
withstand a very dry season even in light soil, but the 
yield will vary, of course, according to the surround¬ 
ings. With rows 30 inches apart and the beets 18 
inches in the row, there would be about 11,500 plants 
to the acre. These will w'eigh nearly all the way 
from 2 pounds to perhaps 15.01 20 each. If the 
average weight was 5 pounds you Avould have about 
57,500 pounds, or 958 bushels per acre. The cost of 
production per acre may be figured as follows; 


Once plowing. $12 00 

Harrowing and cultivating. 3 00 

Seed. 2 50 

Drilling. i 00 

Eight days’tending. 12 00 

Pulling and pitting. 12 00 

Manure. 12 50 


Total. $45 00 


Allowing oply 450 bushels per acre the cost is but 
10 cents per bushel. A yield of 750 bushels Avould 
reduce the cost to 6 cents per bushel. 



Fig. I. — Tea Rose. 


Bose, the flower which stands at the head of the 
















io88 


RO T—RO TA TION. 


floral kingdom. The species are numerous and the 
number of varieties overwhelming; and new varieties 
are originated by florists almost every year. The 
leading species of cultivated roses are Cherokee, 
Bracted, Evergreen, Musk, Many-flowered, Banksia, 



Fig. 2. —Hybrid Perpetual Rose. 

Tea, Perpetual or Bengal, Bourbon, Bengal Pompon, 
Noisette, Provence (French or Red), Hundred-leaved 
(or Cabbage), Damask, White, Cinnamon, Burnet (or 
Scotch), Yellow Eglantine, Yellow, Dog, Sweet-Brier, 
etc. The leading wild species in this country are the 
Prairie (or Climbing), Swamp, Dwarf Wild and Early 
Wild. Most roses are hardy and easy of cultivation; 
some are “half-hardy,” and a few tender. The rosa¬ 
ceous order of plants comprises nearly all our fruits, as, 
apple, pear, peach, cherry, plum, blackberry, rasp¬ 
berry, strawberry, nectarine, apricot, quince, almond, etc. 

Rot, a disease of the liver and adjacent viscera.of 
sheep. It is one of the oldest and most destructive 
of sheep maladies, and is supposed to destroy more 
sheep than all other diseases together. See Sheep. 

Rotation. Rotation of crops is one of the best 
established principles of modern agricultural science, 
and probably, also, the most important. Every one 
sees that any given class of plants will exhaust the 
soil of certain elements; and upon this fact alone 
you can easily construct a system of constant renewal. 
(See Manure and Fertilizer.) As exceptions to the 
principles of constant rotation, onions, and two or three 
forage plants in rich bottom lands that are sometimes 
inundated, do better to remain in the same ground 
for many years. 

In a well-planned system of farming, the subject of 
crop rotations should be carefully considered as one 


of the essential elements of success in its highest and 
best sense. It seems to be the prevailing opinion 
that the alternation of crops, in systematic order, is a 
modern invention that was gradually developed as a 
direct result of the applications of science to the art 
of agriculture. The early writers on agriculture, 
even from the times of the Greeks and Romans, have, 
however, quite uniformly urged the advantages ot a 
succession of crops from the teachings of experience. 
They were satisfied’ that a variety of crops grown in 
succession, all other conditions being ecpial, would 
give a greater aggregate yield than could otherwise be 
obtained. The reasons for the success of the system 
could not, it is true, be given, but practical men were 
fully agreed in urging its importance, and many sys¬ 
tems of rotation, more or less perfect, were planned, 
some of which became 'the prevailing rule of farm 
practice in particular localities. That these practical 
rules of alternating crops of different habits and modes 
of growth are based on correct but not fully explained 
principles, has been shoAvn by direct experiment. 

Many theories have been advanced to explain the 
well-established influence of one crop upon the growth 
of another; but as the laws of plant growth became 
better known, and greater exactness in the means of 
investigation were discovered, they were found in¬ 
sufficient to account for all the observed facts, and 
even at the present time a complete and satisfactory- 
theory of rotation is wanting. When k was observed 
that the yield of a grain crop was diminished when 
grown continuously on the same land for a number of 
years, and that a marked increase of the crop was 
obtained after some other crop had been grown, the 
idea that the soil was “tired” so far as that particular 
crop was concerned, and needed “ resting,” became 
the accepted explanation. 

In 1566 Camillo Tarello presented to the Senate of 
Venice a plan of an improved system of agriculture, 
in which he urged the importance of better cultivation 
of the soil; an increase of cattle food for a better 
supply of manure, and the “ resting” of the soil for 
grain crops by alternating them with the grasses and 
clover. The next theory worthy of particular notice 
was presented by De Candolle, who assumed that 
plants threw off excretions from their roots that poi¬ 
soned the soil for the same species of plant, but 
served as nutritive material for other plants. This . 
excretory theory, although for the time a popular 
one, was finally disproved, and Liebig’s mineral 
theory, as it was called, was quite generally accepted 
as giving the best explanation of the known facts of 
crop rotations. According to this theory, plants de¬ 
rived their mineral, or ash constituents, from the soil, 
and obtained from the atmosphere their supply of 
carbon and nitrogen. As crops differed in their ash 
constituents, it was assumed that their demands upon 
the soil w-ould differ, and that this largely explained 
the advantages of rotations. The assumed, source of 
nitrogen was, however, a more important factor and 
crops Avere classified as exhausting when their min¬ 
eral constituents predominated, and as restorative 















/ 


RO UND- UF—R UMINANTS. 


when they contained a larger proportion of’nitrogen, 
which they were supposed to draw from the atmos¬ 
phere by means of their broader leaves which char¬ 
acterized them. The cereals, including our wheat, 
oats and barley, were thus placed in the group of 
exhausting crops; while clover and other leguminous 
plants were placed in the restorative group. 

As a full crop of clover removes from an acre of 
soil more of the mineral or ash constituents than a 
full crop of wheat or oats, it is difficult to understand 
why, in accordance with this theory, the wheat and oats 
should be classed as exhausting crops, and the clover 
and its allies as restorative crops, if their mineral 
constituents are alone considered. Moreover, in re¬ 
gard to the source of the nitrogen of what are called 
restorative crops, like clover and beans, there seems 
to be evidence that a smaller proportion is drawn 
from the atmosphere than was formerly supposed, 
and that the soil furnishes the most important supply. 

An excellent system of rotation is plainly shown in 
the accompanying illustration. The order of succes¬ 
sion in the crops of this system is as follows: 

1. Inverted clover and timothy sod for corn. 2. 
Barley. 3. Wheat. 4. Meadow. 5. Pasture, to be 

continued one or 
more years, or 
changed for meadow. 
This is well known 
as the most common 
rotation in many of 
the Northern States, 
and the only pecul¬ 
iarities here pointed 
out are in the details. 

I. The Corn. 
When corn follows 
meadow excellent 
crops are obtained 
by applying the 
manure on the grass 
the autumn previous- 
. ly, or even soon after 

the cutting of the previous crop of hay. 

2. Barley. It is important that the crop be sowed 
early in spring, and for this reason is adapted only to 
dry or well drained fields. On water-soaked land it 
would prove a failure. If the corn has been properly 
cultivated and kept clean, weeds will not have gain¬ 
ed much hold; and if previously weedy, the good 
cultivation will have tended to eradicate them. The 
earliest variety of barley should be sown, in order 
that it maybe harvested early, to admit several weeks 
of summer-fallowing before sowing the wheat. 

3. Wheat. This being an important crop, proper 
care should be given to the preparation of the soil. 
'Fhe good treatment of previous years for other crops 
will extend to this also. The effects of the rotting 
sod for the corn, and the manure it received, will not 
yet have passed away. If the barley has been cut 
early, at least six weeks of summer-fallowing may 
precede the sowing of the wheat, at a time of year 


1089 


when it will accomplish much towards clearing out 
foul matter, as well as pulverizing the soil into the 
best condition for the reception of the seed. If the 
land is not strong enough, a light dressing of manure 
just before sowing will be of much benefit. 

4 and 5. Clover and Grass. Clover and timothy 
seed are sown early in spring on the wheat, or the 
timothy may be sown the preceding autumn. As 
soon as the wheat is cut, the young clover should 
have a dressing of gypsum, and again another the 
following spring. The grass should be meadow the 
first year, as it has not become strong enough for the 
tread of domestic animals. If continued another 
year or more as meadow, it should have a light top¬ 
dressing of manure applied in autumn, as the removal 
of the hay tends to reduce the land. If continued 
several years for meadow, a year of pasturage should 
be occasionally interposed, the grass never being 
grazed short, especially on the approach of winter. 

The essential elements of the preceding rotation 
may be retained, with a considerable modification of 
the details. A portion of the field devoted to corn 
may be occupied with potatoes, in which case, if the 
sod is strong, it may be plowed for this crop the pre¬ 
vious autumn, and re-plowed in spring. Turnips, 
carrots, etc., may occupy the same field, care being 
taken to have the land properly prepared at the same 
time. Instead of barley the second year, may be 
peas, spring wheat, or oats, in which latter case it 
may be necessary to give an additional dressing of 
manure preceding the wheat. After the field is seed¬ 
ed to grass, it may be kept as meadow and pasture 
two, three, or more years, according to circumstances, 
and the number of fields occupied by the rotation. 

Round-Up, a term used by herdsmen for gather¬ 
ing together the vast herds of cattle on the plains of 
the West. See Herding, 

Roup, a most common and a very latal disease of 
poultry. See page 539. 

Rower (rou'el), in farriery, a roll of hair or silk, 
passed through the flesh of a horse, to keep open a 
suppurating wound. The term has also been applied 
to the little flat ring or wheel of plate or iron on 
horses’ bits. 

Rowen: see Aftermath. 

Rubble-stone, small stones used for coarse 
masonry. The wall made of such stone is called a 
“rubble wall.” 

Rumen, or Paunch, the first of the four stomachs 
of a ruminating animal. 

Ruminants (ru mi-nants), the family or order of 
animals which have four stomachs and which masti¬ 
cate their food after it has been once swallowed and 
taken into the rumen. It is the most distinctly de¬ 
fined of all the families of mammals, and is also the 
most useful to man. Its genera are the ox, the 
sheep, the goat, the antelope (including the gazelle, 
chamois, oryx and gnu), the giraffe, the stag, the musk. 








lopo 


R UMINA TION~R UTTING SEASON. 


the llama and the camel. All the ruminants have a 
callous pad instead of incisors in the upper jaw, and 
are cloven-footed, have four stomachs, a very long 
intestinal canal, and their mammae between the 
thighs. The flesh of ruminants furnishes all the 
principal kinds of meat used by man; their milk, 
especially that of the cow, supplies all the produce of 
the dairy; their fat affords all the varieties of tallow, 
and their hides, their horns and their other parts all 
possess great economical value. Some of the living 
animals, also, particularly camels, are very valuable 
beasts of burden. 

Rumination, the re-mastication of food after it 
has entered the 7 umen (paunch) of the animal. 
Liquid or attenuated food passes at once into the 
third and fourth stomachs and is not re-masticated; 
but all other food, particularly such as consists of 
comparatively dry and solid vegetable matter, de¬ 
scends into the rumen^ is there slowly macerated, 
passes little by little into the second stomach and is 
there separated by compression into a liquid and 
solid portion, the liquid to pass on to the third and 
fourth stomachs, and the solids to be returned in 
pellets up the gullet for such re-mastication as shall 
reduce it to a pulp and fit it to pass direct, by re¬ 
deglutition, into the third and fourth stomachs. The 
re-mastication is effected while the animal lies at 
ease, and constitutes what is popularly called “chew¬ 
ing the cud,” and takes place only upon matter which 
nothing short of tedious labor can reduce to perfect 
pulpiness or liquidity, and the regorging which attends 
it differs widely from the belching or vomiting of non¬ 
ruminant animals, and is as regularly conducted by 
a specially constituted organism as deglutition, or ab¬ 
sorption, or secretion, or any other ordinary act or 
function of the animal system. 

One important practical lesson suggested by the 
nature of rumination, is the proper feeding of cows, in 
order to produce the greatest quantity of milk. If 
they are fed on very dry food, such as hay, the greater 
portion of fluids in the blood will be spent in the proc¬ 
ess of rumination and digestion, and the milk will be 
scanty; but if tlrey are fed on aliment which abounds 
in liquid they will ruminate much less, a less quantity 
of saliva will be wanted for chewing the cud, and a 
larger proportion will go to the production of milk, 
though this will be thinner and not so rich in cream 
as the milk produced from drier food. 

Another important practical lesson has reference to 
the giving of medicines. We may to a very great ex- 
ter>t send medicine into what stomach we please. 
We may give it in a ball, and it will fall into the 
paunch, and thence go the round of all the stomachs; 
or it may be exhibited in a fluid form and gently 
poured down, and the greater part of it pass at once 
into the third and fourth stomachs. That which is 
meant to have a speedy action on the constitution or 
the disease, should be given in fluid form. That, 
also, which is particularly disagreeable should be thus 
given, otherwise it will enter the paunch and be re¬ 
turned again in the process of rumination, and disgust 


the animal, and perhaps cause rumination to cease at 
once. 

Runt, a name applied to a dwarf animal; also 
the name of a variety of common pigeon. . 

Rupture, the protrusion of some part of the intes¬ 
tines from their proper cavity. See Hernia. 

Rural, pertaining or belonging to the country, as 
distinguished from a city or town. 

Rush, the name of many species of coarse, grass¬ 
like or reed-like herbs. Some species are used in 
bottoming chairs and plaiting mats, and the pith of 
some species has been used as lamp-wicks in some 
countries. The “ scouring rush” is common through¬ 
out the United States. It has a round, fluted and 
gritty stem, without branches or leaves, and is very 
good to use in lieu of a scrubbing-brush. 

Rusk, a kind of light, soft cake or sweetened bis¬ 
cuit; also, a kind of light, hard cake or bread; also, 
old, dry bread rasped up or pulverized, to be eaten 
with meat or sauce. A good way to “ economize ” old 
bread of any kind is to heat it in an oven until dry, 
and grate or pound it up into a powder. It is then 
ver>" palatable, eaten in any way that bread is. 

Rust, the reddish or brownish yellow coating on 
iron exposed to moist air; it is mainly the oxide of the 
metal. Secondarily, any metallic oxide; anything 
that resembles rust of iron, as parasitic or fungous 
growth on vegetables or trees, or even on any organic 
substance. As all rust is deleterious to the health, it 
behooves us to avoid it in every possible way, not 
only in rejecting rusty grain from Our breadstuffs, but 
also in keeping all the victuals from contact with 
oxidizable metals. The greatest damage we suffer 
from rust is caused by eating or drinking those things 
which have stood or been cooked in iron vessels; but 
verdigris, the oxide of copper in brass utensils, is the 
most poisonous of all. 

To prevent rust in farming utensils, see page 864. 
To remove rust from linen, moisten the portion of 
linen stained in clear, soft water, then lay on a few 
crystals of oxalic acid, and occasionally add a few 
drops more of water till the stain is gone; then rinse 
thoroughly in cold, soft water. 

Rustic, pertaining to the country. Rustic work is 
that which is made of rough limbs of trees fancifully 
arranged, as in seats, bowers, summer houses, etc. 
Rustic masonry is that which leaves the surfaces of 
the stones rough. Rustic work in nearly all its 
phases is common in city parks, and ought oftener to 
grace the landscapes of farmers. 

Rut, a furrow or track worn in the road by the 
wheels of vehicles; the copulation of animals, especial¬ 
ly of deer. 

Ruta-Baga, Swedish turnip; called also Russian 
turnip and French turnip. 

Rutting Season, the period when animals pair or 
mate. 








RYE. 


1091 


Rye, a genus of cereal grasses of the wheat tribe. 

Great obscurity hangs over the early history of rye. 
Certain interesting ancient notices of cereal grasses 
are thought by some commentators to refer to rye and 
by others not; some plants which the botanists of a 
former age regarded as species of rye, are now assign¬ 
ed to the genera Triticurn and Agropyrum ; and two 
or three varieties, perhaps species, which continue to 
be called rye, either hold a doubtful place between 
rye and wheat, or are not sufficiently known to be 
spoken of with certainty. Yet a few old facts respect¬ 
ing rye are well authenticated, and at the same time 
possess considerable interest. 

Rye has been variously supposed to be a native of 
Crete, of the Crimea and of the Levant or of Egypt; 
but it possesses the constitution of a plant inured to 
the coldest regions, and grows most abundantly be¬ 
yond the Yakutsk on the surface of a frozen subsoil, 
and seems, on the evidence both of its own nature 
and of some of the earliest records of it, to have been 
introduced to all other countries where it is found 
from some northerly part of Asiatic Tartar)'. The 
grain mentioned by Moses and Isaiah, which the 
authorized English translation of the Sacred Scriptures 
calls rye, and by Herodotus, which some old scholiasts 
regard as rye, appears to have been the species of 
wheat formerly called "Leaspelta, and now called Triti- 
cum spelta., and popularly spelt. Rye does not seem to 
have been known to Aristotle or Dioscorides, and is 
not mentioned by Cato, Virgil, Columella, or Varro, 
and may therefore be inferred to have held no place 
among the ancient agricultural crops of Greece or 
Italy. Pliny, however, describes it as cultivated by 
the Taurini in the part of Cisalpine Gaul which con¬ 
stitutes Piedmont, and says that they call it Asia, a 
circumstance which possibly may point to their 
ancestors having brought it with them remotely from 
Asiatic Tartary, and immediately from the valley of 
the Danube. 

Rye was known and cultivated in Great Britain at 
a very early period and is still extensively cultivated 
as a bread grain throughout Poland, Russia, Switzer¬ 
land, much of Germany, other parts of Great Britain 
and our own country. 

This grain, among its bread-making properties, has 
a peculiar, rich aroma, which particularly distinguishes 
it from all other cereals. It is hardier than wheat, 
and is often a good substitute for it on those soils 
which will not grow the latter grain with certainty 
and profit. 

A rich, sandy loam is the best for rye, though it 
will grow freely on light sands and gravels which are 
too poor for the other grains. Loamy soils too rich 
for wheat will frequently raise an excellent crop of 
rye, as in such a situation it is not so apt to lodge. 
Strong clay or calcareous land is not well suited to 
this grain. 

In preparing the ground for sowing rye, principles 


similar to those in the cultivation of wheat should be 
observed. It may be advantageously sown upon a 
rich, old turf, or clover lay, or after corn or roots 
where the land has been well manured and thorough¬ 
ly cleaned of weeds. There is not an equal necessity 
for using a brine steep for rye as for wheat, yet, if 
allowed to remain a few hours in a weak solution of 
saltpeter or some of the other salts, it promotes 
speedy germination and subsequent growth. 

There is but one species of rye, but to this cultiva¬ 
tion has given two varieties, the spring and the 
winter. Like wheat, they are easily transformed the 
one into the other by sowing the winter continually 
later through successive generations to change into 
spring grain, and the opposite for its re-conversion 
into winter grain. The last should be sown from the 
20th of August to the 20th of September, the earliest 
requiring less seed, as it has a longer time to tiller 
and fill up the ground. Five pecks is the usual 
quantity sown, but it varies from one to two bushels, 
according to the quantity of the soil, the richest land 
demanding the most. It is a practice among many 
farmers to sow rye among their standing corn on 
light lands, hoeing or cultivating it, and leaving the 
ground as level as possible. On such lands this is 
attended with several advantages, as it gives the 
grain an early start, and a moist, sheltered position 
at a time when drouth and hot sun would check or 
prevent vegetation. As soon as the corn is sufficient¬ 
ly matured, it should be cut up by the roots and 
placed into compact shocks, or removed to one side 
of the field, when the rye should be thoroughly rolled. 
When sown on a fresh-plowed field, it should be 
harrowed in before rolling. Great success has at¬ 
tended the turning in of green crops and following 
the fresh plowing with instant sowing of the seed. 
This brings it forward at once. No after cultivation 
is needed except harrowing in spring, and again roll¬ 
ing if the land is light, both of which are beneficial. 
If the rye is luxuriant, it may be fed both in the fall 
and in the spring. Early cutting, as with wheat, pro¬ 
duces more weight, larger measure and whiter flour. 
What is intended for seed, however, must be allowed 
to fully ripen on the ground. 

For soiling, rye is sometimes sown by those who 
wish late forage in autumn or early in spring. For 
this purpose it should be sown at the rate of two to 
four bushels per acre. If on a fertile soil and not too 
closely pastured, it will bear a good crop. In some 
cases, when too rank, early feeding will strengthen 
the stalk and increase the grain. 

As to diseases, rye is subject to fewer calamities 
than wheat. Sometimes it is affected by ergot, or 
cockspur. (See Ergot.) It is most frequent in those 
seasons which are at once hot and wet. It is poison¬ 
ous to both man and beast. This excrescence some¬ 
times grows upon other species of plants. Rye is 
also subject to rust, like that upon wheat, and in this 
case the grain should be harvested immediately. 










s 


ACCHARINE y^sak'a-rin), containing sugar; 
^■^'T^as, the saccharine juices of a fruit. 

^ Sachel, or Satchel, a small sack, general- 
ly ornamentally finished and furnished with a 
^ handle, lock and key, to be used in traveling. 
It is usually made of some textile fabric, while 
a valise is made of leather. Very cheap articles 
of this kind are now made from pasteboard, in imita¬ 
tion of leather. The prices range from 50 cents to 
$15 or more, strictly in proportion to their substantial 
character. In this line of goods one pays for what he 
gets and gets what he pays for. An ingenious lock, 
latch and key are of no use except to keep the chil¬ 
dren of the family from breaking into them, as, in 
traveling, thieves never stop to unlock a sachel, but 
seize the whole article and run. See Traveling. 


Sack, a large canvass bag for holding grain, small 
seed or other farm products. A number of sacks, 
proportioned to the quantity of produce likely to be 
sent to market, should be kept ready for use and in a 
sound and clean condition, on every farm. All should 
be marked with the initials or name of the owner. 
They should be kept in some dr}^, airy place. 


Saddle, the artificial seat of a rider ujx)n the back 
of a horse. It should be so constructed as to com¬ 
bine comfort to the rider with ease to the horse. It 
ought to press only on the back, and on neither the 
spine nor the withers; it must make everywhere an 
uniform pressure, and must neither tilt forward upon 
the points or jut backward upon the seat, and when 
fully adjusted and fastened on the animal, it should 
have as large a free space beneath the pommel as 
will permit the introduction of the hand. If these 
matters, and some others which are well known to all 
duly qualified saddlers, are not fully attended to in 
the construction of any saddle, not only discomfort 
to the rider, but much suffering and serious injury to 
the horse may be the consequence. 


Saddle-backed, applied to a horse when low in 
the back with an elevated head and neck. 


Saddle Gall: see Gall. 


Sadiron: see Flat-iron. 


Safe, a box, case or apparatus for preserving 
money, valuable papers and costly articles from theft 
and from fire. The term is also applied to refrigera¬ 
tors and certain kinds of cupboard, which preserve 
victuals “safe ” from heat, flies and vermin. 


Saffron, the name of several species of plants. 

1. Crocus Sativus. This is simply called “saf¬ 
fron,” and is the one most in repute as a “ domestic 
remedy.” It is a member of the iris family and 
raised around the Mediterranean. It was formerly 
much used as a stimulant and anti-spasmodic, but 
now only in eruptive fevers, to a limited extent, to 
aid the eruption. It is very seldom prescribed. 

Saffron is of a pleasant, aromatic, bitter taste, and 
is both stimulant and narcotic. It exhilarates the 
spirits and strengthens the stomach. Makes a valu¬ 
able tea for children afflicted with the measles, 
chicken-pox, and all eruptive diseases. 

2. Meadow Saffron. Cokhicuni mitumnale. 
This is of the lily order and grows wild in Europe, 
but is not even cultivated in this country. Medically 
it is said to be a sedative and anodyne, but is used, 
to a very limited extent, in a great variety of diseases, 
—both the bulb and the seeds. 

3. FALSEor Bastard Saffron, or Safflower. Car- 
thamus titictorius. Flowers yellow, often used for 
true saffron, and in coloring yellow. Cultivated to 
some extent in countr)' gardens. It is an annual of 
the composite family. 

Sage, an aromatic herb of the mint family, popular 
in medical practice and as a flavoring of many articles 
of food. There are several sorts, as the red, the 
green, the small-leaved and the broad-leaved bal¬ 
samic. The latter is esteemed for medical uses, and 
is used in teas for colds, and as a cooling and sweet¬ 
ening drink in fevers. Sage is originally a native of 
Southern Europe, but has long been cultivated in our 
gardens. Its cultivation is simple. The seeds should 
be sown in a gentle hot-bed early in the spring, and 
transplanted when large enough in rows 20 inches 
apart by 12 inches in the row. Keep clean from 
weeds and cut when in bloom. The plants must be 
covered during winter, for they will not stand freez¬ 
ing and thawing. If this is done the bed will con¬ 
tinue to produce several years, but they should be 
renewed every three years. 

Sago, a species of nutritious fecula or starch, ex¬ 
tracted from the pith of a species of East India palm- 
tree, called the sago palm. 

Sainfoin (san'foin), a leguminous plant cultivated 
for fodder. 

Salad, a preparation of uncooked herbs of which 
lettuce is the most generally used, dressed with salt, 
vinegar, oil or spices; and also a dish composed of 










SAL AMMONIAC—SALSIFY. 


1093 


some kinds of meat, especially of chicken or lobster, 
chopped fine and mixed with uncooked herbs season¬ 
ed with mustard and other condiments. A salad 
properly prepared should l)e one of the most attractive 
dishes upon the table. A variety of vegetables may 
be used according to taste, but the fewer the better. 
Those mostly used are lettuce, endive, radishes, 
onions, mustard, celery, water-cress, mint, parsley, 
dandelion, sorrel and tomatoes. 

Chicken Salad. Boil a chicken that weighs about 
a pound and a half. As soon as it is done tender, 
cut it up in small strips, and make the following 
sauce, and turn over it; Boil 4 eggs three minutes ; 
take them out of the shells, mash and mix with them 
a couple of tablespoonfuls of olive oil, or melted 
butter; two-thirds of a tumbler of vinegar; a tea¬ 
spoonful of mustard; a teaspoonful of salt, and a little 
pepper. In making chicken salad, the dressing 
should not be put on until just before the salad is 
sent to the table. 

Salad of Vegetables. A very' nice salad may 
be made by mixing a variety of cold boiled vegetables 
together. Asparagus, cauliflower, string beans, beets, 
carrots, turnips and peas may be used. These vege¬ 
tables of different colors look well, but one can use 
whatever is most convenient. Supposing that the 
salad is to be made of carrots, turnips and peas, 
boil a pint of peas in salted water until tender, then 
lay them in cold water. Pare a carrot and a white 
turnip and cut them into uniform pieces; boil them 
in separate waters and lay in cold water until need¬ 
ed. Just before serving, arrange the vegetable neatly 
on a small platter, contrasting the colors well, and 
pour over them a French salad dressing made as 
follows: 

Mix a salt-spoonful of white pepper with two of 
salt and a teaspoonful of scraped onion. Add three 
tablespoonfuls of salad oil, and when well mixed, stir 
in a tablespoonful of vinegar. Pour the dressing 
over the salad just before serving. 

String beans, alone, make a nice salad, and cauli¬ 
flower with a ?nayonnatse sauce is excellent. Cold 
baked navy beans are improved by a similar dressing; 
and cold boiled potatoes with beets, onions and this 
sauce, is a dish that seldom goes begging. Cold 
boiled potatoes with Lima beans and beets, are good 
in a salad with French dressing. The proportion of 
oil and vinegar can of course be varied to suit in¬ 
dividual taste. 

Lettuce Salad. Into half a cup of scalding 
vinegar stir i beaten egg, a teaspoonful of-mustard, 
and a piece of butter the size of a walnut; a little 
sugar if desirable. It can be turned on the lettuce 
'hot or cold, just as one prefers. The same is fine for 
cabbage. 

Another: Two tablespoonfuls of thick cream, one 
tablespoonful of sugar, and vinegar to taste. This is 
very much liked by those who do not like much 
seasoning. 

Lobster Salad. Pick out the meat from a hen 
lobster; lay aside the coral and chop the rest. It 


can be mixed with lettuce or celery chopped but it 
must not be allowed to stand a moment after it is 
mixed. The better way is to have the lettuce in a 
separate dish and pass it with the lobster. 

Salmon Salad. One and a half pounds cold 
boiled or baked salmon; 2 heads white lettuce (or 
celery); 3 hard-boiled eggs; two tablespoonfuls salad 
oil; one teaspoonful salt, and same of Cayenne; i 
teaspoonful white sugar; i teasixionful Worcester¬ 
shire or anchovy sauce; i teasDOonful made mustard; 
I teacupful vinegar. 

Sal Ammoniac, chloride of ammonium, a salt of a 
sharp, acrid taste, much used in the mechanical arts 
and in pharmacy. Called also hydro-chlorate or 
muriate of ammonia. It acts primarily as a stimu¬ 
lant, purging in large doses, but rather constipating in 
small ones. The dose is from 5 to 30 grains, repeat¬ 
ed every two or three hours, given in sweetened water 
or mucilage. 

Saleratus, a bi-carbonate of potash, much used in 
cookery. It is not always pure, generally containing 
more carbonic acid than pearl-ash. It is used to 
raise dough into a sponge by the evolution of gas it 
occasions with the sour milk put in with it, and is 
also often used to aid in softening hard or tough vege¬ 
tables and meats while they are boiling. It is also 
useful in scalds and burns, in some medicines to cor¬ 
rect acidity in the stomach or urine and in many 
little recipes of household economy. 

Saliva. The saliva issues from distinct sets or 
glands existing in different parts of the mouth, and 
the quantity of it secreted daily is very considerable, 
although it varies according to circumstances. This 
secretion is more copious in children and aged persons 
than it is in adults, more copious in cold than warm 
climates, and in the day than the night. The smell 
or sight of agreeable food makes it flow into the 
mouth, and the same result arises from the practice 
of smoking tobacco, or from the presence of sour or 
bitter substances in the mouth. The quantity of 
saliva is sometimes largely increased or considerably 
diminished by disease. Its office is that of keeping 
the mouth moist, and preparing the food for digestion. 
Under the influence of rage and some other violent 
passions it assumes a frothy appearance, and in many 
animals becomes poisonous. 

Salivation, act of salivating, excessive flow or 
secretion of saliva, as produced by mercury, etc. 

Sallenders, same as Mallenders, a supposed dis¬ 
ease of the horse: see page 810. 

Salmon (sam'on), a celebrated fish which belongs 
to the trout genus; see article Fish. 

Salsify, or Vegetable Oyster, a well-known 
culinary herb. Its small parsnip-like roots are used 
to give an oyster flavor to soups, and the tops are 
sometimes used for greens. Sow in early spring on 
light, rich soil, in drills 14 inches apart, and thin the 
plants to three inches in the row. The roots will be 







1094 


SAL-SODA—SAL T. 


ready for use in October, and can remain over winter 
in the ground without injury. The three leading 
varieties are, New Blue-Flowered French, Scorzonera 
or Black and Scolymus Hispanicus. The second j 
mentioned is too bitter for use as an article of diet j 
without soaking. I 

To Cook Salsify. Scrape the root and put into i 
cold water immediately; cut into thin slices; boil I 
tender; make a nice white sauce or drawn butter and ' 
I»ur over; or boil to a mash, mix with butter, salt, a | 
little milk and pepper, add flour enough and mix as ' 
codfish cakes, and fry in the same manner. j 

Sal-Soda, an impure bi-carbonate of soda, used i 
principally in the laundry as a substitute for soap, ■ 
and in making Seidlitz powders. Medicinally, its j 
principal virtue consists in dissolving stone or calcu- ' 
lous deposits, the dose for an adult being lo grains to I 
a dram, taken in carbonic-acid water. ! 

Salt ( Chloride of Sodium ). This substance, ! 
chemicallj% is a compound of chlorine and sodium of ! 
the following proportion; Chlorine, 60.4 per cent, and ! 
sodium, 39.6 per cent. Water can dissolve only a i 
certain quantity. Boiling water dissolves more salt i 
than cold, but when the hot solution cools, all the 
salt falls down in a solid state above what the cold 
water can hold in solution. Salt is the only mineral 
substance universally regarded as an article of food | 
by man and the higher order of the animal kingdom, , 
The uses of salt as a condiment for both man and i 
beast and as a means of preserving substances are so : 
well-known that we need make no further remarks i 
upon the subject. 

Bay or solar salt is that which is obtained by 
evaporation in the sunlight. Rock salt is dug from 
mines in rock-like masses. Table salt is pure and i 
ground fine, so that it will dissolve rapidly. Stoved 
salt, packing salt, etc., are common salt of different 
degrees of fineness. 

Salt is a very important article as a fertilizer, its 
action being fporable in all soils in the interior. ’ Its ' 
moleculp being smaller than even those of water, l 
they insinuate themselves into nearly all substances^ I 
aiding in their disintegration and thus rendering them’ 
available as plant nutnment. Salt, sown abundantly 
on the soil of a garden or field, is also a great protec¬ 
tion against insects, and various diseases of plants; 
and in no case is it known to do harm. 

In chemistry the term salt denotes a combination 
of an acid with another substance, forming an ele- 
rnent which is very different in its properties from 
either the acid or the other substance. The salifiable 
substance is called the base. Thus, nitric acid com¬ 
bines with potash, forming the nitrate of potash. The 
word “of” is misleading, as it intimates that the sub¬ 
stance denoted by the first w’ord is an extract of the i 
other. Hence modern chemistry furnishes a new 
nomenclature and nitrate of potash is now called 
“potassium nitrate.” The following table further 
illustrates. The kind of acid denoted in the .first 
column unites with the base of the second column 


and forms the salt denoted by the various names 
following: 


CO 


< 


p 

z 


< 


u 


< 

z 

& 

z 


o 

’o 

in 


<D 


a 

in 


^ a 


2 . 

(U O 2 2 

pj cS ^ 

c-- o - 


a 

r-| 


5 

_ ^ 
s S 


SI rt 


•- cc c - J i 

2^0-'^ o--, o o 
ir. —* 1—i CO I— ! CO ^ 


A u 
< 

^ a; 

I: 


'Tn 


<U 


Xfl 


" - - .0 




O - 

<u 


Z 3 

in 


V 

• 4 —> 

ri 

s: 

Q->'* 

in 

O 


O - 
D 

^ s ^ 

"XZ 

u 


o 


in 

a 


o 

•4--* 

ci 

- 2 
o 

o 


rt .t: 

HZ 


Z " 
a 

' in 
/-s C 


o. 


c /3 




in 


T 3 

u 


c <u 


in 


s> 

-- c^r 


a 

rn 

to 


to 


a 


<u 


c /3 

C 3 

•4-^ 

O I 




in 

in 

2 

• 4 -> 

in 

rt 


2 

2 

P 


P 

u 




^ c/: 

< 

Lime 

Potash 

Soda 

Magnesia 

Iron ' 

Quinia 

Copper 

Lime 

Soda 

Lime 

Soda ! 

Potash ( 

“ i 

“ ] 


0 


0 

Z 

0 -c 0 

D 

2 0 

< 

2 " rto 2 


0 -j: t:; 'O 


3 rt rt .t; 


^ ^ U r- Z E 


By the above table it is seen that acids denoted by¬ 
words ending in ic combine with bases to form salts 
denoted by terms ending in ate. Feebler acids are 
indicated by words ending with ous, and their com¬ 
binations are denoted by corresponding temis ending 
in ite J as, nitrous acid combines with soda, fomiing 
nitnte of soda, or sodium nitrite. So sulphurous and 
phosphorous acids fomi sulphites and phosphites. In 
these there is less oxygen than in the ic acids and ate 
salts, ^yhen no oxygen is present, the fact is indicated 
by ending the first terms with ide ; as, chloride of 























































SALTFETER—SA UCES. 


sodium (common salt), iodide of potash, phosphide, 
sulphide, carbide, etc. 

Saltpeter: see Niter. 

Salt Rheum or Tetter, a disease of the skin, con¬ 
sisting of rough, red patches and covered with a thin, 
dry scale. The skin is red and hard and apt to crack 
and become chapped. It is attended with a sensation 
of heat, smarting and itching. Keep the skin well 
washed with warm water, and soften it as much 
as ix)ssible with soft poultices; then wet with 
tincture of iodine and let it dry ; after which apply a 
little citrine ointment. When the eruption is on an 
exposed part, a wash composed of i dram corrosive 
sublimate, 2 scruples white vitriol (sulphate of zinc), 

3 drams sal-ammoniac, 2 drams salt and 3 ounces 
sugar of lead mixed with i pint soft water may be 
used alternately with the tincture of iodine. The diet 
should be light and nourishing. See Magnetic Oint¬ 
ment, page 996. 

Salve or Cerate, a thick kind of ointment composed 
of wax, oil and other medicinal substances. (See 
Ointment.) Below we give recipes for making some 
valuable salves. 

Simple Cerate. Melt together 8 ounces lard and 

4 ounces white wax, stirring constantly until cold. 

Salve for all Wounds. Take i pound hog’s 

lard, 3 ounces white lead, 3 ounces red lead, 3 ounces 
bees’-wax, 2 ounces black resin and 4 ounces common 
turpentine ; all these ingredients must be put together 
in a pan and boil ^ of an hour; the turpentine to be 
put in just before it is done enough, and give it a 
gentle boil afterwards. This is an excellent cure for 
burns, sores or ulcers, as it first draws, then heals 
afterwards; it is excellent for all wounds. 

Lard Ointment. Melt 2 pounds pure lard, add 3 
fluid ounces rose-water, and beat them well together 
while hot. When cold, separate the congealed fat 
from the water. This is a simple lard ointment. 

Balm-of-Gilead Salve. Mutton tallow, pound; 
balm-of-Gilead buds, 2 ounces; white pine gum, i 
ounce; red precipitate, ounce; hard soap, ^ ounce; 
white sugar, i tablespoon. Stew the buds in the 
tallow until the strength is obtained, and press 
out or strain; scrape the soap and add it with the 
other articles to the tallow, using sufficient unsalted 
butter or sweet oil to bring it to a proper consistence 
to spread easily upon cloth. When nearly cold stir 
in the red precipitate, mixing thoroughly. 

Samp, Indian corn broken coarse and boiled, to be 
eaten with milk or butter. 

Sand, fine particles of stone, principally of flinty 
stone, from which glass may be made. For correct¬ 
ing tenacious clayey soils, that from a sand-bank is 
best, as it is mostly free from coarse gravel. That 
which is deposited in the bed of creeks has con¬ 
siderable plant nutriment in it, but on account of the 
coarse gravel, boulders and other stones in it, it is ob¬ 
jectionable. All the solid or mineral constituents of 
the soil were once in the form of sand; and the finer 


1095 


the grains the farther the water will carry them. 
Hence, the further we go from the mountains the fin¬ 
er and more tenacious we find the soil and all alluvial 
deposits; and each grade of soil is characterized by a 
distinct flora, or class of plants. See Soil. 

Sand Crack, a disease of the foot of the horse: 
see page 826. 

Sassafras, a well known tree, generally a shrub, of 
the Laurel family, yielding a very fragrant bark, which 
is a stimulant, chiefly used in hot teas for rheumatism, 
eruptions, scurvy, etc. The bark of the root, obtained 
in early spring, is a popular material for a table bev¬ 
erage called “sassafras tea.” The pith of the tree 
yields a mucilage much used as a soothing application 
to inflamed eyes and in drinks for dysentery, catarrh 
and kidney diseases. In those sections where the 
tree does not grow the bark can be found at the drug 
stores, cheap enough for anybody. 

This is also a favorite remedy with many farmers 
for fheir horses, and is given to them in the spring of 
the year to strengthen and improve the appetite. 
Sassafras may be given to horses, either in the form 
of a powder or as a decoction or tea and mixed with 
the food. 

Satin, a glossy silk twill of a peculiar description, 
the soft and lustrous face of which is given by keep¬ 
ing a large proportion, frequently even as many as 
seven out of every eight threads of the warp, visible. 
In the manufacture of other silken stuffs, each half of 
the warp is raised alternately; but, in weaving satin, 
the workman only raises the fifth or the eighth part of 
the warp, which, presenting an even, close and smooth 
surface, is capable of reflecting the rays of light very 
entire, and the fabric thus acquires that luster and 
brilliancy for which it is so much distinguished. 

Sauces. Apple Sauce. Take ripe, tart apples, 
pare, quarter and core; have the stew-kettle ready 
with boiling water; put the apples in and cook as 
quickly as possible, stirring once or twice to see that 
the apple cooks all to pieces; sweeten to taste when 
half cold. 

Another. Take one-third sweet apples and put 
with them any good sour ones, some variety which 
will not cook to pieces easily preferred; add water, 
sugar and a little sirup, cover closely and cook not too 
fast for seven or eight hours, supplying a little water 
from time to time that there may be no danger of 
burning, but do not stir them. 

Arrowroot Sauce for Plum Pudding. Rub 
very smoothly a dessertspoonful of arrowroot in a little 
water or in a glass of white wine, squeeze in the juice 
of half a lemon, add the pounded sugar, and pour 
gradually in half a pint of water. Stir it very quickly 
over a clear fire until it boils. Serve it with plum 
pudding. This sauce may be flavored with anything 
you prefer. 

Cranberry Sauce. Take i quart of cranberries, 

I pint of sugar and i pint of water; boil slowly, and 










1096 


SA UER KRA UT—SA USA GE. 


when the berries are soft beat well and strain through 
a colander. 

Good Common Sauce. One coffee-cupful of brown 
sugar; 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, and i tablespoonful 
of flour; beat well together; then add i cupful of 
boiling water and simmer for a few minutes. Flavor 
with nutmeg or lemon, or a little cider. 

Dried-Apple Sauce. Take good, sour, common 
dried apples and prepare for cooking; soak all night 
in plenty of water, then put in an earthen jar with a 
cover; add some amber cane sirup and boil until a 
dark red color; keep plenty of water on them, 

Hollandaise Sauce. Stir i even tablespoonful of 
flour into i ounce of melted butter; cook well to¬ 
gether and add i teacupful of boiling water. Stir this 
into the yolks of 4 beaten eggs and return all to the fire 
for a minute; add a little more butter cut into bits 
and season to taste with salt, pepper and lemon juice. 

Lemon Sauce. Beat together ^ pound of butter 
and pound of sugar; grate the rind and press out 
the juice of 2 lemons; beat all together and boil a 
short time. 

Mint Sauce for Roast Lamb. Two tables[X)on- 
fuls of chopped green mint; i tablespoonful of 
pounded sugar; and a quarter of a pint of vinegar. 
Pick and wash the green mint very clean, chop it fine, 
mix the sugar and vinegar in a sauce tureen, put in 
the mint, and let it stand. 

Parsley Sauce. Wash the parsley thoroughly, 
boil it for six or seven minutes till tender, then press 
the water well out of it; chop it very fine; make half 
or a quarter of a pint of melted butter as required (the 
less butter the less parsley, of course), mix it gradu¬ 
ally with the hot melted butter. 

Tomato Sauce. Remove the skin and seeds 
from about a dozen tomatoes, slice them and put 
them in a stew pan, with pepper and salt to taste, 
and three i^ounded crackers. Stew slowly one hour. 

White Sauce. Stir an even tablespoonful of flour 
into an ounce of melted butter. When well cooked, 
add a pint of rich milk, stirring constantly until smooth 
and thick. Season with salt and white pepper. 

Sauer Kraut (sour krout) is a name of a preparation 
of cabbage chopped fine with salt. To make this fam¬ 
ous German dish, take as many hard, firm cabbages as 
you wish to preserve, tear off the loose leaves, cut 
them into quarters, cut out the hearts or stalks, and 
chop them up small. To every one hundred pounds 
of cabbage add three pounds of salt, a quarter of a 
ix)und of caraway-seed, and two ounces of juniper- 
berries,_ mixing these well together. Procure sweet, 
clean iron-hooped casks, lay the chopped cabbage 
three inches deep, then as each layer is put in sprinkle 
it with the mixture of salt, etc. The cabbage must 
be pounded down as it is put in the barrel with a 
heavy wooden mallet. After each cask is filled it 
must be covered with some cabbage leaves or a linen 
cloth and the wooden cask-head, and pressed down 
with heavy weights. After the cabbage has been al¬ 


lowed to ferment for a month, pour off the cold water 
which will be formed in this process, and to take its 
place pour in warm water containing black pepper 
and common salt. As soon as a sour smell is per¬ 
ceived, the cask must be placed in a cool situation 
and there kept. 

There are various modes of cooking it, while some pre¬ 
fer it raw, eating it as a salad. It is frequently boiled, 
three hours or more, with salt pork cut into small 
pieces. Perhaps the nicest style is to fry it in pork 
fat or with the gravy from the roast pork. For frjdng, 
it should be boiled tw'o hours to make it tender. It 
is a wholesome, hearty food, and is particularly ap¬ 
preciated by men requiring a substantial diet, while 
It is also relished by many of more fastidious taste. 

Sausage. To make family sausage, the trimmings 
and other lean and fat portions of pork are used, tak¬ 
ing care there is about twice as much lean as fat; 
some consider it an improvement to add about one 
sixth of the weight of lean beef. As to seasoning 
that is a matter of taste. The majority of people use 
salt, pepper and sage only; some use only salt and 
pepper, while others in addition to the above put 
in thyme, mace, cloves and other spices. 

Before putting the meat in the cutter see that it is 
entirely freed from all bones, lest your cutter be 
broken. It should be cut in small pieces or strips 



Fig. I.— Sausage-’Cutter^ 


and cut to suit. To every 50 pounds of meat thus 
cut, use two teacupfuls of sage, two teacupfuls of salt 
and one half of pepper. Use warm water to moisten 
the meat, and mix it all together and put in a cloth 
sack; hang it up to freeze and it is ready for use. 
Fig. I represents a sausage cutter made by the En¬ 
terprise Manuf’g Co., Philadelphia, Pa. The blades 
are triangular and give the meat three cuts with each, 
revolution of the crank, cutting through it cleanly and 












































SA VOR Y—SA IV. 


1097 


clearly, not pulling or tearing it apart, into strings. 

When it is desired to pack the sausage in the in¬ 
testines of the hog, the intestines should be carefully 
prepared as follows: Empty them, cut them in 


bacon, and a pound and a half of beef suet; put the 
lean meat into a stew-pan of hot water, and set it 
over the fire for half an hour; then cut it small, each 
sort by itself; shred the suet, and bacon or ham, each 




Fig. I. — Sawing- Machine. 

by .itself. Season with pepper, thyme chopped fine 
and ground mace; fill ox skins with it, tie them in 
lengths, and put them in a beef brine for ten days; 
then smoke them the same as ham or tongue. Rub 
ground ginger or pepper over the outside after they 
are smoked, and keep them in a cool, dry place. 

Savory, or Summer Savory, an annual aromatic 
sweet herb, sometimes cultivated, but running wild in 
the West, which is used in flavoring meats. 

Saw. On every farm are needed at least one hand¬ 
saw, one ri{>saw, one scroll-saw, one cross-cut saw, 

and one wood-saw (Fig. 2); 
and sometimes there are need¬ 
ed, in addition, a meat saw. and 
sometimes a horse-power saw. 
We need say nothing particu¬ 
larly on the care of these 
implements, as nothing is nec¬ 
essary but a little perservance 
or promptness to execute the 
common-sense principles 
which everybody is supposed 
^.-Wood Saw and to have. In filing a saw, the 
Saw Buck. cut should be made even, from 

the ix)int of the tooth to the base as originally done 


BACK MOVEMENT 


SCREW movement 


Fig. 2. —Sausage Stuffer. 


lengths,-and lay for two days in suit water. Turn 
them inside out and lay in soak one day longer. 
Scrape them, rinse well in soda and water, wipe and 
blow into one end, having tied up the other with a bit 
of twine. If they are whole and clear, then stuff with 
the meat. To do this, it is necessary to have a ma¬ 
chine. The one represented by Fig. 2 is made by the ! 
same company as the cutter (Fig. i). It is an econ- ! 
omical machine, for the reason that it can also be used 
for a fruit, lard or jelly press. | 

For stuffing sausages, the tin strainer and bottom ' 
plate are to be removed. They can be easily ex¬ 
changed by screwing them on or off. 1 



Fig. 3. —Phoenix Cross-cut Saw (with detached horse-power). 


To Make Bologna Sausages. Take three pounds 
of lean beef, the same of lean ]X)rk, two pounds of fat 


in the manufactory, and by holding the file at the 
same slant or angle as will preserve the original 























































































1098 


SCAB-SCALES. 




form of the tooth. To file only the points of the 
teeth, in haste and for a temporary purpose, costs 
more than it is worth in the outcome. See File, 
page 451. Lack of promptness in taking good care 
of saws makes more trouble than anything else in 
proportion to the extent of use of the instrument. 


Fig. a— upright Sa~Ju/or Jim. 

Fig. I illustrates a machine by which one man 
alone may run a cross-cut saw for sawing logs. Sev¬ 
eral inventions have been patented for this purpose, 
but this seems to be the simplest and most substantial! 

Horse-power cross-cut saws are also in the market. 
The cheapest and best form of these for general use 
in the country, so far as our knowledge extends, is 
made by the United States Manufacturing Co.’, of 
Chicago, and shown by Fig. 3. They also make the 
one representeb by Fig. i. 

Fig. 4 is a cut of a substantial power saw, made by 
Chandler & Taylor, of Indianapolis, Ind. The car¬ 
nage runs wholly on one side of the saw, thus afford¬ 
ing a simpler structure of the whole apparatus than 
the ordinary gate saw requires. Being* a “ muley ” 
(gateless) saw, the very best of material is used, so 
that it is perfectly reliable for all sorts of heavy work. 

Scab, an incrustation over a sore; a loathsome and 
troublesome disease in sheep, analogous to itch in man 
and mange in horse. See Horse article, page 810, and 
also Scab in article on Sheep. 

Scaldhead. This is a very contagious, pustular 
disease, chiefly affecting the scalp, but it may also 
apjiear on other parts of the body. The disease may 
be known from all other eruptive affections, by the 
honeycomb appearance of the pustules. These are 
small, perfectly rounded, and imbedded in the epider- 


from the farm or sold to the village merchant should 
always be weighed at home, previous to shipment or 


mis, and contain a yellowish or straw-colored matter, 
which soon concretes, representing a depression in 
the center. The disease is more common among 
children than adults. 

Treatvioit. The first thing to be done in attempt¬ 
ing a cure in this obstinate disease, is to remove the 
hair, and the crust formed upon the skin. A 
pair of scissors or a razor will serve to remove 
the hair, and then the crust should.be moist¬ 
ened by an alkaline solution, made by dissolv¬ 
ing two drachms of the carbonate of potash, or 
three of the carbonate of soda, in a pint of water. 
Washing the parts with strong soapsuds will 
much facilitate the removal of the crust. As 
soon as the hair and crust are removed, the parts 
should be well washed with suds made of soft 
or rain water, and common soft soap, and then 
after drying by means of a soft linen cloth, a 
solution of the extract of bayberr}^ or of equal 
parts of this and the extract of dock-root should 
be applied; and then apply a paste made by 
dissolving some gum elastic in stramonium 
ointment, over which some oiled silk may be 
placed to protect the parts still more from the 
atmosphere. The latter application should be 
renewed every morning and evening, and the 
parts well washed with strong soapsuds, and 
after drying, saturated with the astringent solu¬ 
tion as before. 

It will be observed, however, that scaldhead 
is exceedingly difficult to manage, and that the 
same treatment will not always prove success¬ 
ful. Thus the astringent and oily applications 
may be superseded by other similar or different ap¬ 
plications. But all the other parts of the treatment 
are proper in every case. See Tar Ointment, 
page 995. 

Scalds. See Burns and Scalds, page 128. 

Seales. Scales are a most convenient and even 
necessary article to the farmer. The produce shipped 


Fig. I.— Warehozise Scale. 



































































SCALES—SCAKLET EE FEE. 


1099 


sale. When stock is weighed at home, before being 
placed on the stock dealers’ scales, the farmer can 
easily determine whether he is cheated or not. The 
value of a scale must depend on the benefit to be 
derived from it, and its purchase value, on the qual¬ 
ity of the material used and the skill employed in its 
manufacture. 

We give some illustrations of different kinds of 

scales, made by Jones 
of Binghamton, N. Y., 
which are adapted to 
various farm uses. 

The platform scale. 
Fig. 2, is strong, well 
made, having wheels 
attached for conven¬ 
ience and adapted to 
the use of a majority of 
our farmers. 

The warehouse scale. 
Fig. I, is larger than 
the “ platform scale ” 
and made stationary in 
the floor of the ware¬ 
house or barn. Its con¬ 
venience and weighing 
capacity make it a de¬ 
sirable scale for those 
Fig. i.—Piat/or7n Scale. having extensive deal¬ 
ings in produce. It is strong, well built, and will 
supply the wants of large farmers. 

Fig. 3 represents a lever scale for the weighing of 
stock. It has a platform 14 feet long by 8 feet wide 
and combines the strength of the truss lever with the 
simplicity of the crown lever. Its capacity is five 




Fig, 3. —Truss Crown Lever Scale. 

tons. In Fig. 4 we give an illustration containing a 
description of a five-ton scale. 

The lumber required to put up a five-ton scale is 
as follows: 

Three sticks 16 feet long, 6x7 inches. 

Two sticks 12 feet long, 6x7 inches. 

Two sticks 14 feet long, 8x8 inches. 

One stick, 14 ft, long forbearing plank, 3x8inches. 
Two sticks 14 feet long, to run lengthwise through 
the center of scale, to spike platform plank to 
stiffen the platform, 3x8 inches. 

Two hundred and fifty feet of 2-inch plank. 

One stick 14 feet long, 3x7 inches. 

Fifty feet planed and matched i-inch stuff. 

Figs. 4, 5 and 6 represent a wagon scale. The 


platform is 14 feet long by 7 feet wide, and where a 
stock pen is not to be permanently placed this width 



Fig. ^.—At the Farm Yard. 

is most convenient. In Fig. 8 we give the component 
parts of the wagon scale. Its capacity is five tons. 
These scales are simple in construction, durable 
and strong. All the wearings and bearings are of the 
best tool steel, combining toughness, hardness and 
permanency of edges. 

Searfskin, the outermost lamina of the skin ; the 
cuticle; the epidermis. 

Scarlatina in horse ; see page 826. 



Fig. 5. —At the Tannery or Mill. 

Scarlet. Fever {^Scarlatina). This disease, like 
most others, is susceptible of variations in its violence, 
and hence by the profession is divided into three 
forms. They are all, however, essentially the same, 
only varying in the degree of severity. The disease 
breaks out on the body in spots or blotches, which are 
called eruptive and are scarlet or red in color. These 
appear generally between the second and sixth days, 
accompanied with fever and sore throat, and usually 



Fig. 6 . —At the Coal Yard. 


terminating between the seventh and tenth day. 
These eruptions first appear about the neck and face, 


















































































































IIOO 


SCHOOL-HO USE. 


in the form of red spots, which in 24 hours or less 
cover the entire body. As the fever increases some¬ 
times there is vomiting, generally accompanied with 
thirst, headache and restlessness. The eru-ption is at 
its height on the fourth day and begins to decline the 



Fig. 7; — Thnber/or a Five-Ton IVagon Scale. 

following day. After the eighth day the disease be¬ 
gins to disappear, when the skin peels off in scales. 

In more severe cases the fever is very high and slight 
delirium with very sore throat is experienced. The 
pulse becomes very rapid, in children often reaching 
140 to 150 per minute and in adults 120 to 130. 
Sore throat always attends this disease. 

Scarlet fever greatly resembles measles and great 
difficulty is sometimes occasioned in distinguishing it 
from measles. The eruptions in it come out earlier 
than in measles. The eruptions generally appear 
within 48 hours of the existence of fever in the former 
while in measles the rash rarely appears before the 
third day, and most commonly not until 
the fourth day. The color of the eruptions 
in measles are much darker, and less dif¬ 
fused, than in scarlatina. The eyes are 
inflamed, tears flow profusely, there is more 
or less sneezing and cough in measles, while 
in scarlatina these symptoms do not ap¬ 
pear. 

Scarlatina is regarded as dependent forks 
cause on a specific contagion. It termi¬ 
nates variously. A variety of other diseases 
may follow. Dropsies are by far the most 
general. Abscesses of the tonsils, head and 
ears, enlargement of the parotid glands, 
loss of sight, deafness, loss of hair, asthma 
and many other diseases have been known 
to follow. 

Treatment. There have been various 
modes of treating this dreaded disease, some 
of which are quite simple and have often proven 
fective. We present the following: Put 15 drops of 
the tincture of aconite root and 15 drops of fluid ex¬ 
tract of belladonna in a glass of water and take a 
teaspoonful every hour until recovery. In addition 


rub the body thoroughly with salt grease, the rind of 
fat, uncooked bacon being excellent. Keep this up 
during the course of the disease. This will afford 
marked relief from fever. 

Another remedy is to take sulphate of zinc, i grain; 

foxglove (digitalis), i grain; 
teaspoonful of sugar; mix with 
two tablespoonfuls water; when 
thoroughly mixed add four 
ounces of water; take a tea¬ 
spoonful every hour. It is claimed 
that this cures in every instance. 

A gargle for the throat of the 
following solution will prove 
beneficial: chlorate of potash and 
muriate of ammonia each ^ 
dram, water 3 ounces and glycer¬ 
ine I ounce. Mix and gargle. 
If the throat should swell ex¬ 
ternally bathe with equal parts 
of tincture of arnica and linseed 
oil. In all cases the throat should 
be thoroughly greased with salt 
grease and wrapped with a piece 
of flannel. The room in which the patient rests should 
always be well ventilated and kept at an even 
temperature. 

School-house. We have very fully treated of the 
proper management of schools and the proper treat¬ 
ment of children at schools, and the rights and duties 
of teachers, etc., in the article on Education, and 
therefore will confine our remarks in this article 
simply to the school building and its surroundings. 

During the past few years many rapid strides have 
been made toward improving the school buildings 
throughout the country, and yet there is, in many 
sections, a deplorable lack of the display of this 



ef- 


nil 

Fig. 8 . — Component Parts of a Wagon Scale. 

public-spirited enterprise. In many districts, dotted 
over with magnificent farm mansions, with the ac¬ 
companying spacious and well-planned out-buildings, 
may be found little dingy, dirty school-houses, with¬ 
out the slightest pretense to the comfort, convenience 






















































SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


or pleasure of teachers or scholars,—indeed, such 
buildings as the well-to-do fanners in the district 
would refuse to keep their stock in. This contrast 
may be seen in many sections of our country, and it 
illustrates the folly of man most strikingly. Children 
are often actually driven from school by the repulsive 
appearance of the school-house and its surroundings. 
Remember that the early impressions of the mind are 
lasting and tend very strongly to direct the future 
life of the child. Perhaps one of the most potent in¬ 
fluences for good that might be easily attained in 
every district is the cultivation of taste for landscape 
scenery. This attraction and influence, thrown 
around the country school, would not only tend to 
draw the young from the degrading habits of loung¬ 
ing in villages, but would brighten the mind, 
stimulate the intellect, encourage study, and the 
better fit the young for the active duties of mature 
life. They would also enhance the attractions of 
rural life and of home influences. The more neatly 
a school-house is made and finished the less inclined 
will reckless boys be to mar it in any way. Rough 
furniture they delight to whittle up and deface; nice 
furniture they do not touch. 

While there has been much improvement in the 
class of school buildings of late, yet little attention is 
paid to ornamenting the grounds. This maybe done 
at a small expense and will add much to the cheer¬ 
fulness of the building. Plenty of room should be 
devoted to the school-house, that the children may 
not be compelled to use the road for a play-ground, 
or infringe upon the places devoted to shrubbery, 
etc. The following order might be adopted; A 
handsome lawn should be provided in front, which 
should be planted with the smaller ornamental trees, 
and with some of the larger shrubs. 

place should be left for the play-ground in the 
rear, which should be planted with fewer trees. Both 
should be kept smoothly shaven with a lawn mower. 
The paths to the closets should be sheltered by small 
evergreen trees, both for seclusion and for protection 
in winter. The closets especially should be kept 
clean, tidy and free from all bad odor. The latter 
may be prevented by the daily use of coal ashes, 
road dust, lime, copperas, or other materials. 

The general^principles of landscape gardening, as 
detailed in this work under that head, may be in great 
part applied to the school grounds. The principles 
of ventilation and heating, of sewerage and of con¬ 
structing and managing the privies, are the same for 
the school premises as elsewhere. 

.\s to the choice of a location, the remarks upon 
this same point in the article on Church are equally 
applicable to school-houses. The building should be 
tastefully and conveniently designed, substantially 
built, well-furnished and painted with a pleasant 
color. Care should be taken that proper ventilation 
be provided. Much sufifering is caused by children 
being required to sit for hours in an illy ventilated 
room. In such rooms it is well-known that they can¬ 
not perform their duties so well, and the effect upon 


some of the more delicate becomes serious. Never 

pass this subject 
by as unimportant 
if you have any 
part to perform in 
building a school- 
house ; and if no 
active part de¬ 
volves upon you 
it is your duty as 
a tax-payer and 
citizen of the dis¬ 
trict to see that it 
be properly ob¬ 
served. For fur¬ 
ther observations, 
see Ventilation, 
on page 1069. 

The floor plan 
of the design of a 
school-house pre¬ 
sented in this con¬ 
nection has been 
carefully drawn. 
A town hall may be provided above, or this portion 
may be devoted to another school if required. If 
neither is desired, the stairway may be removed and 
the wardrobes enlarged a little. Ample light is pro¬ 
vided, and if thoroughly ventilated this will be found 
a most excellent plan. 

Globes, tellurians and other instruments for illus¬ 
tration in astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, 
etc., should not be furnished without a good case in 
which to keep them, and, we might add, a competent 
teacher to handle them and to be responsible for 
their safe keeping. One of the commonest evils in 
connection with country schools, is the purchase of a 
few instruments of this kind, some wall niaps and 
perhaps a large dictionary, and the placing of them in 
a school-room without a good case with lock and key. 
Thus they are soon rendered useless by reckless 
children, and the patrons become so disgusted with 
such squandering of their means that almost another 
generation arrives before the people can be persuaded 
to provide such furniture again. These instruments 
are the best means, not only for teaching clearly 
many of tlve common phenomena of nature, but also 
for awakening the true scientific spirit characteristic 
of this exacting age. 

In regard to school-room furniture—the desks, seats, 
hat and shawl racks,stoves, furnaces, cupboards, library, 
museum and natural philosophy cases, blackboards, 
slating, crayons, erasers, etc.—manufacturers have all 
such things made in all styles, with their agents 
everywhere to introduce them; and probably no per¬ 
son in the land would consult a book with reference 
to them. The principal dealers are well known by 
name to all readers of educational journals. Their 
specialty has been a large business for many years, 
and competition has brought their work up to the 



Floor Plan of School-house. 

































































I 102 


SCR A TCHES—SCROFULA. 


highest degree of ])erfection which it is possible for 

human power in its 
present stage to in¬ 
vent. At the same 
time, let every one re¬ 
member that if he pays 
but little for an article 
he is almost certain to 
get a “cheap” one, and 
he must not complain 
of the manufacturers if 
it soon gives out. 

Screen. During the 
summer season the 
doors and windows of 
every residence should 
be provided with 
screens. Those made of 
wire as illustrated in the 
accompanying engrav¬ 
ing are the most durable 
and effective in prevent¬ 
ing flies and mosquitoes 
from e n t e ri n g the 
house. They may also 
be arranged upon the 
windows so that they 
will not interfere with 
the free movements of the sash. 

Scratches, troublesome ulcerations about the heel 
of horses, occasioned by ill treatment, negligence and 
filth: see page 793. 

Screw-Driver, a necessary and indispensable tool 
to every farmer. We give an illustration of one with 
lever attachment, made by L. E. Rhodes, Hartford, 
Conn. 

It is really a screw-driver handle, with fixed steel 
socket, to receive the shanks of the screw-driver 
blades or of socket wrenches as desired. On the 
socket is a sleeve that turns freely and covers a 
ratchet, or rather a square-toothed pinion, secured 
rigidly to the steel socket. There is pivoted to the 
sleeve a steel lever, which, when not in use, shuts 
into a recess in the wooden handle. When used thus 
as an ordinary screw-driver, it merely drives the screw 
until the resistance becomes too great, when the lever, 
in connection with the ratchet, is brought into action. 
A very slight movement of the lever serves to disen¬ 
gage it from one tooth and engage with the next, or 
with any other, the gradations depending on the num¬ 
ber of teeth in the ratchet, i shows the screw-driver 
as in use; 2 shows lever shut up in the handle; 3, 
the pinion; 4, the sleeve covering the ratchet. 

Scrofula, or King’s-Evil, as it is sometimes called, 
is a constitutional disease, which, however, chiefly 
affects the glandular system, especially the conglobate 
glands. The disease is most common among chil¬ 
dren, and rarely makes its appearance for the first 
time after the body has attained its full growth. It is 


supposed that the disease is principally hereditary. 

The symptoms which are usually considered to in¬ 
dicate the presence of scrofula are the following: 
Slight inflammation and swelling of the wings or outer 
cartilages of the nose; swelling of the glands of the 
neck, which increase gradually, and at length become 
hard, painful and of an irregular shape. The color 
of the skin over the glands is scarcely changed, but 
the protuberance or swelling is sometimes so great as 
to constitute considerable deformity. After having 
remained in this situation for an uncertain period, the 
tumors may disappear. Such, at least, is usually the 
case in the grown subject, and it is the more favorable 
termination; but in young children they more fre¬ 
quently proceed to suppuration. The irregular wound 
resulting from the spontaneous opening of the abscess 
heals with difficulty. 

Treatment. Bathing in and drinking salt water 
is good treatment, the latter to keep the bowels free. 
Iodine is an excellent remedy. Give 20 to 30 drops 



Screw-Driver with Lever Attachment. 

of the tincture two or three times a day in a half a 
glass of sarsaparilla, or a decoction of marsh-mallow 
























































































































































sc V THE—SEEDS. 


1103 


root. Rub the swelling or hard kernels on the neck 
with opodeldoc or iodine, or an ointment made of 
stramonium and iodine ointment. If in spite of this 
the tumor should proceed to suppuration apply a 
poultice, when it will soon open or must be opened 
with the lance. When opened, the tumor must be 
well washed and covered with the following ointment: 
Iodine, ^ dram ; iodide of potassium, 2 drams ; lard, 
2 ounces. A solution of chloride of soda or lime 
should be occasionally used, especially if the sore is 
very foul. If the sore is very difficult to heal sprinkle 
a powder of equal parts of capsicum and mandrake 
on it. The tincture of myrrh will answer. 

Caution. Nothing is more important in the treat¬ 
ment of scrofula than proper attention to the diet and 
general habits of the individual. Fat meats, gravies, 
rich pies, etc., should never be eaten by a patient of 
scrofulous habits. Pork is particularly injurious, 
being well calculated to favor the scrofulous diathesis. 
Indeed, it is supposed by many that the disease, in 
the majority of instances, is brought on by the use of 
swine flesh, either directly or indirectly through the 
parent. It is even true that the name of the disease 
comes from scrofa, a Latin name of the hog; but 
this is in consequence of the disease having so near a 
resemblance to the common throat disease of that 
animal. 

Vegetables constitute the best food for patients of 
scrofulous habits. Free exercise in the open air is 
also very important. Alcoholic drinks must be strictly 
avoided. 

For scrofula in the horse, see page 826. 

Scythe, an instrument for mowing grass, grain, 
etc., composed of a long, curving blade with a sharp 
edge, made fast to a long, crooked handle called the 
snath. In whetting a scythe such motion is given to 
the stone as will turn the invisible teeth on the edge 
toward the point, that part of the blade v.-hich is at¬ 
tached to the snath being called the “heel.” Sec¬ 
ondarily, the object of whetting is to cut off all the 
gummy matter which has collected near the edge 
and obstructs the free movement of the scythe. 
Further details in the use of this implement can be 
better obtained by example and practice. Before the 
introduction of the reaper the cradle scythe was in 
general use for cutting the cereals, but is now but 
little required. 

Section of Land: see Township. 

Sedative, allaying irritability; also, a medicine 
having such a property. 

Sedlitz (sed'litz), or Seidlitz (side'lits) Powders. 
The common Seidlitz jxrwders do not resemble the 
fam.ous mineral water from Seidlitz, Bohemia. A 
closer imitation would be made by using effloresced 
sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate 
of soda. To make an exact imitation is this; Take 
effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 ounces; bi-car¬ 
bonate of soda, ^ ounce; dry bi-sulphate of soda, ^ 
ounce. Mix and keep in a close bottle. The com¬ 
mon recipe is this; Bi-carbonate of soda, i ounce; 


Rochelle salt, 3 ounces, both in fine powder; mix and 
divide into 12 equal parts. Divide 420 grains tar¬ 
taric acid also into 12 equal parts. Put up these 
parts separately in papers, distinguished by the color 
of the paper. To use them, throw one paper of each 
into a glass of water, and drink it immediately while 
foaming. To be particular with it, dissolve the 
smaller powder in an ounce or more of water, the 
larger in two or three times the quantity, then mix the 
two solutions gradually. The acid is slightly in ex¬ 
cess, giving the drink an acidulous taste. The medic¬ 
inal action is that of an aperient and refrigerant. 
Particularly valuable in febrile cases where the 
stomach is irritable. Two pairs of these papers may 
be given at a dose,or the single dose may be repeated 
every three or four hours until the effect is produced. 

Seedling, a plant raised from the seed, as distin¬ 
guished from one propagated by layers, grafting, etc. 
Seedlings always tend to revert to the original wild 
state.* Varieties are always originated by planting 
seed, but some plants, especially vegetables, as pota¬ 
toes, have to be propagated by buds a few years to 
attain the greatest size and certain other good qualities. 

Seeds. On pages 560-1 we give directions for 
raising, collecting and preserving garden seeds, and 
the seed of other crops is treated in the respective ar¬ 
ticles. It therefore only remains here for us to add 
suggestions with reference to seeds in general. 

How TO Select Good Seed. Seed corn should be 
plump, bright, of good length, and taken from the 
central portion of the ear. Seed wheat should not 
only be thoroughly cleaned from weed seeds, but the 
small grains should also be riddled out in thefanning- 
mill. Look for chess seed (see page 232). Place 
your oats in a heap at the leeward end of a threshing 
floor, on a day when a gentle breeze is blowing 
through the barn. With a common wooden flour 
scoop, throw the oats against the wind, toward the 
other end of the floor. A few minutes’ experience 
will enable one to throw them so that they will fall in 
a semi-circle at a nearly uniform distance from where 
he stands. The grains which fall farthest are the 
heaviest and therefore best for seed. Collect them 
up every few minutes in the progress of the work Of 
barley that is best which is free from blackness at the 
tail, and is of a pale but lively yellow. If the rind be 
a little shriveled, so much the better, as it indicates 
thinness of the skin. Of potatoes, select large, sound, 
well ripened specimens. In cutting them up for 
planting, leave one eye to each piece, and as near the 
middle of the piece as practicable. The less potatoes 
are exposed to the air the sounder they v ill keep. 

To Test the Vitality of the Larger Seeds, 
place them on a hot pan or griddle, and the more 
perfect ones will pop or crack open with more or less 
noise. The best test, how’ever,—especially for finding 
the proportion of good seeds in the lot,—is to germi¬ 
nate a number of them in a favorable place. 

Adulteration. Seeds imported are apt to be adul¬ 
terated, as well as devitalized, and the greater distance 


70 







1104 


SELTZER WATER—SHAVING HORSE. 


they have come the worse they are. A recent inves¬ 
tigation showed that grass seed from Germany was 
only 62 per cent, pure, while that raised in this coun¬ 
try was 79 per cent, pure; and of the former only 42 
seeds in 100 were capable of germinating, while of 
the latter 50 percent, were vital. Of clover seed, 93 
per cent, of American and 94 of German was genuine, 
while 69 American and 79 German were vital,—an 
exception to the rule. Of garden seeds, 100 percent, 
of American and 99 of German were genuine, while 
98 per cent of the former and only 86 of the latter 
were good. Of grain, 99 per cent, of American and 
96 per cent, of German was pure, while 61 per cent, 
of the American and 66 per cent, of the German were 
good. 

Miscellaneous Items. Considering the care re¬ 
quired to grow and secure good stock, the difficulties 
and dangers of intermixture, the many varieties want¬ 
ed, the labor of cleaning and drying, the small quan¬ 
tity of seed required for a private garden costs many 
times the price demanded by the best growers; and 
even after all this trouble, impurities and defects will 
constantly appear in the amateur’s seed. But if any 
one find it expedient to grow a part or all of his seeds, 
he can greatly simplify it by growing of any one va¬ 
riety enough to last him as many years as that kind 
will keep well, thus avoiding some of the dangers of 
intermixture, by growing no two varieties the same 
year. 

Seeds, when well kept, will retain germinating pow¬ 
ers as fallows: cucumber, melons and beets, seven to 
eight years; tomatoes and squash, six to seven years; 
lettuce, radish, cabbage and turnips, four to six years; 
carrots, peas and spinach, two to four years; onions 
and parsnips, one year. Old seeds, if they have not 
lost the germinating power, are usually better than 
fresh, as they give less of stalk and foliage and more 
of available growth. 

Seeds are best preserved, by placing them in rather 
small, stout paper bags, marked with name and date, 
and stored in a dry, cool place, where they will not be 
liable to extremes of heat and cold. 

Seltzer Water and “Seltzer Aperient are very 
largely advertised. They are substantially the same 
as “ soda water,” which is more strictly carbonic-acid 
water, the effect of which is diaphoretic, diuretic and 
anti-emetic. It is generally a pleasant drink to febrile 
patients. The adulterated or counterfeited syrups of 
the ordinary soda fountains are, however, somewhat 
deleterious. 

Selvage, or Selvedge, the edge of cloth, woven in 
such a manner as to prevent raveling, and often 
closed by complicating the threads ; list. 

Seton (se' tn), a piece of tape or lamp cotton 
passed through and beneath the skin, with the two 
ends hanging out, to aid the discharge of pus. 

Settee (set-ee'), a long seat with a back; a kind 
of arm chair for several persons to sit in at once. 

Setter, one who sets ; a dog who beats the field 


and points out the bird for the sportsman; see article 
Dog, page 312. 

Shade-Tree: see articles Forestry and Landscape 
Gardening. 

Shaft, the timber, rod or beam on which wheels or 
pulleys are fixed ; also, a perpendicular opening to a 
mine or tunnel. 

Shallots, a species of onion, not extensively culti¬ 
vated at the present day. The divided roots are set 
out in September in rows a foot apart, allowing six 
inches between them. It is entirely hardy, and fit 
for use in the spring. 

Shave. In shaving never fail to wash your beard 
with soap and cold water, and to rub it dry, just 
before you apply the lather, of which the more you 
use, and the thicker it is, the easier you will shave. 
Warm water makes a tender face but makes the beard 
cut easier. In cold weather, place your razor (closed 
of course) in your pocket, or under your arm, or put 
it in warm water to warm it. Always wipe your razor 
clean, and strop it before putting it away; and put 
your shaving brush away with the lather on it. The 
razor (being only a very fine saw) should be moved 
in a sloping or sawing direction, and held nearly flat 
to your face, care being taken to draw the skin as 
tight as possible with the left hand, so as to present 
an even surface, and to throw out the beard. 

To Strop a Razor. The practice of pressing on 
the edge of a razor in stropping soon rounds it; the 
pressure should be directed to the back, which should 
never be raised from the strop. If you shave from 
heel to point of razor, strop it from point to heel; but 
if you begin with the point, in shaving, then strop it 
from heel to point. 

To Sharpen a Razor. Iffie simplest method of 
sharpening a razor is to put it for half an hour in wa¬ 
ter to which has been added one-twentieth of its 
weight of muriatic or sulphuric acid, and after a few 
hours set it on a hone. The acid acts as a whetstone, 
by corroding the whole surface uniformly, so that 
nothing further than a smooth polish is necessary. 

To Hone a Razor. The surface of the hone must 
be perfectly level. The razor should be held flat on 
the hone, and the back never raised, or it will induce 
a round or thick edge. Draw the razor from heel to 
point, alternating the sides at each stroke, and the 
action always against the edge. When the edge is 
wily and thin enough to turn, strop it on a coarse 
strop, drawing the edge occasionally over the thumb 
nail, until the edge is smooth, then finish on a fine 
strop, and the palm of the hand. 

Shaving-Horse, an apparatus, worked by the foot, 
for holding in a staunch position a piece of timber 
while it undergoes the process of shaving with a 
“drawing-knife.” To make one, first make a high, 
narrow bench about eight feet long, mortise a slot in 
the middle of it, and over this erect an inclined piece 
of timber, correspondingly mortised, so that through 















SHED—SHEEP. 


1105 


these slots a kind of wooden vise may extend. The 
latter is simply a thin shaft of wood, with a kind of 
notched head, so arranged as to catch and hold piec¬ 
es of timber upon the inclined piece just referred to, 
and is worked by pressing the foot against the lower 
end, upon a catch or shoe fastened there for the pur¬ 
pose. Two or three holes are bored through the 
shank of the vise a few inches below the head, for 
pins to run through, in the inclined timber, whereon 
the vise swings as on a pivot,—the different holes for 
timbers of different thickness. This is a cheap but 
great convenience,which every farmer should have. 

Shed, a temporary shelter, generally without siding 
and with the roof all in one slope; also a lean-to, or 
an enclosed shelter attached to a larger building, and 
with a shed roof. 

Sheep, a well-known and important genus of 
ruminating animals. It comprises several wild species 
and a vast number of domesticated varieties or breeds. 
It is most extensively diffused over the world, and 
exists and feeds and prospers under a vast diversity 
of conditions. The interest of it in all its forms, to a 
zoologist, is very great; and the importance of it, in 
its chief domesticated breeds, to farmers and entire 
nations, has always been high, and rapidly increases 
with the progress of civilization, of agricultural im- 
[jrovement and of manufacturing enterprise. No 
animal varies more than the sheep, and none so 
speedily adapts itself to climate. It would almost 
appear that nature had bestowed uix)n it a constitu¬ 
tion so pliant as to enable it to accommodate itself to 
any point in a wide range of temperature, for it has 
accompanied man to every quarter of the globe, be¬ 
coming impressed at every change with some 
peculiarity, alterable only by a change of situation, 
and varying, we might almost affirm, with the weather- 
for where the temperature is equable, there does the 
animal preserve an atmospheric stamp, and defy all 
efforts to alter the breed; while under a fluctuating 
sky, we can model it at will. No other animal is 
worthy of so much attention as the sheep, it being 
alike valuable to the farmer and to the nation; to the 
farmer because it is raised with ease and in situations 
where other animals could not exist, and in general 
makes a better return for the quantity and quality of 
food consumed than any other animal; to the nation, 
as supplying a staple article of food and giving em¬ 
ployment to thousands of artisans by the conversion 
of wool into fabrics. In fact the production and 
general management of sheep claims to be treated as 
the foundation of good, and profitable farming. 

The crying need of American agriculture to-day is 
a more general incorporation of the sheep into the 
farming economy. More prolific than horses or cattle, 
as well as more tractable, subsisting on scantier herb¬ 
age, and requiring less supervision, it claims the 
additional advantage of “paying for its raising ” in 
annual instalments of marketable fleece pending its 
growth to maturity. It is more readily transferred 
from one enclosure to another, and is easily restrained 


by fences which would prove no barrier against the 
encroachments of other farm stock. Its light tread 
and love of repose warrant its access to fields and 
pastures where the tramping of cattle and the tearing 
of hogs would not be tolerated. It wastes less food 
in proportion to the quantity consumed, and will 
hunt out and utilize much that would otherwise be 
lost to the farmer. Yielding a return in both fleece 
and flesh, it furnishes its owner the double advantage 
of catching a good market for his product, requiring 
less water, and disposed to work for its food, it is 
without a peer when summer’s drouth taxes the farm¬ 
er’s resources for enabling his live stock to maintain 
an average of thrift and flesh. 

.•\11 that can be said in behalf of feeding live stock 
on the farm, as distinguished from the soil-impover¬ 
ishing policy of placing the raw grain and grass on 
the market, will be found to apply with double 
emphasis to the farm that carries as part of its outfit 
one or more sheep per acre. No animal returns more 
fertility to the soil in proportion to the amount exact¬ 
ed for its svqjport, while none equals it in the even¬ 
ness with which the droppings are distributed. 

General Views of the Sheep Genus. The 
generic characters of the sheep-may be briefly stated 
as follows: The horns are directed backward, down¬ 
ward and forward, in a somewhat spiral form; the 
chaffron is naturally convex; a sinus occurs at the 
internal base of the toes in both the fore and hind 
feet; two smaller toes or rudimentary hoofs occur 
behind the larger anterior pair; the tail is always 
short in the wild races, but varies in length in the 
domesticated breeds; the teeth amount in all to 32, 
and comprise eight incisors in the lower jaw, no in¬ 
cisors in the upper jaw and six molars in each side of 
both jaws. But in its domesticated state, and very 
especially in its wild one, sheep are distinguished 
from goats and other species most nearly allied to 
them, far more by mental tempers and dispositions 
than by physical characteristics. 

Wild races of sheep inhabit the elevated regions of 
Europe, Asia, Africa and America, and comprises 
chiefly the several species and varieties of 7 /iustnon 
and argali. They differ greatly from one another, 
and still more from the domesticated breeds, in habits 
and in specific characteristics; and in some instances 
they blend away into near resemblance to wild goats 
on the one hand or to domestic sheep on the other; 
yet, in general, they exhibit very boldly the true char¬ 
acteristics of their genus, and may be regarded as, in 
many mixed methods, and often in their respective 
localities, the common or aggregate source of the 
multitudinous and very diversified domestic breeds. 
Fig. I represents a fine specimen of the Rocky 
Mountain sheep. 

The domestic breeds are prodigiously diversified, 
not only in modifications of the natural character¬ 
istics which they possess in common with the wild 
races, but in the characters of shape and structure, 
and wool and carcass and habits which belong 
peculiarly to themselves. Some of the rudest of 













I io6 


SHEEP. 


them may easily enough be traced up to ancestral 
connection with some one of the wild races; but the 
vast majority exhibit strong and intricate marks of a 
mixed descent; and some are, with good reason, sup¬ 
posed to show broad traces of a more or less free 
hybridizing with goats; and many or even most of 
the finer ones have resulted, either from a series of 
crossings between previously well modified breeds, or 
from the prolonged, steady and combined influence 
of peculiar climate, peculiar food and peculiar treat¬ 
ment. 

The longer, too, any species has been reduced to 
domestication, and the more complete its subservience 
to the human race, the greater and more remarkable 
will be the alterations which it will undergo. We 
need not wonder, therefore, that the very ancient de¬ 
pendence of the sheep on man as its lord and master 
should have caused many signal variations from the 
characteroftheoriginal type,orthat repeated changes of 
food and climate and the continuous action of an alter¬ 
ed and artificial mode of management should have pro¬ 
duced a multitude of new or anomalous features. We 
accordingly find that in most of our subdued varieties 
the lengthened limbs and comparatively slender, 
though strong, active and graceful forms of the 
original races have disappeared, and been replaced 
by heavy proportions and a consequently indolent 
disposition, and that the coarse, dry, brittle coating of 
hah has been succeeded by that woolly substance of 
which human industry and ingenuity now form such 
abundant and manifold materials for the various uses 
of domestic economy, and the personal comforts of 
our race. The prodigious development of the wool, 
and almost entire disappearance of the hair, would 
indeed of themselves have sufficed to effect a com¬ 
plete alteration in the general aspect and physiog¬ 
nomy of the species; and this remarkable change has 
been produced in part by physical causes, and in 
part by the agency of man, aiding or counteracting as 
he best could the observed tendences of nature, 
who has contrived to subordinate a general law of 
climate to his own individual advantage. 

The changes produced by domestication upon the 
dispositions and habits of the sheep are much greater 
than even those upon his physical properties, and 
render him eminently suitable to the uses of man, 
and adapted to the circumstances of enclosed pastures 
and artificial feeding. When once completely sub¬ 
jugated, he_ never again appears to acquire the 
faculties which fit him for a life of liberty. Give him 
afterwards what freedom we may, he remains more 
or less dependent upon us, ar.d would fall a 
prey to wolves and the swifter wild beasts, were he not 
under human protection. Yet he is not the stupid 
and insensible creature which some represent him to 
be. When entirely subdued, indeed, his natural in¬ 
stincts are blunted, and he loses the providence and 
sense of danger which are natural to him; but when 
left in a state of comparative liberty, he shows that, 
though comparatively feeble, he is not without the 
power of guarding himself from danger. 


The ewe bears that affection to her offspring which 
Nature has imprinted, as it were, on the heart of 
every animal. Should mishap befall her young one, 
she mourns over it, and will not be comforted; should 
it wander from her side, her anxious bleatings are 
everywhere heard, and the little creature rewards her 
cares with surprising fondness. Who that has seen 
shearing of the flock, has not marked the startled 
aspect of the lamb when the mother first runs toward 
it divested of her covering, and how quickly it is re¬ 
assured, and how sensibly it expresses its joy. when 
it hears the well-known voice and receives the wonted 
caresses 

The sheep appears insensible and stupid, because 
it is rarely attached to us by acts of familiarity and 
kindness. But let the orphan lamb be brought up at 
the shepherd’s cot, and fed from his hand, and we 
shall find it to be nearly as familiar as the dog, fond 
of being caressed and unwilling to leave its protector 
to join its fellows of the flock. In countries where 
the shepherd guides his flock, and does not herd it 
by dogs in the manner practiced in other places, the 
docility which the animals acquire is wonderfully 
great. Where the shepherd leads they follow; they 
observe his motions and hear his voice, and when he 
uses a pipe or horn, they listen to the well-known 
sound and obey the signal. In the Alps in Switzer¬ 
land, and in the mountainous parts of Italy, in Greece 
and elsewhere, we are j/^et charmed with this remnant 
of pastoral simplicity and innocence. The shepherd 
boy knows all his little favorites, he remembers their 
names, and, when called, they leave the flock and 
come to him. When the numbers are great, he 
selects a few, teaches them their simple lesson, and 
they become the guides of the rest to their allotted 
pastures and learn to collect the wanderers. The 
music of the mountain shepherd we find to be no 
poetic fiction. In the mountains we yet hear the 
soft and artless tones of his pipe. In the morning 
he leads forth his little flock, and plays as he marches 
at its head, and at sunset returns in like manner to 
the fold, where he pens them, that they may be kept 
from the wolves. 

Sheep were domesticated as early as the life-time of 
the first man: and they make a somewhat conspicu¬ 
ous figure in the earliest records of the old nations. 
“Abel was a keeper of sheep” and all the chief patri¬ 
archs, whose characters are sketched in the inspired 
record were possessors and tenders of flocks. The 
Sacred Scriptures make historical mention of sheep 
from the earliest times, through all the patriarchal 
ages, down to the epoch of the kings, and they often 
describe flocks of them with a richness of coloring 
and a minuteness of detail which identify the pastoral 
usages of remote periods with the practices of the 
wandering shepherds of the East at the present day. 
Scarcely anything seems to have changed in the hab¬ 
its of men in those countries of pastoral tribes. Where 
Abraham pitched his tent, with his sheep and oxen 
and asses and camels, where he sat at the door of his 
tent, where the stones were rolled from the wells from 






























































































































































SHEEP. 


1109 


which his maidens drew water, there the Arab or the 
wandering Turcoman encamps, and all the scene is 
like a vivid panorama of the past. In the case of 
the present people of the Desert, their tents, their 
journeying, their household cares, their flocks, their 
camels, their wells, all inform us with what a match¬ 
less fidelity the Sacred History has been told. 

The sheep figures also in the earliest records of the 
nations of Southern Asia, on the oldest existing mon¬ 
uments of Western Asia, on the sculptured remains of 
ancient Egypt, and in the symbols and memoranda 
of the earliest arts and sciences of the whole civilized 
world. It was probably introduced into Southern and 
Eastern Euroi)e, in some of its best and most improv¬ 
ed Asiatic varieties, at the very dawn of European 
civilization, and brought to our shores with the first 
pilgrims; it was highly esteemed by the ancient 
Greeks, and is prominently and honorably mentioned 
by their historians and poets. It was introduced into 
Italy after the foundation of Rome. It probably was 
introduced into Spain at an early period from Africa; 
and it seems to have become diffused throughout 
all Western and Central and Northeastern. Europe at 
the period of the Roman conquest. In recent times, 
it has commanded rapidly increasing attention; and 
at the jDresent day, in the most highly improved agri¬ 
cultural countries of the world, it is more multitu¬ 
dinous, and possesses a wider connection with interests 
of farming than at any former period. 

VARIOUS BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

The established characteristics of the several breeds 
of sheep are so varied and so clearly defined that 
there should be little difficulty in selecting such as 
will be peculiarly fitted, by habits of feeding and of 
growth, for the conditions of climate, soil, forage and 
markets under which the flock is to be placed. The 
breeds most known in the United States are the 
Merino, the Cotswold and the native or scrub of no 
defined breeding; but several other good breeds have 
their representatives in America; and there are sheep 
which have for almost three hundred years been kept 
under favorable circumstances'in Virginia, although 
they can scarcely be described as a distinct breed be¬ 
cause several crosses have been made upon them. 
That a judicious selection of breeding sheep may be 
made those who intend starting a flock should con¬ 
sider the peculiar characteristics of the several breeds 
and the circumstances under which he will be obliged 
to place them Mutton sheep are well treated in ar¬ 
ticle on Mutton: see also Mutton and Lamb on pages 
964 and 965. Briefly described, the established 
breeds are : 

Beacon-Down. Originated in the United States, 
by William Crozier, near Northport, Long Island, by 
crossing South-Down ewes with a Cotswold ram, then 
interbreeding. Fleece closer, finer and shorter than 
that of the Cotswold; weighs ii to 13 lbs. Mutton 
excellent; weight 140 to 160 at 12 months; ewes pro¬ 
lific, lambs strong, healthy and mature early. Suit¬ 
able for light pastures under hot suns. 


Black-Faced Scotch. This is the oldest breed 
•in Scotland, its origin being lost in tradition. Fleece 
coarse, weight about 3 jxiunds; body square, compact, 
with broad saddle and good quarters; weighs about 
15 pounds. Face black, muzzle thick, horns heavy 
and curved spirally. They are perhaps the hardiest 
sheep known, the lambs enduring extreme cold and 
hunger, 'fhe ewes are excellent mothers. They im¬ 
prove readily under judicious management and are 
admirably adapted to the conditions to be met in 
mountainous regions. The mutton is of very fine 
flavor. 

Caraman. The Caraman, or fat-tailed sheep, na¬ 
tive of some parts of Asia and Africa, has been intro¬ 
duced into the United States, by importations from 
Karamania, in Asia Minor. By some they are con¬ 
sidered as a separate group. It is a white, short and 
soft-wool sheep of several varieties and sizes, its dis¬ 
tinguishing feature being a tail which is little more 
than a lump of fat weighing from 15 to 100 pounds. It 
is not certain that they will ever be numerous enough 
in America to be more than a curiosity. 

Cheviot. By crossing the Lincoln and a breed of 
common sheep found in the hilly part of the lowlands 
of Scotland the Cheviot was produced. Fleece, about 
5 pounds, medium, white, coarse; head and legs gen¬ 
erally white, but sometimes speckled or dun ; face 
massive and strong; hornless; carcass medium size, 
long body, fore-quarters light, hind-quarters and saddle 
heavy and full; dress 80 pounds at 3 years; a good 
wool and mutton sheep. Wool used for tweed and 
cheviot cloths. They are quiet, docile and excellent 
mothers; lambs hardy. 

Cotswold. 'This breed originated as a cross be¬ 
tween a Leicester and descendants of sheep brought 
from Spain to England in the 12th century. Fleece, 
about 8 pounds, white, coarse, long ; head fine, tapers 
from nose to ears, hornless; a thick forelock of wool 
comes down to between the eyes; ears long; body 
large, long, broadens from shoulder to rump; legs 
rather long, clean, carcass dresses 100 to 340 
pounds. Is a mutton and wool sheep. Wool reach¬ 
es 9 inches in length; used for woolens. Some¬ 
times brown or grey appear on the face and fore-legs. 

We present several specimens illustrating this 
breed. The ram shown by Fig. 2 is owned by T. L. 
Miller, Beecher, Ill., and the sheep. Fig, 3, owned by 
S. E. Prather, Springfield, Illinois. 

Dorsets. a breed long known in the south of 
England. Breeds early and often drops twins; may 
be bred twice a year. Both rams and ewes have 
horns. Fleece close, soft, heavy, yields about six 
pounds of combing wool. Faces white, broad and 
long, with a tuft of wool on the forehead, and black 
nose and lips. Body heavy, dresses 100 pounds at 
two years; shoulders low and broad, back straight, 
loins broad and deep, brisket full, legs long and fine¬ 
boned. 

Hampshire Down. This breed is from a cross 
between a pure South-Down and a white-faced horned 






mo 


SHEEP. 


sheep of Hampshire, England. Originated about 
1809-10. Fleece whitish, medium, coarse and re¬ 
sembling that of South-Downs, but longer and coarser; 
six to seven pounds. Body good size, yearlings 
weigh 80 to 100 uounds. A mutton sheep with juicy 
■ lean meat. 

Kentucky. Originated about 1840 in Frankfort, 
Ky., first, from crossing common ewes and a Merino 
ram, the young ewes were topped by a Leicester ram, 
the issue from this cross was topped by a South-Down 
ram, this was followed by a ram one-quarter South- 
Down and three-quarters Cotswold, this twice in suc¬ 
cession by Cotswold rams, this by an Oxford-Down 
ram, and this by a mixed Cotswold, Oxford-Down 
and Leicester ram, followed by careful in-breeding. 
Not much mentioned since the close of the war of 
1861-65. Fleece white, coarse, long, midway between 
that of the Cotswold and the Leicester. Body and 
fleece heavy; a mutton and wool sheep. 

Leicester. Originated by a Mr. Bakewell, in 
England, over a century ago, from the common sheep 
of Leicestershire, by a mode of breeding not revealed. 
Fleece seven or eight pounds, coarse, white, long; 
body large, angular, square build; hind-quarters 
tapering toward the tail, legs long, clean; head long, 
slender, clean; eyes and facial bones about the eyes 
prominent. Yearlings dress 100 pounds, two-year- 
olds 150 pounds. 

Lincoln. A cross between a Leicester and a 
breed common in the rich, low flats of Lincolnshire 
produced, less than a century ago, the Lincoln breed. 
Fleece white, coarse, long; used for worsteds; yields 
10 to 14 pounds of wool nine inches or more in 
length. Dresses 120 to 160 at two years old; is a 
mutton sheep. 

Merino. Produced in the first century by cross¬ 
ing the best native breeds oLSpain with the Tarantine 
sheep from Southern Italy. Brought to the United 
States in 1800. They have since been greatly im¬ 
proved by careful breeding. Fleece white, fine, 
greasy, two to three inches long; shears 12 to 30 
pounds; skin lies in folds or wrinkles. Body of 
medium size, short, thick and round; quarters fair, 
legs short, heavy and covered with wool. Head 
covered to the eyes with wool; horns of rams curled 
and wrinkled. Is a wool sheep, thrives in large flocks 
and is hardy and docile. Is much used for crossing 
with the coarse-wooled Mexican sheep. 

We present fine specimens of the Merino breed, 
raised and owned by Geo. W. Hunt, Greenwood, Ill. 

Mexican. Classed as a native American sheep; 
originated probably in importations of common sheep 
of Spain by the early Spanish explorers. Fleece 
coarse, generally white, about two pounds in weight 
and of little value. Body thin, scraggy; weighs 
about 40 pounds. Crossed with Merinoes they form 
the basis of many flocks on the plains of Texas, New 
Mexico and other Western States and Territories. 

Oxford-Downs. Originated in Oxfordshire, Eng¬ 
land, about 1830, from crossing a Cotswold ram with 


a Hampshire-Down ewe, followed by careful inbreed¬ 
ing. Fleece rather coarse, white, thick and slightly 
curly, five to seven inches in length, weighing eight 
to nine pounds; rams have, under favorable circum¬ 
stances, been made to shear 20 pounds. Carcass at 
14 months weighs 80 to 90 }X)unds, usually, but by 
good feeding have been brought to weigh very nearly 
300 pounds at 22 months. Body round, legs short 
and dark; face dark with tuft on forehead. Stand 
pasturing on damp soils better than most breeds. 

By Fig. 7 we very beautifully illustrate this breed 
by a trio of yearling lambs bred by Cooper, Maddox 
& Co., of Reading, Pa. 

Romney Marsh. This breed has been known for 
centuries in the marshes of Southeastern England; 
is very hardy. Fleece rather coarse and long, sound, 
bright and glossy; weighs 7 to 10 pounds. Carcass 
long, sides flat, loin broad, thigh full and broad, fore¬ 
quarter neither heavy nor full, dresses from 70 to 120 
pounds. A good breed for wet country. 

Shropshire-Downs. Product of South-Downs and 
a hardy, short-wooled stock; many flocks have a 
trace of Cotswold, South-Down and Leicester blood. 
Fleece white, thick; shear six to eight pounds. Body 
large, full and round; quarters good, breast broad and 
deep; straight back; the mutton shows large propor¬ 
tion of lean of choice quality. Head fine, face dun 
or speckled, as are the legs also; hornless; ears neat. 
Very hardy, thrive well on moderate keep, fatten 
readily and yield 80 to 125 pounds of meat of very 
desirable quality. 

South-Downs. Product of long and careful in- 
breeding of native sheep of the hill country of the 
south of England. Fleece coarse, white and short; 
shears about six pounds; used for flannels and soft 
goods. Body medium in size, hind-quarters full and 
square, fore-quarters full, breast broad, legs short and 
clean, dark brown and free from wool. Head horn¬ 
less, face brown. Yearlings dress 70 to 80 pounds. 
Is a mutton sheep. 

Welsh Mountain. A very hardy, small sheep 
found in the remote pastures and barren moors of 
Wales. Fleece weighs about two pounds. The body 
is small, the hind-quarters weigh about four pounds 
each, but sell for two jor three times as much as those 
of other breeds. The rams have horns, ewes seldom 
so; faces white, speckled or rusty brown ; the head 
is small, shoulders low% chest narrow, sides flat, rump 
high and the girth small. A good breed for wild 
pastures of mountain districts. 

BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 

The general principles of breeding as set forth in 
the article on Breeding, page 10 r, are equally applicable 
to sheep as to other stock. In selecting sheep for 
breeding purposes, the peculiar conditions of soil, 
climate, food and markets having been duly consider¬ 
ed, the most important thing then to do is to choose 
a suitable ram. As one ram will impress his qualities, 
good or bad, on the offspring of from 20 to 50 ewes 
each season, and if strong from 50 to 75, it is plain 










SHEEP. 


1111 


that his influence upon the outcome of any venture 
in sheep farming is very great. (See article Breed¬ 
ing.) It may safely be said that he who puts his 
ewes to a grade ram, when he can get a thorough¬ 
bred of good family, even if a seemingly high price 
be demanded for the latter, is losing time, care and 
food; for the grade is much less likely to transmit to 
his oflTspring desirable qualities than is a thorough¬ 
bred, even though the latter may be in outward 
appearances less desirable than the grade. But when 
a thoroughbred ram can not be got a good grade will 
make a great improvement upon the common native 
or,scrub stock. By selecting the best native or com¬ 
mon ewes obtainable, and insisting firmly upon great 
excellence in the ram, the breeder will have made a 
beginning which will give him, the first lambing 
season, lambs,showing marked improvement. A clear 
pedigree, showing a long line of ancestors of high 
value as breeders, is presumptive evidence of \x)wer 
to transmit those good qualities. It is better to buy 
only of established and reputable breeders and to in¬ 
sist upon satisfactory pedigrees. Grades sometimes 
have excellent form and appearance which might 
deceive even good judges, yet do not have that pre¬ 
potency which makes the thoroughbred so valuable. 

Unless a ram be full grown and vigorous, not more 
than 30 ewes should be put to him in one season, 
and the number should not exceed 50, even when 
the ram is exceptionally strong. He should be fed 
liberally on good and sustaining food just before and 
during the breeding season. Some skillful breeders 
have been in the habit of adding to the other food a 
teacupful of wheat per day during this season. 
Flock masters smear the breasts of rams each day 
with a mixture of ochre and raw linseed oil; this 
marks every ewe served. On the approach of and 
during the rutting season rams should be condemned 
to solitary confinement, that they may not exhaust 
themselves and annoy the flock by constant effort 
with the ewes and by fighting. Keep each an en¬ 
closure by himself out of sight of the ewes, and turn 
in to him at nightfall or in the morning the ewes in 
heat, until all shall have been served. 

The ewe may be bred to the ram at the age of 18 
months, at which age the ram will also be fit for ser¬ 
vice. The average period of gestation does not vary 
much from 152 days. See tables on page 117 and 

569- 

Ewes. The best mothers among the ewes should 
be year by year selected, and may be profitably kept 
until 10 to 15 years old, while the less valuable ones 
may be sold. This selection can be easily made by 
marking each breeding animal with a metallic tag, 
and keeping a record in a form similar to the following; 


No. of Kwe. 

Ram No. 

Served. 

Due to Lamb. 

Lambed 

Remarks. 

210 

7 

Aue;. 7, 
1881. 

Jan. 7, ’82. 

1 Jan. 10, 

1882. 

Twins. 


The period of pregnancy in the ewe is 150 to 153 
days. Fully five months before the date when the 
lambs should come, the ewes should be separated 


from the rest of the flock. Where the ewes cannot 
be closely watched one or more wethers may be per¬ 
mitted to run with them; as each ewe comes in heat 
a wether will keep near her. In the evening those 
in heat should be turned into the yard where the 
ram by which they are to be served should be kept. 
Here they may be allowed to remain until morning, 
or they may be taken away as soon as served. Should 
any fail to breed give of Epsom salt two ounces, and 
reduce their feed until they come in heat. 

During pregnancy it is essential that ewes should 
be as free as possible from disturbing causes, espe¬ 
cially from annoyance by dogs. A regular amount 
of exercise each day, with a variety or judicious change 
of food, is deemed necessary to the maintenance of a 
healthy, active condition, especially for a short time 
before lambing. It is thought that goiter or swelled 
neck in lambs is caused by a plethora in the dam, 
the result of inactivity and over-feeding. If ewes can ’ 
at this time be taught the habit of eating salt from the 
hands, and in other wavs be made familiar with han- 
dling by the shepherd their lambs will be more docile 
and quiet. After service ewes should be fed enough 
grain to keep them in thrifty condition but not too fat; 
half a pint each per day of oats, bran and corn while 
they are on pasture, to be increased to a pint per day 
as winterapproaches, has been found very satisfactory. 
Avoid giving food which is likely to move the bowels 
actively either way when lambing time draws near. 

When it can be done a pen 4 by 5 feet, which can be 
darkened, should be given to each ewe when the time 
for dropping her lamb is at hand. Perfect quiet is 
thus secured, and there will be little or no trouble from 
ewes disowning their young. At this time a drink of 
thin oat-meal gruel well salted will do the ewe good. 

Young ewes sometimes have much difficulty in giv¬ 
ing birth to their young; help should in such cases be 
given as gently and carefully as possible. Naturally 
the head of the lamb, with both fore-feet beside it, 
should appear. Should there be difficulty about pass¬ 
ing the head, gentle pulling in line with the vagina, 
and simultaneously with the efforts of the ewe, will 
usually be enough to give relief. If both hind feet 
and the rump appear there need not be much diffi¬ 
culty; but, as a rule, when there is an unnatural pre¬ 
sentation the lamb should be pushed back into the 
womb with the hand, which should first be well cov¬ 
ered with linseed oil after the finger-nails have been 
cut close. The head of the lamb can then be brought 
gently into position with the fingers, after which there 
should be little difficulty. Should a ewe lose her lamb 
she may be led to adopt another by rubbing the skin 
of the dead lamb over that of the living one. Some¬ 
times the teats are closed so that the new-born lamb 
can get no milk. They should be squeezed with the 
wetted fingers until milk flows. 

With the coming of weaning time the supply of 
food, especially for ewes giving a heavy flow of milk, 
should be gradually reduced, as the lamb draws less 
and still less upon its mother for nourishment. Any 
hardness or heat in the udder at this time should be 



















1112 


SHEEP. 


the signal for giving a dose of Epsom salts, two ounces 
dissolved in water, with a teaspoonful of ground 
ginger stirred in, followed by twenty grains of salt¬ 
peter, morning and evening, for the next two days. 

Feeding Ewes and Fames. If your ewes with 
lambs are strong and healthy and have some range, 
you find corn good feed. Feed lightly at first when it 
is fed alone. When feeding corn you will find corn 
fodder an excellent addition, as there is no better food 
producing a good flow of milk than corn grown for 
lodder and properly cured. If fed on this, the lambs 
will come strong and healthy. After a few feeds of 
corn there will be no danger of the sheep eating more 
than they need. If you have no rye pasture or corn 
fodder begin feeding about two weeks before the ewes 
begin to drop their lambs, a very wet, but not a thin 
slop, proportioned as follows ; One-half bran, one- 
fourth oats and one-fourth corn, mixed, put to soak 
twelve or twenty-four hours before it is fed. You will 
find that this feed, in addition to clover or timothy 
hay, will promote the final development of the lamb, 
strengthen the ewe, increase the secretion of milk* 
etc. If you wish to fatten any sheep in the flock, sep¬ 
arate them from the others and feed more liberally 
with corn. ^ 

d eeth as an Index to Age. In reference to 
telling the age of sheep by the teeth we quote from 
Prof. Stewart on dental changes that are usually de¬ 
pended upon for determining age. 

“The two central or front teeth appear before or 
soon after birth, and in about three weeks after birth, 
the whole of the twenty temporary teeth appear. The 
first change in the teeth occurs at the age of three 
months, when the lamb cuts a permanent molar tooth. 
The next change also occurs at the back of mouth', 
n hen, at nine months old, another, the second per¬ 
manent molar tooth, appears. At one year old the 
lamb has but eight permanent teeth, or two at the 
back of each side of each jaw. The age of fourteen 
months is marked by the appearance of two perman¬ 
ent incisor teeth at the center of the front of the jaw. 

“In judging of the age of a sheep, the condition of 
the molars may be studied with advantage. If a sheep 
is certified to be not exceeding one year old, and the 
fifth molar (the second permanent one, and the last 
one on each jaw) is found to be sharp on the edges and 
but slightly worn, the age may be reardee as properly- 
stated, even though the central pair of front teeth 
have already appeared. But if these teeth are well 
up, and the last molar is worn and smooth, and there 
is a space between this tooth and the angle of the jaw, 
the sheep is certainly over a year old. 

_ “The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the age of 
eighteen months, and this is the only test of this age 
of the sheep. The second pair of front teeth, one on 
each side of the first pair, appear at twenty-one months 
of age, and at two years are fully grown and stand well 
up from the gum and level with the first pair. After 
the sixth molar is cut, the three forward and tempor¬ 
ary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, which 
are full grown at the age of twenty-seven months. At 


two years and a half the third pair of front teeth have 
become fully grown, although, in some forward sheep 
of the quickly-maturing breeds, these teeth may ap¬ 
pear at two years of age: generally they indicate an 
age of two y'ears and a half. At the age of three years 
in the Cotswolds and other forward breeds the fourth 
and last pair of front teeth appear; but in other breeds 
they are not present until three and a quarter, or three 
and a half years : the sheep is then known as full- 
mouthed. The following table of the periods of den¬ 
tition will be found useful in determining the age of a 
sheep: 

‘At one month, eight temporary front teeth and 
three temporary molars on each side of each jaw. 

“At three months, a permanent molar is added to 
these three. 

At nine months, the second permanent molar ai>- 
pears. 

At fourteen months, two permanent incisors ap¬ 
pear. 

At eighteen months, the third permanent molar 
appears. 

‘At twenty-one months, there are four permanent 
incisors. 




^ _ 7 X y ivicxio 44.1^ 

c.iangea, and the permanent cnes appear. 

^^At thirty months, there are six permanent incisors. 

At thirty-six to forty-two months, there are eight 
permanent incisors. 

It has been decided in an English court of law, 
that a lamb becomes a sheep when the first pair of 
permanent incisors have appeared. When the mouth 
i^s full-toothed, the sheep is considered as mature, or 
full-grown; when the teeth begin to show signs of 
wear, the sheep is ‘aged.’” 

There are other evidences of age to which attention 
may be given—such as the loss of wool on the head 
legs, and parts of the body; loss of vigor; lack of 
plumpness; an aged look of the skin; and suscepti¬ 
bility to changes of weather. Some idea of a Merino 
ram sage may be had from the appearance of the 
horns, which become not only larger, but more cor¬ 
rugated as age advances. Sheep that have been well 
kept will be found to “carry age” better than those 
subjected to privation. With ewes, the number and 
requency of lambs borne has an important bearing 
upon the appearance as age advances, as every draft 
upon the constitutional vigor tends to enhance the 
appearance of age. 

Sheep Barns and Shelters. Shelters are cer¬ 
tainly indispensable, mall northern climates, to profit¬ 
able sheep raising. An animal eats much less when 
thus protected, is more thrifty and less liable to dis¬ 
ease. See Feeding of Animals. Some sort of pro¬ 
tection should be provided for sheep by those who 
would attempt to raise them successfully. Sheds or 
barns mayjje variously constructed to suit the condi¬ 
tion and circumstance of the farmer. Wdiatever kind 
of a fight barn is built thorough ventilation must be 
provided. We present some plans for sheds and 
shelters in this connection. 





















I 




Wliilii'A 







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Pii 

Q 

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7? 

H 

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ft. 









































































































































































































































































































SHEEP. 


1115 


# 



at the top. There are also large open windows, so 
that the shed is airy. There is no provision for water 
in the yards, and this is the best ]jlan, as the yards are 
kept dry, and it necessitates at least so much exercise 
as will be derived from driving the sheep to water 
twice a day. The change of yards is needed to keep 
them dry and free from mud in wet weatlier. 
The crops that may be usefully fed in such a 
yard are rye, clover, grass, rape, mustard, peas 
and oats, barley and tares, turnips, or any others 
that are used when sheep are fenced by hurdles. 

Sheep Shelter on the Plains. The cli¬ 
mate of the Western plains is arid and exhilarat¬ 
ing, the soil dry and porous, the herbage short, 
sweet, and nutritious. Aromatic plants, which 
are healthful for sheep, abound, and the main 
obstacle which has hitherto presented itself, 
to interfere with the complete success of those 
who have exiierimented in sheep-raising, has 
been the sudden snow-storms whicli have over¬ 
whelmed the flocks. Ordinary buildings are 
frequently out of the question, both from want 
of material and the funds wherewith to erect 


Sheep Sheds and Racks. Sheep that are not 
being prepared for market do not thrive well during 
winter, unless thev have exercise and a well ventilat- 
ed shed. Such a building may be of any height, but 
the floor need not be more than six feet from the 
ground, which gives a large amount of storage room 


Fig. 4. — Shed. Pen and Rack for Sheep. 



for hay. The floor should be of matched boards, or 
the cracks should be otherwise closed up to prevent 
hay seed or chaff from dropping upon the wool. The 
front of the shed is boarded to within a few feet of 
the ground, leaving that space open, that the sheep 
may go in or out when they please. The feeding 
rack is placed around three sides of the shed, and 
slopes forward so that the sheep can consume 
the last mouthful of hay contained in it. It is 
made so high that the sheep cannot reach over 
the front of it and pull the hay out over each 
other’s wool. Three and one-half feet is the 
right height forlarge sheep. The slats are placed 
three inches apart, which prevents the sheep 
from pushing their heads through, and wear¬ 
ing the wool from their necks. Everything about 
a sheep pen should be smooth, leaving no 
rough splinters to catch and tear the wool. The 
pen and yard should be kept well littered. 

'I'his shed, shown in Fig. 3, is arranged espe¬ 
cially to keep the wool clean and free from hay 
seed, clover heads and dust, and that the sheep 
may be out-doors or in-doors as they wish, and 
according to the weather. 

Shed for Soiling Sheep. When it is desir¬ 
able to keep sheep in yards near the barn, for 
the purpose of soiling, a structure can be made 
as follows; A green paddock of about an acre 
is divided by fences into four parts, as shown 
in the illustration. A partly open shed with 
feed racks all around it is jdaced in the center. 
kWr fifty sheep a building twenty feet square is 
amply large. A door from each quarter of the pad- 
dock opens into this shed. As one quarter is used, 
the doors opening to the other are closed. 

Figure 4 gives the elevation of the shed, with a 
large double doorway closed by half-doors, and open 


them. 'I'he flocks may be sheltered from the tempest 
by means of walls which are semi-circular in shape, 
and consist of stones roughly laid up, or of sods cut 
from the plains and piled five feet high. The outside 
of the curve is always placed towards the north or 
northwest, the direction from which the prevailing 
storms blow. Where the flocks are small, a few walls 


Fig. 5 .—Shed /or Soiling Sheep. 

are sufficient, scattered about in convenient and ac¬ 
cessible places, generally where the configuration of 
the ground gives additional shelter, as, for instance, 
on the southern slope of a hill, or where a grove helps 
to break the force of the storm. 

Figure 5 shows a more elaborate one, suitable for 
















































































































































































































li i 6 


SHEEP. 


larger flocks, and also designed as a protection against 
storms from whatever direction they may come. This 



Fig. 6 . —Concentric Sheep Shelter, 

shelter consists ot two half-circles, with entrances 
flanked and protected by other walls, so that the flock 
is harbored on all quarters. Very often an inner cir¬ 
cle is built, which again adds to the protection and 
increases the amount of shelter. 

Care of Lambs. Many a dollar that would other¬ 
wise come to the flock-owner is lost through his failure 
to appreciate the fact that maximum profit is secured 
through the quality and condition of his sheep, rather 
than through their numbers. Quality and condition 
are the indispensable requisites to real success. The 
first of these is secured through breeding, the second 
through subsequent attention. ‘‘ Blood will tell,” but 
its record will never be satisfactoiy' unless the breed¬ 
er’s art is supplemented by the feeder’s liberality. 
'I'he well-bred lamb must be a well-fed lamb, or the 
breeder’s ideal will never be attained. 

Keep the lambs thriving. During the hot and dry 
summer days, extra attention will be necessary to in¬ 
sure this, but compensation therefor will surely come. 
Where the young and tender animal is required to 
withstand privation and hardship, diminished size and 
impaired vigor will follow, to the embarrassment of 
every subsequent effort at maximum results. Mis¬ 
takes in early management may be avoided; they 
cannot be wholly corrected in the life of the animal. 
Scanty pasturage must be pieced out from other 
sources; and artificial food should be supplied before 
the advancing season robs the pasture of its highest 
nourishment. 

Experienced shepherds are sometimes asked for 
devices by which sucking lambs can be fed a ration 
of grain, bran, or meal, aside from what is given their 
dams. Devices of this character—such as a small 
pen inside the usual resting place, with openings 
through which the lambs can pass, but not large 
enough to admit the grown animals—will readily 
suggest themselves under such circumstances as war¬ 
rant this peculiar treatment. The strongest apology 
for such an arrangement is found in the exemption 


from crowding, which allows the smaller animals to 
get their proper allowance. The fact is the mothers 
can profitably be allowed as^ liberal treatment as their 
offspring. The effect of a little attention to the 
dam, while on pasture, will be quite as apparent in 
her lamb as upon herself; and without this regard 
to her condition, much of effort for lamb thrift will 
be vain. 

All that has been heretofore said in behalf of com¬ 
fortable surroundings for a flock, receives emphasis in 
its application to the lambs. Idie idea that privation 
and harsh treatment toughen the young animals, is a 
delusion. A perfect physique and a vigorous consti¬ 
tution are not to be secured by exposure to extremes 
of heat and cold, and by subjection to hunger and 
thirst. The perfectly developed and healthy sheep 
can withstand these to almost incredible extremes; 
but its capabilities iii such direction do not result 
therefrom. Sweltering beneath a summer sun, or 
shivering before a wintry blast, develops neither 
health nor strength. Forced subsistence on scanty 
pasturage may test constitutional hardiness, but does 
not create or foster such a characteristic. 

Many owners fall into the error of giving the lamb 
flock the same treatment as is bestowed upon those 
animals of more advanced age, overlooking the fact 
that what requires development in the one instance 
needs but to be maintained in the other. As the 
sturdy tree, now withstanding exi3osure at the road¬ 
side, could once have been crushed by a fawn’s foot¬ 
print, so is there to be found in the young sheep’s life 
a time when harm will result froni incidents which 
would in nowise affect the matured animal—a fact 
which finds unpleasant emphasis in the experience of 
the most careful shepherd. 

What with docking, and marking, and weanin?, and 
the other rough treatment inseparable from lambhood, 
the little ones of the flock have a rough enough time, be 
the supervision of their owners ever so thoughtful 
and.thorough. When these trials are reduced to the 
minimum, and all the avenues to thrift and comfort 
within command are opened wide before them, then 
it is, and only then, that the reasonable estimates of 
the owner may be realized, and, under exceptional 
conditions, sometimes exceeded. 

Docking. In docking lambs the animal should 
be held between the knees of the operator, its rump 
against a smooth block of hard wood. A sharp chisel 
is held between the first finger and the thumb of the 
left hand and the skin of the tail is drawn well for¬ 
ward. A smart blow upon the handle of the chisel 
completes the operation instantly. A little tar, or a 
touch of carbolic acid and pure lard will serve to keep 
the flies away until the wound heals. Lambs should 
be docked when about a week old. 

Castration. When lambs are a week old they 
may be easily and quickly castrated by a single de¬ 
cided clip with a pair of shears, the whole scrotum 
and testicles being taken. When the lamb is some 
months old there is need of more care and skill. 
Some operators sit on a bench with one of the lamb’s 









































3—COTSWOLD SHEEP. 










































































































































































































































































SHEEP. 


1119 


hind legs held down by each thigh; an assistant 
holds the head and fore-legs. Pressing the testicles 
tightly against the lower end of the bag an incision is 
made with a keen knife through the tight, smooth 
skin beneath each testicle. These slip from the 
openings, the cords are scraped off, not cut, and the 
work is done. A little tow or wool is sometimes left 
in the opening in the scrotum of older rams, to allow 
the passage of any pus which might otherwise collect 
and cause blood-poisoning. A dressing of tar or 
carbolic acid mixed with pure lard will serve to keep 
away flies. 

Crooks. Although unknown on most American 
farms the shepherd’s crook is an implement very use¬ 
ful in catching sheep. Any wagon-maker can readily 
furnish one. The crook is quietly passed in front of 
and above the hock, and the leg is then seized by the 
hand. Never catch a sheep by its wool, it is cruel; 
the blood settles under the skin where the wool was 
pulled, and the wool itself is weakened there. 

Dipping. Where but few sheep are to be dipped 
a large tub will serve to hold the dip* during the 


Fig, 8 , —Method of Dipping Skeep. 

operation, and some have used a large, tight barrel, set 
at an inclination in a hollow prepared for it in the 
ground, much as in the -old way for scalding hogs. 
When large flocks are to be treated tanks are so 
made that the sheep may be driven from one end to 
the other through the decoction, after which they 
stand iqx)!! an inclined plane which conducts back to 
the tank the liquid which drips from the fleeces. 
Such an arrangement is used on the farm of G. H. 
^Vadsworth, in Pawnee county, Kansas, and which is 
thus fully described: 

The boiler for the dip is 18 inches deep, 30 inches 
wide and 8 feet long, with plank sides and galvanized 
iron bottom, in a clay and partly excavated furnace; 
the smoke-stack is lo-inch stove-pipe. Total cost, $7. 
The dipping vat is of two-inch pine planks, is 16 
inches wide, 5 feet deep and 12 feet long at the top. 
The end farthest from the dripping platform is per¬ 
pendicular, but the end nearest the platform slopes 
from the upper edge inward, for 6 feet, or to the mid¬ 


dle of the vat, forming at once the end and the 
bottom of one-half of it. On this slope are nailed 
cross-slats to give the sheep a foot-hold in walking 
out. It leads to the dripping-platform, an ascending 
inclined plane 16 feet long by 10 feet wide, divided 
by a fence supporting a gate at the lower end, and at 
the upper end a gate for each division. The floor 
is made of matched stuff with half-inch strips cover¬ 
ing the joints. Crosswise over these are nailed strips 
an inch thick, to give the sheep a foot-hold. The 
half-inch strips make the floor water-tight, make a 
clear way under the cross-slats for the drip, and 
guide it back to the vat. When one division of the 
platform is filled with drying sheep the cut-gate is 
swung, so as to shut them in and open the lower end 
of the other division. When this is nearly filled the 
upper gate of the first division is opened and the 
sheep are driven out, making room for a fresh lot 
from the vat while those in the other division are 
dripping. Pens of portable fence are made so that 
the one nearest the vat will hold only about roo 
sheep. Next to and connected by a gale with that 
is a pen which will hold 1,000. The dip 
used here is made of tobacco 50 pounds, 
sulphur 2 pounds and arsenic i pound for 
each 100 sheep; cost $2.30. The liquor 
is prepared the day before the dipping, 
and after boiling is run into a reservoir. 
When wanted the liquor is heated again 
in the boiler and fed gradually into the 
dipping-vat, as needed. This apparatus 
cost $23.30, and with it four men can dip 
3,000 sheep per day. 

To insure a cure a second, and even a 
third dipping may be necessary, as after 
the first and even after the second opera¬ 
tion, young parasites may be hatched from 
eggs deposited before the first dipping. It 
is inuxjrtant that all be destroyed, and, if 
the flock can not be removed from the pas¬ 
tures and buildings in which they were kept, that every¬ 
thing they may have touched shall be disinfected as 
thoroughly as possible, for the presence of even one 
living female upon a post, a rack, or any other object 
with Avhich the sheep come in direct contact, may be 
enough to cover the whole flock with the pests again. 
Each animal should stay not less than three minutes 
in the dip, during which time the liquor should be 
thoroughly worked into every part of the skin, and 
the scabs broken by squeezing the skin into wrinkles 
or folds. Thoroughly saturate every part of the neck 
and head, occasionally submerging the whole. No 
harm will come from the entrance into the nostrils, or 
into the throat, of the tobacco dip. There may be 
sneezing and shaking of the head to free the nostrils 
and ears, but this may serve to dislodge any grubs 
there may be in the sinuses. 

By Fig. 8 is illustrated a most convenient appa- 
ratis for dipping. The cut shows plainly the methods 
of its working. 






















































1120 


SHEEP. 


Scab should be cured as early in the spring as 
possible, as, if the winter is stormy, the sheep which 
were treated late in the season run great risk of be¬ 
coming poverty-stricken and worthless before spring. 

Fattening. The value of a mixed and varied 
diet in fattening sheep is more highly appreciated in 
England, on the Continent and in the Eastern States 
than it is in the Western States, where corn (maize) 
is the grain most used for this purpose, as carefully 
conducted experiments have shown that upon a diet 
of clover hay, mangels and linseed meal, sheep gain¬ 
ed one-third of one pound per day. Of ruta-bagas 
150 pounds were required to make a pound of flesh. 
Experience has shown that a pound of Indian corn 
daily, with good clover hay, may be reasonably ex¬ 
pected to add one-half a pound daily to the weight 
of sheep of good fattening quality. Changing from 
green to dry food should be done gradually that no 
time may be lost through any derangement of the 
digestive organs. Sheep are at all times, and particu¬ 
larly when fattening for market, to be kept as quiet 
and free from disturbance as possible. 

Feed-Racks. Racks for feeding sheep should be 
so made that seed, bits of hay and other substances 
will not fall therefrom upon the head and neck, there 
to find lodgment in the wool and cause discomfort, 
and to lessen the value of the sheep by giving it a 
dirty appearance. 

Where there are floors over a sheep-fold or enclo¬ 
sure, they should be made so tight as to prevent 
chaff, seed, etc., falling upon the animals. For feed¬ 
ing roots or grain a feed-box may be readily made by 
nailing together the edges of two boards as in the 
ordinary way for making a trough for pigs; across 
this should be nailed bars at short intervals, to keep 
the animals from crowding each other. 

Fences. Portable fences are found very useful in 
sheep-farming, and many simple and inexpensive 
ones have been used. See Fig. 18, page 445. To 
protect traveling flocks from dogs, wolves and other 
marauders in a new country a corral or enclosure 
made of light canvas or duck, held up by iron rods 
sharpened at one end and with an eye turned in the 
other end, has been found cheap, easily managed and 
effective. 

Guards. Dogs have in many parts of the country 
been a most formidable obstacle to success in sheep¬ 
growing. Where the fences surrounding the flock is 
so built that dogs cannot crawl through, a strand or 
two of barbed wire placed above the top, will be found 
an effective guard. The sheep-fold may be protected 
against raids by wolves and dogs by placing two 
strands of barbed wire above. 

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

In America sheep suffer from fewer diseases than 
they do in the Old World, some of the more virulent 
being scarcely known here, except by report. This 
may be in part due to the climate, the great variety 
of food and to other conditions which greatly favor 


sheep-farming in America, but is probably more ow¬ 
ing to the fact that for many generations on the lands 
of the Old World, under unsanitary conditions, the 
germs of disease have been multiplying and spread¬ 
ing, infecting herds, flocks, soil and other objects with 
which they come in contact. How long the domestic 
animals of America will enjoy this comparative free¬ 
dom from disease none can say, but importations of 
breeding stock from Europe, and especially from Eng¬ 
land, threaten American flocks and herds with con¬ 
stant danger. The most rigid quarantine, together 
with the use of all the best preventive measures known^ 
would give no more protection than the general wel¬ 
fare of the country should demand. 

Prevention is certainly better than any cure, and as 
domestic animals properly cared for give to the farmer 
a very satisfactory return for his investment of capital, 
thorough study of and continued efforts to secure the 
conditions necessary to their thrift and comfort will 
bring a rich reward. In the following pages the causes, 
symptoms, remedies usually adopted and the preven¬ 
tion of diseases have been given .as concisely as is 
consistent with a plain understanding of the subjects. 

Abortion. Rough treatment by dogs, hooking by 
cattle, or hasty, careless driving over bars, fences 
partly let down, over-feeding with roots in cold weath¬ 
er, and sudden changes in diet resulting in moving 
the bowels strongly, may cause ewes to abort. Stew¬ 
art says of abortion, in his excellent Shepherd’s Manual: 
“It has been known to occur in consequence of, or 
after, the heavy dressing of turnip or mangel land with 
superphosphate, the crop having been fed to the ewes; 
but this is probably in consequence of the greater 
succulence of the roots so grown, rather than of the 
direct action of the phosphate. The distension of the 
stomach with cold, watery food so greatly reduces the 
temperature of the abdominal viscera as to destroy the 
life of the foetus, which is prematurely expelled.” 

Treattnent should be chiefly preventive. Follow 
abortion with Epsom salts ^ ounce, laudanum i 
drachm, powdered camphor drachm. Give in 
some liquid food. The second day give of laudanum 
I drachm, powdered camphor drachm, if needed. 
Dogs should be guarded against, cattle and breeding 
ewes should not be permitted to run together, heed¬ 
less driving should be prevented, and all disturbing 
causes avoided. 

Apoplexy. Staggers or apoplexy may be 
caused by too high feeding, by indigestion or other 
disturbance of the digestive organs, or by poor feeding. 
The symptoms are a blood-shot appearance of the 
eyes and membranes; eyes wide open and staring. 
The sheep suddenly staggers blindly about, stops and 
stands swaying unsteadily. 

Treattne 7 it. Give 5 drops of tincture of aconite in 
one pint of water. 

Black-leg. Known also as quarter-ail, black 
spauld, anthrax fever, blood-striking and braxy ; ap¬ 
pears more frequently in the Western States than else¬ 
where; in the West it is also called murrain. It is, 





































































































































































SHEEP. 


1123 


caused by gorging in spring and autumn upon luxu¬ 
riant grasses produced by hot suns and too much moist¬ 
ure. It most frequently attacks those animals pastured 
on rich, flat river-bottom lands. 

Symptoms are redness of the eyes, dark urine, con¬ 
stipation with bloody dung when discharged, lameness, 
and swelling on sides and quarters; the mouth and 
tongue are inflamed and blistered, the skin makes a 
cracking sound when the hand is pressed iqjon the 
swollen parts of the quarters and sides. The animals 
soon fall and quickly die. 

Treatment must be prompt. Give of sulphate of 
soda 2 ounces, flour of sulphur i ounce, powdered 
myrrh i scruple. Six hours after the above a tea¬ 
spoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water 
may be given. Law had good results, where cattle 
were affected, from the use of nitro-muriatic acid 60 
drops, bi-chromate of potassa 3 grains,and chlorate of 
ixjtassa 2 drachms, given twice daily by the mouth, and 
2 or 3 drachms of a saturated solution of sulphate of 
quinia, iodide of potassium and bisulphite of soda in¬ 
jected at equal intervals beneath the skin. He also 
recommends the use of stimulants (alcohol, ether, 
valerian, angelica, etc.,) in advanced stages. 

Prevention consists in keeping stock from undrained 
moist soil when heat favors luxuriant growth of 
vegetation and malarial emanations; prevent access 
to stagnant water, shelter the stock at night in 
sheds or barns, and in day by trees or otherwise, 
when the days are warm and nights cold; keep 
in thrifty condition, without over-feeding; give a little 
nitro-muriatic, sulphuric, carbolic or salicylic acid 
daily in water or food; separate diseased from healthy 
animals; burn all carcasses, dung, litter and secretions 
of diseased animals, and disinfect yards, sheds and 
barns occupied by them, and clothing of attendants; 
keep dogs and other animals from carrying infection. 

Bleeding. In bleeding from the neck cut a small 
slit length^uise of the jugular vein, having first cut the 
wool from a s{X)t large enough for the purpose over the 
vein; press the finger on the vein firmly and make the 
opening with a keen knife or a lancet. Draw from 2 
ounces to half a pint of blood, as the case may require, 
and close the opening by a few stitches of soft linen 
or uncolored silk thread. If but little blood is to be 
let, open the facial vein beneath the eye, or one in the 
ear, or inside the fore-arm. 

Bronchitis. An extension of catarrh or sore throat 
to the large air passages in the lungs. Symptoms are 
a cough at first hard but afterward becoming soft and 
rattling as a discharge from the nose is established. 
The mouth dry and fevered, membrane of the nose 
red, and breathing quickened. In severe cases there 
is dullness, loss of appetite, quick breathing, with dry, 
hard and painful cough. 

Treatment should consist of good nursing, with 
nourishing gruels of oat-meal, linseed tea, in which 
half a teaspoonful of ground ginger has been stirred. 
When there is fever give powdered gentian i drachm, . 
saltpeter i drachm, linseed oil i ounce. If the mu¬ 
cous membranes show a yellow tinge give injections of 


warm water to move the bowels, instead of laxatives. 
Niter or sweet spirits of niter, belladonna, lobelia or 
aconite; and expectorants, such as oxymel of squill, 
liquor ammoniee acetatis, guaiacum, ipecacuanha, or 
antimony is recommended by high veterinary author¬ 
ities. 

Preventioti consists in careful attention to general 
sanitary measures, especially such as will prevent 
sheep taking colds. Exposure to cold, wet storms, to 
chilling draughts, and to sudden removals from heated 
barns or stables to cold outer Air should be guarded 
against. 

Canker of the Foot. Caused by folding sheep 
where the dung is collected in a fermenting mass, and 
by neglecting cases of simple foot rot. It is an inflam¬ 
mation of the sole of the foot, and a growth of spongy 
sprouts instead of the natural hoof; discharges an of¬ 
fensive, white, curd-like matter. 

The remedy consists in cutting away all separated 
hoof at each dressing; wash the diseased parts with a 
solution of chloride of zinc i drachm,in a pint of water, 
and apply tow or lint dipped in a mixture of three 
parts of water to one part of nitric acid. Or, a dress¬ 
ing of carbolic acid may be applied. 

Catarrh. The changeable weather of fall, winter 
and spring, exposure to cold outer air after confine¬ 
ment in too warm stables or barns, lead to the 
appearance of nasal catarrh, or inflammation of the lin¬ 
ing membrane of the nostrils, sinuses, throat and wind¬ 
pipe. This not infrequently extends to the air pas¬ 
sages of the lungs, producing bronchitis. 

The symptoms are redness accompanied with 
watering of the eyes, the membrane of the nose is red, 
dry at the first but afterward discharges a thin, clear 
fluid, which changes to a yellowish, purulent mucus. 

Remedies are good feeding and nursing, light feed¬ 
ing with bran mashes,,oat-meal gruel, in mild cases 
without medicines. In more serious cases give Glau¬ 
ber salts, to be followed by niter, or by acetate of po¬ 
tassa. As a tonic spirits of nitrous ether or gentian 
may be given. Law recommends, in cases of chronic 
discharge from the nose, an injection of weak solution 
of sulphate of zinc drachm, glycerine i ounce, 
warm water i quart. This may be administered by 
the aid of a syphon, one arm of which is 16 inches 
long, and the other 3^ inches long, ^4 inch in dia¬ 
meter at the point and at an angle of 45 degrees from 
the larger part. Pass the short arm through a wide 
piece of cork or of sole leather, to prevent the escape 
of the fluid from the nose; wrapping tow around the 
nozzle between its end and the leather effectually 
stops the return of the liquid. Bring the face of the 
sheep into a vertical position and ix)ur the liquid into 
the long end of the syphon until it rises in that nasal 
chamber and flows from the other. One or two such 
injections are enough to cure. Prevention is indicated 
sufficiently by a description of causes. 

When the sheep are costive the following may be 
substituted for the remedies described above: Steep 
in a quart of water, rhubarb i ounce, ginger 2 ounces, 
gentian 2 ounces, strain and add corrosive sublimate 8 










I 124 


SHEEP. 


grains. Give two tablespoonfuls of this twice daily. 

Choking. Sheep sometimes choke upon pieces of 
turnip or other food, although not very often. The 
head should be held well up and an effort made to work 
the obstruction downward by gently pinching the walls 
of the gullet together above the lump. Some pour 
melted lard, or linseed oil down the throat to aid the 
operation. Should these means fail, a long, smooth 
and flexible rod, having fastened on its end asoft.ball 
of linen strips or a piece of soft, tough six)nge satura¬ 
ted with oil or lard, may be pushed gently down the 
throat until the obstacle is reached, when a few 
light strokes against the end of the rod will usu¬ 
ally be found effective. If this will not remove the 
obstruction and the animal is valuable enough to war¬ 
rant it, an opening may be made through the wall of 
the gullet and the offending substance removed. A 
stitch with a curved needle and a thread of coarse 
uncolored silk will close the wound. 

Colic. Spasmodic colic or cramp is always accom¬ 
panied by indigestion, and generally by constipation. 
The animal falls, struggles or lies with eyes fixed and 
staring. 

Treatment. The remedies are tincture of rhubarb 
I drachm, carbonate of soda i drachm, warm water 
sweetened 2 ounces. Give slowly with a spoon, and 
follow by linseed oil ounce, after the spasms cease. 
Or give linseed oil with belladonna ounce, to relieve 
pain. Copious injections of warm water will be found 
very useful. 

Constipation in Lambs. Lambs fed artificially 
upon milk from cows or from ewes are subject to con¬ 
stipation. The lamb becomes dull and stupid, its 
belly swollen, urine scanty or entirely stopped, and 
soon dies if not relieved by treatment. 

Treatment. Injections of warm milk or water in 
which a little molasses has been stirred has been rec¬ 
ommended. A strong syringe is used. The lamb is 
held up by the hind legs, its fore-feet just touching 
the ground during the operation and for a few minutes 
after. The injection should be repeated if hardened 
dung is not voided with or soon after the discharge of 
the fluid. A tonic may be given once a day, compos¬ 
ed of common salt i drachm, golden sulphur of anti¬ 
mony, Yz drachm. 

Diarrhcea. Colds arising from exposure to sudden 
changes in the temperature, from cold drinks or other 
causes, an unhealthy condition of the milk of the ewe, 
or indigestion in the lamb, frequently cause diarrhoea 
of a severe nature. 

Symptoms. Clok thus describes the ailment; The 
disease appears without warning; the lamb becomes 
languid and sad, keeps away from the other lambs, 
stands with back bent, or lies down frequently. The 
excrement, which is repeatedly discharged, is thin, 
whitish or greenish, afterward watery or mixed with 
mucus, and finally bloody. The animal ceases to 
suck and eat, but is very thirsty. It bleats frecjuently, 
evinces signs of pain if pressure is applied to the belly, 
and makes efforts to discharge excrement. The lamb 


rapidly loses flesh, its belly sinks in, and death ensues 
between the second and fifth days, and sometimes even 
on the first day. 

Treatment. Prompt change to the best sanitary 
conditions, a general change of food for both ewes and 
lambs, and the best of care. An excellent food for the 
lambs may be made by beating the white of an egg 
with six times its bulk of water and giving, lukewarm, 
as much as the animal will take. A few drops of 
laudanum may be profitably added to the above. 

A tablesiX)onful night and morning of the following 
mixture should be given: Opium i drachm, ground 
ginger ounce, prepared chalk 2 ounces, calamus or 
peppermint tea i pint. In severe cases one ounce 
powdered catechu should be added to the above. 
Where the excretions are tinged with blood two or 
three drops of Fowler’s solution of arsenic in a tea¬ 
spoonful of water should be given, three or four times 
per day, to young lambs. Sometimes five or six doses, 
of two or three grains each, of quinine are given, per 
day. 

“White scour” is a diarrhoea in lambs which is so 
called because the excrement is white and watery. It 
is acrid and irritating. There is with this form of dis¬ 
ease great loss of appetite, colic and weakness. This 
comes from an unhealthy character of the milk of the 
dam, from the weakness or from the overloading of the 
lamb’s stomach. High feeding of the ewes is likely 
to cause this disease. Putting the lamb on short al¬ 
lowance, or feeding with cow’s milk diluted with water, 
will usually serve to cheek it. Give four times a day 
a dose of bicarbonate of soda Yz ounce, calcined mag¬ 
nesia Yz ounce, divided into eight powders. 

To restore vigor in cases of great weakness the fol¬ 
lowing will be found most valuable: Eggs 2, whisky 
2 ounces, essence of ginger i drachm ; beat up with a 
pint of gruel made of oatmeal and milk; give a few 
s^xjonfuls every three hours. 

Dropsy. Dropsy of the abdomen is caused by 
keeping sheep upon watery, rank, succulent forage, 
by which the blood is impoverished, and is a gather¬ 
ing of a watery fluid in the abdomen. 

Syrfiptoms are a distension of the belly, full and 
tight where there is much liquid, or flabby and pen¬ 
dulous, with hollow flanks where the fluid is less 
abundant. Urine is scanty, appetite lost, digestion 
poor, breathing excited; sometimes swellings appear 
along the lower part of the body and on the limbs 
and chest. 

Treatment. Remove to pasture having finer and 
more nutritious forage, or to dry food. Give of nitrate 
of potash I drachm, sulphate of soda i ounce, ginger 
I drachm. When the animal is in very poor con¬ 
dition substitute for sulphate of soda 2 ounces of lin¬ 
seed oil. 

Dysentery. Exhalations from marshes or from 
lands which have been flooded, musty or rotten food, 
over-heating in hot weather, drinking stagnant water, 
or contagion are among the chief causes of dysentery 
or bloody flux. Other causes are sudden changes 









SHEEP. 


1125 


from poor to rich pastures or the reverse, verj’ hot 
and wet weather, and especially neglected cases of 
diarrhoea. 

Symptoms are the frequent passage of offensive 
dung mixed with blood and mucus; the animal strains 
with great pain during the voiding. There is much 
thirst but little desire for food; the mouth is fevered, 
the extremities become cold, the muzzle dry and 
cracked, the eyes sunken, the wool becomes harsh, 
and, when the disease has run for some days, it may 
be easily pulled off in handfuls. The sheep may die 
in a few days, or it may linger for weeks. 

Reinedies consist of first removing the active causes, 
and in giving olive oil 3 ounces, or Glauber salts 5 
ounces, with a sedative of Dover’s powder 2 scruples, 
dr laudanum 2 to 3 drachms; or, give linseed oil 2 
ounces, powdered opium 2 grains, in oatmeal gruel or 
linseed tea. Follow this for several days with 
powdered opium 2 grains, and ginger i drachm, or 
with laudanum 2 drachms. Keep the patients as 
cool and quiet as possible. 

Preventives are keeping sheep from poor food, 
avoiding sudden and extreme changes of water or 
pasture, overheating and impure water, and pasturing 
where sheep suffering from dysentery have recently 
grazed. 

Epilepsy. Young or very poor sheep are subject 
to attacks of epilepsy, when permitted to fill them¬ 
selves in the morning with herbage covered with 
snow or frost. There is congestion of the brain, re¬ 
sulting from the chilling of the rumen, and the animal 
is convulsed. Prevention is the cure. 

Fluke, Liver Rot. England has lost millions 
of sheep in a very few years, and Australia and South 
America have also lost very heavily from the ravages 
of the liver-rot or fluke; but it has not been shown 
that sheep in North America- have suffered much 
frpm this cause, although some writers declare that 
thousands of sheep are lost annually from fluke in 
the United States without their owners suspecting the 
cause. The high and arid plains west of the Missis¬ 
sippi and east of the Pacific slope do not present con¬ 
ditions favorable to its spreading. 

Fluke, or liver-rot, is caused by the presence in 
sheep of the flat, leaf-like parasite Fasciola hepatica, 
which attains a length of from three-quarters of an 
inch to one inch. Found in the gall ducts of all 
domestic animals and of mankind; in most of these 
they do little injury. Deposited in the gall ducts the 
eggs can not hatch there, but passing out are washed 
by rains, or are otherwise carried to pools of fresh 
water, in which the egg hatches and the embryo 
floats until lodgment is found in some mollusk, in 
which many new embryos are developed. Law says: 

“ These embryos may form new brood capsules and 
thus increase their number materially, or, if swallowed 
by a mammal with its food and water, develops into 
mature flukes, inhabiting the bile ducts and reproduc¬ 
ing themselves only by eggs. These intermediate 
generations are necessary and can only take place in 
fresh water and in fresh-water mollusks.” 


Symptoms. The eye becomes jaundiced, the belly 
swells, there is weakness and tenderness of the loins, 
a weak circulation and general stupor. By rubbing 
the skin over the loins to and fro between the finger 
and thumb a flabby, soft feeling will be perceived, as 
if there was water underneath. 

Remedies. Remove from the infected lands to 
pastures perfectly dry; give liberal supply of salt, 
which is fatal to young flukes; give abundant and 
rich food. An English remedy said to be effective is: 
Yellow rosin drachms, oil of turpentine i ounce, 
calomel 10 grains, tincture of iodine 30 drops; one- 
third the above to be given in gruel each morning 
for three days. Another remedy is: sulphate of 
magnesia ]^x)und, oil of turpentine 3 drachms. 
Mix and give one-third the above quantity once in 
two days. Yet another is: Saltpeter ounces, 
powdered ginger i ounce, carbonate of iron ounce, 
salt r pound, and boiling water 3 quarts, to be mixed, 
and when nearly cool 9 ounces spirits of turpentine 
are to be added. The infected sheep are each to re¬ 
ceive a wine-glassful, after having been kept twelve 
hoursoff food and water, on the morning of each fourth 
day for two weeks. 

Foot-Rot. Much trouble and loss was formerly 
caused by contagious foot-rot in that part of the 
United States lying east of the Mississippi, but the 
general diffusion of a knowledge of it and the treat¬ 
ment necessary to its prevention and cure, aided by 
changes made by clearing away forests and the drain¬ 
age of lands, has reduced these losses materially. 
There is still, however, reason for exercising constant 
care to prevent the spread of this troublesome con¬ 
tagion, which may appear on high and dry lands as 
well as elsewhere. It can never be completely 
eradicated from a flock without great skill, labor and 
watchfulness, combined with the use of proper 
remedies. Constant wetness of the soil makes the 
flocks more liable to the attacks of the contagion. 

Symptoms. The symptoms of contagious foot-rot 
have been concisely and clearly described by Dr. 
Randall in the following words: 

The first symptom is the disappearance of the 
naturally smooth, dry, pale condition of the skin at 
the top of the cleft over the heels. It becomes some¬ 
what red, warm and moist, and slightly rough or 
chafed. Next the moisture increases to a discharge, 
and an ulcer is formed which extends down to the 
upper portion of the inner wall of the hoof. These 
walls are then attacked, become disorganized and the 
disease penetrates between the fleshy sole and the 
bottom of the hoof. The hoof is thickened at the 
heel by an unnatural deposition of horn. The crack 
between it and the fleshy sole pours out an offensive 
and purulent matter. Soon all parts of the foot are 
penetrated by the burrowing ulceration, the horny 
sole is disorganized, and the fleshy sole becomes a 
black and swollen mass of corruption, shapeless, 
spongy, and often filled with maggots. The fore-feet 
are usually first attacked; lameness is early noticed 
and soon becomes complete; the appetite is lost and 









1126 


SHEEP. 


the animal dies from exhaustion. The offensive 
odor of the true foot-rot is characteristic, and once 
made familiar will serve as a certain guide in recog¬ 
nizing the disease. The disease may present itself 
in a malignant and rapid form or in a mild one. The 
first attack on a flock is generally of the severe char¬ 
acter. When it is kept under the first year, its 
appearance the next summer will be mild, and the 
third season still milder. 

Remedies. Every affected part must be laid bare 
by carefully paring the horn away to the quick with a 
thin, sharp knife, stanching the blood which may 
flow. ^ Tow, saturated with tincture of muriate of iron, 
solution of blue-stone, butter of antimony, or of nitrate 
of silver, should be applied, and the wound bound 
up to prevent the intrusion of foreign substances. 

Many sheep owners, after exposing by the judicious 
use of the knife every part which is in even the 
slightest degree affected, compel the animal to stand 
from ten to twenty minutes in* a saturated solution of 
blue vitriol, kept as hot as the hand can bear by the 
addition of boiling solution from time to time, or by 
dipping hot irons into the tub or tank containing the 
liquid. Upon coming from the solution it is well to 
cover the hoofs with chloride of lime, and fill with 
tow the cleft in the foot. The ends of the tow should 
be twisted into a cord which should be fastened 
around the fetlock, thus making a good bandage. 
The sheep should not be permitted to stand jn a 
damp yard, nor to go into pasture wet by dew or by 
rain. Butter of antimony is a good application. 

Whatever remedy may be used it is of the greatest 
importance that the work be done thoroughly, and 
that the flock should be carefully inspected each day 
for some time, as if even a minute portion of a dis¬ 
eased part escape the action of the remedy it will 
serve to again contaminate the whole flock. 

Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Aphthous fever or 
foot-and-mouth disease was introduced into North 
and South America by importations of stock in 1870. 
It is a contagious fever attacking cattle, sheep, swine, 
rabbits, and hares. Fortunately, it has as yet spread 
but very little in North America, but the germs are 
very sure to be transmitted by clothing, by animals, 
manure, litter, fodder, or by any one of the hundreds 
of articles which may be carried from the presence of 
infected animals. 

Symptoms. Law says: The poison may remain 
latent in Uae system for one or two days, or in excep¬ 
tional cases perhaps as many as six. Then there is 
roughness of the coat, or shivering, increased temper¬ 
ature, dry muzzle, hot, red mouth, teats and inter¬ 
digital spaces, lameness, inclination to lie, and shrink¬ 
ing from the hand in milking. The second or third 
day, blisters arise, on any part of the whole interior 
of the mouth, one-half to one inch in breadth, or on 
the teats and between the digits about one-half inch 
across. Saliva drivels from the mouth, collecting in 
froth around the lips, and a loud smacking is made 
with the lips and tongue. Swine champ their jaws. 
Sheep and swine suffer more especially in the feet. 


often losing the hoofs or even the digital bones, a con¬ 
tingency not unknown in neglected cattle. 

Treatment. The same authority advises as reme¬ 
dies Epsom salts 2 oz., as an astringent wash for the 
mouth, borax and tincture myrrh i oz. each, water i 
qt.; or carbolic acid i dr., honey 2 oz., vinegar i pt., 
water i pt.; as a lotion for the teats carbolic acid yi 
^5-) glycerine lo’oz.; and as a dressing for the feet, 
oil of vitriol i oz., water 4 oz., to be applied with a 
feather after cleaning the space between the hoofs by 
drawing a cloth through it. After dressing tie up with 
a tarred bandage. All loosened horn should be re¬ 
moved in dressing the feet, and a poultice applied if 
there is much inflammation. 

In England great good has followed the free use of 
salicylic acid, of which i part is soluble in 600 parts 
of cold spring water, i part in 100 boiling water, only 
one in three hundred remaining on cooling, unless the 
boiling has been continued 15 or 20 minutes. Care¬ 
fully heated in glycerine i part in 50 will dissolve, 
and I part to 10 of alcohol. As the liberal use of 
salicylic acid has no bad effects it may safely be used. 

Preventives should be thoroughly used and most 
stringently insisted upon. Everyplace and thing with 
which the affected animal has come in contact should 
be thoroughly disinfected and, except the necessary- 
attendants, should be rigidly excluded; poultry- and 
birds should not be forgotten. Fifteen day-s should 
pass after full recovery before this rigid quarantine 
should be removed,.and then the diseased animal 
should be washed with a wash of carbolic or of sali¬ 
cylic acid. 

Gad-fly Grubs. In July and August the sheep 
gad-fly [xstrus ovis) deposits her eggs in the nostrils 
of sheep. In their efforts to prevent this the sheep 
crowd together, their noses close to the ground, shak¬ 
ing their heads frequently, and stamping vigorously. 
.At such times the gad-fly, which resembles in appear¬ 
ance, but is smaller than, the ox gad-fly, will be seen 
hovering near the animals. The maggot, which soon 
pmes from the egg, follows the sinuses of the nose, 
in which it remains through winter, greatly irritating 
the animal, and becoming a thick grub about an inch 
long. On the approach of warm weather in the spring, 
this grub descends to the ground, in which it bur¬ 
rows, and from which it in time emerges in the form 
of a fly, ready to perpetuate its kind. Some hold the 
opinion that these grubs do no serious harm, but 
many others believe that discomfort and even death is 
caused by their presence. It is certain that the irrita¬ 
tion resulting can scarcely tend to make the sheep 
more thrifty, and therefore any measure which will 
prevent or remove the annoyance will be worthy of 
trial by owners of sheep. See Sheep Gad-flv, in article 
Gad-fly, page 533. 

Remedies. Strong snuff may be driven up the 
nostrils, or tobacco smoke may be blown from an or¬ 
dinary pipe, the stem being placed in the nostril and 
the bowl covered by a doth. This ^vill cause violent 
sneezing, which may dislodge the worms, though they 
are not easily dislodged. .A mixture of equal parts of 












































































































































































SHEEP. 


1129 


turpentine and sweet oil well mixed and a teaspoon¬ 
ful poured into each nostril will be effective, care 
being taken to prevent the mixture enteringthelungs. 
A decoction of tobacco, injected into the nostrils by a 
syringe, has been found effective; this should be pre¬ 
vented from entering the lungs. 

Preventive. Smearing the nose daily with tar, with 
which a few drops of crude carbolic acid have been 
mixed, has been found an excellent preventive. This 
smearing may be easily done by boring holes an inch 
and a half in diameter and an inch deep in a thick 
plank, or in a log, to which the sheep have easy 
access. In these holes salt is placed, and tar is thick¬ 
ly spread around them. In their efforts to get the 
salt the sheep will cover their noses effectually with 
the mixture. Should any fail to do so, they can be 
smeared with but little labor. 

Garget. Chief among the causes which produce 
inflammation of the udder or milk glands (garget), 
are, leaving the milk too long in the bag; exposure to 
cold rains, chilling currents of air or to cooling quickly 
after undue exercise; lying ujx)n cold, wet ground, or 
sharp, hard substances, and blows from the horns of 
cattle. 

Syinpioms are a feverish feeling, with fullness in the 
bag, which is often caked or hard ; or there may be a 
hard mass in the middle of the bag. In severe cases 
there is shivering, considerable heat, quickened 
breathing, strong, quick pulse, costiveness and stop¬ 
page of urine, lameness on the affected side and 
sometimes a clotted mass streaked with blood. They 
sometimes cost the ewe her life, but more frequently 
result in the loss of her bag, and her usefulness as a 
breeder. 

Ret?iedies recommended are Epsom salts 2 ounces, 
nitrate of potash 2 drachms, ginger i drachm, to be 
given in water and repeated each day. Wash the 
udder thoroughly with warm water, and inject into the 
teats a solution of carbonate of soda, which should be 
milked out. In mild cases rub. the bag vigorously 
with weak iodine ointment, or camphorated spirits. 
Milk three times a day, rubbing well each time. 

Hoove or Bloat. Colic or hoven in sheep results 
from the causes which produce the same ailment in 
cattle. The walls of the third stomach, or rumen, 
have sometimes been ruptured by the confined gas, 
resulting from over-feeding upon luxuriant pasture, or 
from eating ergot in fodder, or musty or blighted grain. 

Symptoms. Great swelling of the abdomen, op¬ 
pressed breathing, and ofttimes a turning of the head 
toward the sides as if to point out the seat of the 
trouble. 

Retnedy. If swollen greatly make an opening with 
a pen-knife blade or with a trocar, through the skin 
and the underlying muscles,midway between the thigh 
and the ribs and about three inches from the back¬ 
bone, to give an outlet to the gas confined in the ru¬ 
men. A quill is sometimes thrust into the opening 
to furnish free egress to the gas. After an attack of 
hoove an ounce or two of Epsom salts are generally 
given. 


Hydatids. Water brain in lambs is caused by an 
undeveloped form of the tapeworm of the dog {T<2nia 
ccennrus) which, in its cystic form {Coenunes cerebra- 
lis), in the brain and spinal cord of sheep and cattle, 
causes nervous diseases of varying character. Voided 
by dogs the eggs or the larvie are taken in with their 
food by sheep, and find their way to the brain. The 
pressure of the hydatid upon the brain causes symp¬ 
toms known as blind-staggers, sturdy, turn-sick, and 
by other names. Fortunately the disease has not yet 
become general in America, although sheep in Texas 
are afflicted with what is there called lombrez,—a 
Spanish word meaning “ worm, ”—the symptoms in¬ 
dicating the presence of hydatids. 

Remedies. When the softening of a sjx)! in the 
skull denotes that the hydatid is lodged underneath, 
the skin should be laid back, and a small opening 
made through the bone. The cyst may then be 
opened and the fluid within suffered to run out, 
or it may be withdrawn by a small syringe. The 
membranous sac of the parasite should then be 
carefully pulled out, and the wound dressed with lard, 
with which a few drops of carbolic acid have been 
mixed. It is objected that this treatment is liable to 
be followed by death caused by inflammation of the 
brain, resulting from exposure to the air, and it is 
recommended that, instead of opening the cyst to the 
air, there should be injected into it, by the aid of a 
strong hypodermic syringe, half a teaspoonful of a 
mixture of iodine i grain, iodide of potash 5 grains, 
water i ounce. 

Tellorsays; “ The location of the hydatid in the 
brain is indicated by the motion or turning of the 
sheep. If it is in the left lobe or half of the brain the 
animal turns to the right; if in the right lobe, his 
turning is to the left; if in the back part of the brain, 
the cerebellum,the movements are performed without 
control, the head is elevated, the limbs moved with 
difficulty, and he starts and falls repeatedly; finally, 
if the hydatid is in the middle of the brain in front, 
the sheep goes forward in a straight line, holds its nose 
in the air, steps very high, and some lose the sight of 
one or both eyes.” 

Authorities agree that these cysts in the brains of 
sheep and cattle come mainly from one source,—the 
droppings of dogs,—and that after passing into the 
brain they must then remain until again eaten by a 
dog, when the tapeworm results. As a preventive all 
strange dogs trespassing upon sheep pastures might 
be killed, and to the dogs belonging with the sheep a 
vermifuge should be given occasionally. Salicylic 
acid in doses of 3 to 5 grains followed by oil has been 
given with success for the removal of tapeworm. To 
avoid risk all sheep’s heads should be thoroughly 
cooked before placing where dogs can get them. 

The growth of the hydatid is rather rapid, and in 
three weeks’ time from the first appearance of the 
symptoms, if the skull be pressed firmly with the 
thumb where the above rules point out the lodging of 
the hydatid, a noticeable degree of softening will be 
found, as if the skull were wanting in that particular 






1130 


SHEEP. 


spot. In fact the bone has become thin, and been 
absorbed by the suckers of the small tapeworms above 
described. In size the hydatids range from that of a 
pea up to that of a hen’s egg. 

Inflammation of the Bladder. Eating too heart¬ 
ily of corn meal, second growth of clover containing 
IX)isonous plants, or drinking hard water, frequently 
causes inflammation of the bladder; the urine is re¬ 
tained, blood-poisoning may follow with high fever. 
Males and fattening stock are especially subject to 
such troubles. 

Symptoms are a strong odor of urine given off by the 
secretions of the skin, and feverish condition, uneasi¬ 
ness, costiveness, stamping with the hind feet, strain¬ 
ing to void urine, and moaning, frequent looking at 
the flanks, and a stiff and straddling gait. 

Remedies, (five light, soft, watery food with lin¬ 
seed or slippery-elm tea, olive or linseed oil, pure 
soft water to drink, and inject into the bladder gum 
Arabic i drachm,opium i drachm, warm water i pint. 
Finally follow with small doses of copaiva, or cubebs, 
or buchu. Salicylic in doses of 3 to 4 grains at inter¬ 
vals of five or six hours has been found of value. 

Inflammation of the Bowels. Not common in 
America, but sometimes follows feeding on dry, poor 
pasture, with bad water in hot weather. 

Symptoms are weakness and staggering, watering 
and redness of the eyes, loss of appetite, liigh feveq 
swollen flanks, hard breathing and pained, puckered 
expression of the face, passage of dung stopped. 

Treatment consists in giving linseed oil, castor oil 
or Epsom salts, followed twice daily by sulphate of 
soda. Food should be much like that recommended 
for inflammation of the bladder. 

Inflammation of the Brain. Phrenitis,or inflam¬ 
mation of the brain, results where they are long con¬ 
tinued, from the causes which lead to apoplexy. 
The diseased animals dash about in a frenzy, blind 
to all danger. Lambs jump about as in play, until 
convulsions end their agony. The remedy is free 
bleeding from the neck, and prompt pur^ng with 
salts. The treatment must be instant, or death will 
ensue. 

Inflammation of the Liver. Is an advanced 
stage or tlie result of neglect of congestion of the 
liver, caused by high feeding and want of exercise. 
There is fever, with hot, dry nose and mouth, breath 
offensive, eyes dull, extremities cold, pulse uneven, 
urine scant, hot and yellow; dung black, hard and 
coated with greenish-yellow mucus. 

Purgatives and injections are required. Give Glau¬ 
ber salts 6 ounces, or calomel 5 grains, powdered opium 
I grain, sulphate of potash 2 drams. May be given 
twice daily in an infusion of linseed or gum Arabic, or 
in molasses, mixed thoroughly and placed on the 
tongue. Injections of warm water and Castile soap 
are useful. Diet of corn-meal gruel, bran mashes, 
pulped roots and green food should be given, but 
rather sparingly. 

Influenza. The causes which produce influenza 


are not clearly known, but at times it affects animals 
over wide areas. There is inflammation of the nasal 
and bronchial passages, a discharge at the nose, 
coughs, red and weeping eyes, and impaction and 
sometimes hoove or bloat. Stewart recommends as 
treatment mixed salt i pound and sulphur 4 ounces, 
good nursing and hearty, strengthening food. When 
the attack is more serious give Epsom salts 
ounce, ground ginger i drachm, in water Y 
mixed with molasses and honey. To those suffering 
most should be given tincture of aconite 10 drops, 
solution acetate of ammonia i ounce. This should 
be given once in five or six hours, lessening the 
aconite at each dose until five drops only are given. 
The eyes may be bathed with a solution of sulphate 
of zinc I grain, laudanum 20 drops, water i ounce. 
Feed well with mashes and shelter carefully after 
recovery and, of course, during treatment. 

Intestinal Worms. Examination of a dead sheep 
will sometimes reveal the presence of intestinal worms. 
It may be assumed that when they appear in one 
others in the flock are afflicted. Plenty of salt will 
act as a preventive and should be where sheep can 
have free access to it at all times. The remedies 
most used are: Powdered gentian pound, sul¬ 
phate of iron Y pound, sulphate of magnesia i pound, 
common salt 2 pounds; mix and give with ground 
feed. The above quantity is enough for 80 to 100 
sheep. Or, give a pint per week of sulphate of iron 
5 ounces, quicklime i pound, mixed with five gallons 
of water. As a drench for round or thread-worms 
use oil of turpentine Y. ounce, linseed oil 2 ounces. 
For tape-worm powdered areca nut Yz to i drachm, 
oil of male fern 10 to 20 drops. For any of the 
worms inhabiting the intestines 3 grains of salicylic 
acid in four doses, followed by a purgative, may be 
given two or three times in a day. 

Inversion of the Womb. Sometimes after ex¬ 
hausting labor the womb, turned inside out, hangs 
from the ewe like a red bladder. Wash this very 
thoroughly with warm water and very gently return it 
to its natural position. The hand must be well cov¬ 
ered with sweet oil or with pure, fresh lard, the nails 
close cut, the ewe meantime held so that her hind¬ 
quarters are considerably raised. A stitch should then 
be taken with linen or coarse silk thread so as to 
make a loop across the vagina to prevent the uterus 
coming out again. Give 20 to 30 drops of tincture of 
opium in some warm gruel, and leave the ewe in per¬ 
fect quiet on a soft bed with her hind-quarters higher 
than her head, for some days. Instead of stitches 
two ropes, each more than twuce the length of the 
animal, are doubled and twfisted together in the bights 
so as to form an opening a little larger than that'of 
the vulva. This is so placed as to supjxirt the orifice; 
the upper ends are carried over the rump, crossed two 
or three times along the back and finally tied to a 
collar or band placed around the neck; the low’er 
ends pass between the thighs, and forward along the 
sides, and are attached to the collar. This truss 
















SHEEP. 


1131 


may be made quite tight, and with every straining 
will tighten. 

Lockjaw, Sometimes injury to the spermatic cord 
in the operation of castration, or even exposure to wet 
and cold causes lockjaw, in which the jaws are firmly 
closed, the limbs stiff, the neck twisted and the head 
turned to one side. A warm bath is recommended, 
and warmth and quiet are necessary. Give Epsom 
salts 2 ounces; follow two hours after with 2 drams 
laudanum. Two or three times a day give warm 
gruel with ounce ginger. 

Lombrez. For years shepherds in Texas have 
suffered serious losses from a mysterious disease 
known by the Mexican name lombrez, signifying “ a 
worm.” The causes of the disease and the treatment 
necessary for curing are just now the subject of ani¬ 
mated debate among stockmen of that State. Some, 
in answer to questions addressed to them upon the 
subject, say that the disease results from pasturing 
upon long rank grasses, from drinking filthy water, 
from too close herding, and from confining to damp 
bedding grounds. Others declare that “the worm is 
a water worm,” which the sheep takes into its system 
by drinking impure water. These theories are vigor¬ 
ously assailed by others who justly urge that lombrez 
would be easily prevented by avoiding the causes 
were they known to be those mentioned. 

It is said that the young sheep in several counties 
in Middle and Southern Texas, in Bee, Live Oak, and 
in other counties east, west, and north of those 
named, have been destroyed by this disease during 
the last six years. The worms which are by some 
supposed to cause the death of these sheep, are found 
in the fourth stomach; but it is asserted that the same 
worms are found in sheep of all ages and cor.ditions 
in Texas. An extensive sheep herder of Texas gives 
it as his belief, founded iqx)n many examinations of 
sheep in his own flocks and those of others, that 
chronic constipation causes the death of the animals 
supposed to die of lombrez. He asserts" that the suf¬ 
ferers have all the symptoms of this ailment, are 
exposed to every predisposing cause of chronic con¬ 
stipation, and the dissecting knife discloses the fact 
that the grass in their little stomachs is almost desti¬ 
tute of any moisture. See Hydatids. 

Louse, The red sheep-louse {Trlehodecies ovis) 
has a red head, pale yellow body with dark bands. 
Seeks the tender skin inside of the thighs and on the 
neck of sheep with fleeces free from yolk. Carbolic 
acid and lard or salicylic acid and glycerine mixed 
and rubbed on the parts will free the sheep from this 
pest. 

Lung Worms. Hurried breathing and a dry 
cough, diarrhoea, loss of appetite and flesh, examina¬ 
tion of the mucus and the evacuations, may show in¬ 
dications of Strojigulus filaria, worms which are 
usually found in the windpipe, bronchial tubes 
and bowels of sheep affected, and sometimes in their 
lungs. 

Remedies. Salicylic acid will probably be found a 


safe and efficient remedy, in doses of 3 grains each, 

! administered twice each day for three days. A rem¬ 
edy comixjsed of sulphate of magnesia 6 ounces, 
nitrate of potash 4 ounces, put into 3 pints of boiling 
water, and with which when milk-warm oil of turpen¬ 
tine 4 ounces, and bole armeniac ounce have been 
well mixed, in doses of two or three tablespoonfuls 
every other day, is recommended. Or give each lamb 
a wineglassful of the following: common salt 3 
ix)unds, powdered ginger ^ pound, nitrate of potash 
pound; dissolve in 3 gallons warm water, and 
when nearly cold add oil turpentine 24 ounces. 

A tonic and vermifuge mixture of 2 ounces each of 
oil of turpentine, powdered gentian and laudanum, 
dissolved in a quart of linseed tea or of lime water, 
has been given with good effect. One-tenth of the 
above quantity is enough for a dose. 

Prof. Townshend advises giving, once a day for a 
week or two, a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine 
ounce, whisky \ pint, mixed. 

jM.^ggots. Flies will in hot weather often de^xjsit 
their eggs in wounds or in the dung adhering to the 
thighs of sheep which are not kept clean ; maggots 
are hatched and cause considerable uneasiness. 

Remedy. Shear the inside of the thighs and from 
under the tail; remove all maggots and wash the 
wounds with diluted crude carbolic acid, or apply a 
dressing of lard with which a few drops of carbolic 
acid have been thoroughly mixed, or pour on spirits 
of turpentine. 

Ophthalmia. Often results from irritation of the 
eye by chaff or other foreign substances, from wounds, 
blows or other injuries, or from colds. There is wa¬ 
tering of the eyes with redness; pus discharges from 
the corner of the organ. Bathe the eye with a wash 
of 4 grains of sulphate of zinc in i ounce water; shut 
the animal from the light for a few days. If there is 
much pain and inflammation give i ounce Epsom salts 
dissolved in water, and add 20 drops laudanum to 
the eye-wash above described. 

Pale Disease. Known also as hoose, husk, or 
verminous bronchitis, is caused by thread-worms in 
the air passages in sheep, goats and camels. There 
is a husky, dry, loud cough, and from the nose a froth 
in which are worms or their eggs. Loss of appetite 
and of flesh, diarrhoea, great thirst and a disjxisition 
to eat earth are among the symptoms. 

Treat 7 nent should consist of a sound and nutritious 
food, with which should be mixed equal parts of sul¬ 
phate of iron, gentian and ginger, 2 ounces daily for 
nine or ten lambs three months old. To destroy in- 
testinaF worms give a teaspoonful of table salt and one 
of oil of turpentine well mixed with milk and admin¬ 
istered every second morning, on an empty stomach. 
Or give salicylic acid i to 2 grains. For removal of 
lung worms fumigate by confining in a tight room and 
burning flour of sulphur, a pinch at a time, stopping 
when the animals begin coughing violently; repeat 
daily for a week or ten days and then weekly for sev¬ 
eral weeks. As preventives, remove at once from 











1132 


SHEEP. 


association with affected animals, and from pastures 
on which such have grazed. Plenty dry food and 
a free supply of salt are needed. 

P.-VLSY. Entire or partial loss of action of the nerv¬ 
ous system sometimes appears in lambs or sheep 
, which have been chilled by long exjxjsure to cold 
storms, in neglected newly dropped winter lambs, and 
in ewes after abortion or long continued and severe 
labor in lambing. Feeding heavily on watery roots 
has caused palsy, as has also the chilling influence of 
currents of cold air. As a remedy first remove the 
causes and give twice daily spirits of nitrous ether 2 
drams, powdered gentian i dram, powdered ginger i 
dram. If this fails the following mav be tried: tinct¬ 
ure of mix vomica 4 drops, or srrychnine grain, in a 
quart of linseed gruel; later repeat the dose slightly 
increased. Mustard or ammonia and sweet oil may 
be rubbed on the brisket and along the backbone; 
the animal should be kept warm, and be carefully 
nursed. 

Parturient Fever. High-bred and imported ewes 
sometimes suffer from parturient fever, usually a few 
days before lambing; native sheep rarely suffer. The 
chief symptoms are a dull, drooping, listless attitude, 
loss of appetite, eyes nearly closed and nervous twitch¬ 
ing of the hind legs; a dark liquid escapes from the 
vagina. Should the dead lamb be dropped at this 
stage the dam will, if well cared for, probably recover 
in a few days. If the lamb does not come away the 
fever increases greatly and the ewe seldom recovers 
from the attack. 

Parturient Apoplexy. Very highly fed ewes 
sometimes suffer from parturient apoplexy, or after- 
pains, usually the second or third day after lambing. 
It is caused by plethora, or a feverish condition of the 
system, and is indicated by redness or swelling of the 
vagina, which becomes purple and then black; the 
scanty discharge of highly colored,offensive urine and 
costiveness; and by panting, straining and heaving of 
the flanks. Give promptly camphor ^ dram, lauda¬ 
num 60 drops, mixed with molasses and placed on 
the tongue. When the pains are very severe, increase 
the dose one-half. 

This disease is easily prevented by gradually reduc¬ 
ing the condition of the ewe, beginning some weeks 
before she is due to lamb, and by giving for some 
days, daily doses of saltpeter, followed in four hours 
by solution of acetate of ammonia i ounce, and repeat 
twice at intervals of two hours. Inject into the vagina 
a solution of chloride of lime r dram, in warm water 
I pint, if there is an offensive discharge. Bleeding 
from the jugular vein, before the pulse has’ lost its 
fullness and hardness—never after—will relieve. 
Apply ice-water or bags of pounded ice, or a solution 
of an ounce each of niter and sal ammoniac in a 
quart of water, to the head. Law advises giving Ep¬ 
som salts 2 ounces, carbonate of ammonia dram, 
mix vomica 5 grains, with friction to the limbs. Re¬ 
peat the nux vomica and carbonate of ammonia every 
four hours. 


Plethora. Animals which have been rapidly fat¬ 
tened with rich albuminous food not infrequently suf¬ 
fer from plethora, or engorgement of the system with 
blood. In extremely hot weather or after severe exer¬ 
cise death sometimes results. The treatment is bleed¬ 
ing and a reduction of the condition by purgatives and 
giving light rations of food. 

Pleurisy. Any sudden and thorough chilling is 
likely to cause pleurisy, or inflammation of the mem¬ 
brane covering the lungs and lining the cavity of the 
chest. Law says of this disease : This is common in 
all domestic animals, and particularly in cold, exposed 
localities, which suffer at the same time from rheum¬ 
atism. Symptoms are shivering, followed by heat of 
the skin and even of the limbs, and partial sweats of 
the surface,uneasy movements, pawing and sometimes 
looking at the flanks, lying down and rising. If one 
side of the chest only is involved that fore limb is 
often advanced in front of the other. Pulse rapid and 
hard, breathing hurried, with inspiration short and 
suddenly checked; expiration slow and prolonged. 
On the abdomen a prominent ridge reaches from the 
lower ends of the last ribs to the outer angle of the 
hip-bone. There is a short, dry, painful cough, no 
discliarge from the nose, and no redness. Give Glau¬ 
ber salts 6 ounces, follow with niter 2 drachms, and 
digitalis 10 grains. Where there is marked weakness 
give stimulants, as sweet spirits of niter 3 drachms. 
Nursing as in bronchitis should be given, and in the 
early stages treat as for congestion of the lungs. 

Pneumonia. Inflammation of the lungs, or pneu¬ 
monia,is caused by chilling, over-exertion and conges¬ 
tion or by parasites. 

Syinptoms are a dry cough, shivering, later a full 
pulse, quick, heavy breathing, redness of membranes of 
the eyes, nose and mouth ; with the fever there is cos¬ 
tiveness, scanty urine, and, as time passes, a yellow 
or a white discharge from the nose. Law says: Aus¬ 
cultation detects a very fine crackling (crepitation) 
over the affected part of the lung, or there may be an 
area of no sound encircled by a line of crepitation 
and beyond that by the normal murmur, slightly in¬ 
creased. Or over the dull spot the blowing sounds 
from the larger tubes or the beating of the heart may 
be detected. Percussion causes flinching or even 
groaning when the affected part is reached; the space 
where sound was wanting in auscultation sounds dull 
and solid and the remainder of the chest retains its 
healthy resonance. There is no tenderness on merely 
pinching the spaces between the ribs. 

Treatvient advised by the above authority consists 
of giving pure, dry air in a place exposed to the sun; 
injections of warm water, and drinks of warm gruel; 
neutral salts (niter, acetate of potassa, bi-carbonate of 
soda) should be given with sedatives, as belladonna, 
henbane, tincture of aconite, digitalis or white helle¬ 
bore; if there is much prostration, sweet spirits of 
niter or liquor of acetate of ammonia three or four 
times daily. 

Pox. Sheep-pox seldom if ever troubles American 





































































































































































































































































SHEEP. 


”35 


flocks, but has caused much loss in other lands. It 
is an eruptive contagious fever, variola ovinay resem¬ 
bling in general features the small-pox in man. In 
its virulent form the sheep refuses food, and avoids 
moving, the wool pulls out easily, irregular cracks ap¬ 
pear in the skin, the head is swollen and a stinking 
discharge fills the nose, the eyes become closed, some¬ 
times inflamed and run from their sockets. Treatment 
consists of inoculation with virus from an affected 
sheep, which should be placed in an excoriation of the 
tender skin of the inside of the ear. 

Red Water. Exposure to wet and cold storms, 
confinement to cold, wet ground, and chilling, some¬ 
times cause red water {/icema(uria)y a disease marked 
by a red, a pink or a dark color of the urine. 

Symptoms are dullness, continued scouring or diar¬ 
rhoea, sometimes with passages of bloody matter; pink, 
red or dark urine; difficult breathing, and, later, palsy 
of the hind-quarters. In ewes the flow of milk is 
stopped. 

Remedies. Careful nursing, protection from all 
chilling causes, and nourishing food. Hot mustard 
water should be very freely applied totheloinsand belly 
which should be wrapped with heavy blankets to re¬ 
tain the heat. Give oil of turpentine V2 ounce, linseed 
oil I ounces. 

Rheumatism in Lambs. Injudicious management 
of ewes during gestation, feeding unsound or improper 
food, tends to vitiate the blood of the lamb, and thus 
produce acute rheumatism, or “ palsy,” as it is fre- 
(luently called. Experience has shown that if the ewe 
be fed largely on clover hay, potatoes, grain and 
drinks of groats during the last months of pregnancy 
the lambs are likely to suffer from paralysis soon after 
birth. Moldy food, rotten carrots, jxitatoes, and 
stagnant, putrid water are potent causes of this dis¬ 
ease, as also ex[X)Sure to wet, chilling weather and a 
diseased condition of the ewe which may be suckling 
the lamb. 

Remedies. A nourishing diet of sound food for the 
ewe and good shelter for both ewe and lamb. The 
latter should have a wine-glassful of sulphate of mag¬ 
nesia 2 ounces, povvdered caraway or ground ginger 
ounce, mixed with half a pint of thin gruel and 
given warm. 

The following is recommended as a certain remedy 
for mild cases; sulphuretted antimony, powdered, 5 
parts, fresh butter, i part, mixed. Give a piece of 
the size of a hazelnut three times a day. A liniment 
of oil and laudanum or a soap liniment, with hot fo¬ 
mentation, may be used locally I0 relieve the pain. 

Scab. Scab is caused by a minute insect {scabies 
ovis')y which, finding lodgment upon the wool, seeks its 
way to the skin and burrows under the cuticle. Here 
the female deposits her eggs, and in a short time 
myriads of young are hatched, in their turn to burrow 
in the skin, breed, and extend the destructive work. 
Pustules appear from which yellow pus exudes, and a 
yellow scab is formed which adheres firmly to the 
wool. The intolerable itching caused by the burrow¬ 
ing insects leads the sheep to rub itself vigorously 

7 » 



against posts, fences, trees or other objects, and to 
scratch itself with teeth and hoofs. The wool, torn 
from its place and infested with the parasites, drops 
to the ground or clings to the things against which the 

animal has rubbed, thus 
spreading the germs of dis¬ 
ease. A single female in¬ 
sect may quickly colonize 
a large flock; and as the 
parasites are so tenacious 
of life that, it is said, they 
have lived in pastures un¬ 
occupied by sheep for 
three years, the necessity 
for the enforcement of the 
stringent measures for pre¬ 
venting the spreading of 
scab is apparent. Figures 
show the upper and under 
side of the female mite, 
. greatly magnified. 

Syf>ipto?ns. To relieve the irritation the sheep rubs 
itself against any fixed objects, scratches with hoofs, 
horns and teeth those parts it can reach, and the 
wool falls out in places, leaving the skin bare in spots, 
sometimes uncovering a large part of the body. Made 
restless by its suffering, the sheep is unable to eat 
enough to keep it in thrifty condition, and finally dies 
of exhaustion. Nothing but 
the extermination of every fe¬ 
male insect in the flock can 
permanently relieve the ani¬ 
mals from their suffering and 
restore them to comfort and 
health. 

Ref?iedies. While remedies 
are many and most of them 
are effective, that most used 
in the Western States and in 
Australia is composed of to¬ 
bacco leaves i pound, sulphur 
I pound, water 5 gallons. The 
tobacco is boiled in the water 
and the sulphur added after¬ 
ward. Stems from tobacco 
leaves may be got from tobac¬ 
conists for a small price, and are preferred by many 
for that reason. They have less strength than have 
the leaves. 

Crude carbolic acid has been used in dips with good 
effect; a liquor composed of one part of acid to one 
hundred parts of water has killed the parasites in two 
minutes; one part of acid in fifty parts of water has 
killed them in from forty to ninety seconds. Care 
should be taken to keep the acid from the eyes, and 
not to allow the dark, tarry carbolic acid to rest upon 
the surface of the dip in the form of a skum, as the 
first sheep immersed in the tank may be injured by the 
contact of the powferful acid with their skins. 

A dip which is received with much favor in Eng¬ 
land is composed of arsenic 3 pounds, pearl-ash 3 



Fig. 


—Upper Side o/ Fe¬ 
male Mite. 













1136 


SHEEPBERR Y—SHEPHERD. 


pounds, sulphur 3 pounds, soft soap 3 pounds, mixed 
with one hundred gallons of cold water. The sheep 
is kept in one minute in this dip, the head being care¬ 
fully kept from entering the mixture. When the fleece 
has dried, after dipping, the head must be thoroughly 
rubbed between the ears, on the forehead and the face 
under the jaws and along the neck with an ointment 
prepared as follows: mercurial ointment i pound, lard 
6 pounds, rosin i pound, oil of turpentine pint; 
heat the lard and mercurial ointment gently and stir 
together; when cold add the rosin, previously dissolved 
in the turpentine, and mix all together thoroughly. 

The use of the above is not approved in the United 
States because of its poisonous nature. The most 
highly recommended if not the most generally used 
dip is composed of tobacco 6 pounds, oil of tar 3 pints, 
soda-ash 20 pounds, soft soap 4 pounds, water 50 
gallons. Boil the tobacco and dissolve the other 


with success. Sheep dipped regularly are seldom 
troubled by this parasite. Soon after shearing ewes 
tlieir lambs should be dipped, if ticks have been on 
the ewes, as the insects will leave the latter to find 
more shelter in the wool of the lamb. 

Sheepberry, a species of black haw, which is a 
sweet, edible fruit. It prevails mostly in the Northern 
States, where it is generally called “ black haw;” but 
the true black haw has more obtuse-iX)inted leaves 
and flourishes more toward the South. These species 
belong to the same order with arrow-wood, snowball, 
elder, snowberry and the honeysuckles. 

Sheep Dipping, the process of immersing sheep 
in a prepared solution to free them from vermin and 
as a means of curing the scab. See page 1119. 

Sheep Shearing. This is the yearly removal of the 
fleece of sheep with a pair of shears. The operation 



Fig. 13. —A Severe Case of Scab. 


agents in boiling water; add water enough to make 
50 gallons of all. This will be enough for fifty sheep. 
The dip should be kept at a temperature of about 75 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

Tapeworm. Sometimes sheep are infested with 
tapeworm {Tcenia expansa), or folded tapeworm 
{Tceniaplicata). The symptoms usually are voracity, 
alternating with refusal of food, loss of flesh, a dis¬ 
position to eat earth, ashes, etc., evidence of internal 
pain, and the voiding of soft dung mixed with mucus 
which adheres to the after parts. Linseed oil 2 
ounces and spirits of turpentine ^ to i ounce is 
advised as a remedy to be given twice a week for two 
weeks; or give of the powdered root of male fern 3 
ounces; repeat in one week. Give linseed oil 2 
ounces six hours after giving male fern. 

Ticks. The red sheep-louse {Trichodectes ovis) has 
a pale yellow body, on which are dark bands. It 
frequents the tender skin inside the thighs and on 
the sides of the neck. Carbolic acid and lard should 
be rubbed into the skin on the parts infested. 
Kerosene oil rubbed into the wool has been tried ' 


should be performed as soon as the old fleece is suf¬ 
ficiently raised from the skin by the growth of the 
young wool. The best time, in most cases, when the 
weather proves fine, is generally the early part of 
June; for when the operation is postponed until the 
latter part of that month, or especially till July, the 
carcass of any of the sheep which may be destined to 
the^ shambles before the close of the summer, is 
seriously impaired, and the bodies of all the rest have 
not a sufficient defense against the mischievous and 
even destructive attacks of flies in the hottest time of 
the year. Eight days or so before the shearing, the 
sheep should be washed, and from that time until 
the day of shearing they must be kept in a clean 
grass field where they can not soil their wool under 
banks of earth. See Fleece and Wool. 

Shepherd, a person who has the care and manage¬ 
ment of a flock of sheep. A shepherd in Eastern 
countries and in patriarchal times is a character of 
intense interest, and forms the subject of many of the 
most glorious and sublime allusions in the best of 
books. See Sheep. 












































SHETLAND PONIES—SHORT-HAND. 


1137 


Shetland Ponies: see page 699. 

Shingles, To Measure. White-pine sawed, shaved 
and star shingles average 16 inches long and 4 inches 
wide. A square of 100 feet will require 1,000 laid 
414 inches to the weather, allowing for waste. Cedar 
shingles are 30 inches long by 7 inches wide, and of 
these 248, laid 8 inches to the weather, will be re¬ 
quired to the square; 9 inches to the weather, 220 
will be required. 

“ Shingles,” an eruptive disease which spreads 
around the body in the form of a girdle. It is a kind 
of tetter. Often fever accompanies and considerable 
acute pain. T continues for a week or two. Patient 
should keep his bed, apply lime-water and oil exter¬ 
nally and take anodynes internally. When there is 
fever, eat but little. 

Shirt. It is an exceedingly difficult matter to 
have always a well-fitting shirt. One is therefore 
justified in taking special pains to secure a good ad¬ 
justment, especially of the neck-band, the wrist-bands 
and of the length of the sleeves. A very little over¬ 
sight in these respects often causes an infinite 
amount of annoyance to the wearer. More especial 
pains are required in these days of factory-made 
linen and paper collars and neck-ties, in order to 
have these set neatly and permanently. 

The custom of field-hands and other laborers wear¬ 
ing colored shirts is not healthful. Their drawing 
the heat of the sun in hot weather, their “hiding the 
dirt ” so as to enable the laborer to wear them longer, 
and the dye-stuff in them, constitute three important 
objections to their use. 

Enamel for Shirt Bosoms. Melt together with a 
gentle heat i ounce of white wax and 2 ounces of 
spermaceti; prepare in the usual way a sufficient 
quantity of starch for a dozen bosoms, and put into 
it a piece of this enamel of the size of a hazel-nut, 
and in this projxirtion for a larger number. See 
Starch. 

Shock, a small stack of grain, as it is put up in the 
field immediately after cutting, in order to protect it 
temporarily against the rain until it can be hauled to 
the mow, or built in larger and more permanent 
stacks. Often called “stook” in the older States. 

Shock Dog, or Shock, a dog having long, shaggy 
hair. 

Shoes; see Boots. 

Shoeing Horse: see page 745. 

Shoot, or Shute, in farming, a passage way down 
which grain, hay or straw is slid; also, the passage 
way through which live stock is driven on or off cars 
or weighing scales. 

Short, in cookery, crisp, brittle; in commerce, en¬ 
gaging to deliver what is not possessed, as “ short 
contracts.” The “shorts” are those who have not 
the stocks they contract to deliver. The term “shorts” 
also denotes the coarser part of flour, namely that 
which is sifted out next to the bran. 


Short-Cake: see page 146. 

Short-Hand, Phonography and Stenography. 
These are practically three names for the same thing. 
As almost every farmer’s boy has a desire at some 
period of his youth to learn the art of short-hand, so 
that he can write down a discourse as fast as it is 
delivered, and many of them actually commence the 
study of the art, we feel compelled here to state the 
facts concerning the nature of the business, and in 
such a way as to answer the questions which are 
almost universally asked about this matter. 

Nearly all the short-hand in the world is “phonetic,” 
and in the English language it is all based upon Pit¬ 
man’s system,called “phonography.” “Stenography” 
is a general name for all systems of short-hand 
writing, whether phonetic or not. By “ phonetic ” is 
meant the principle of having a distinct character for 
every sound, and but one sound for each character. 
For short-hand writing these characters are of course 
as simple as possible, consisting of simple dashes and 
dots, in various positions, light and heavy. The 37 
elementary sounds in our language are accordingly 
represented by a dash or a dot. These simple marks 
constitute the alphabet of short-hand; and by rules of 
abbreviation afterward learned, the words formed by 
the joining of these characters are still further abbre¬ 
viated until a practical hand can write them as fast 
as words are usually spoken. The so-called “systems” 
of short-hand are only different modifications of Pit¬ 
man’s phonography, so that one who is versed in any 
one “ system ” can, with a few minutes’study of the 
peculiarities, read any of the others. The four most 
prevalent “systems” in this country are Pitman’s, 
Graham’s, Munson’s and Lindsley’s. Scores of 
others have been offered to the public, many of them 
indeed as good as the above mentioned, if not better, 
but for want of means their authors have not been 
able to push them into notoriety. 

While every short-hand alphabet and the first 
principles of writing are so simple, philosophical, 
symmetrical and even beautiful as to tempt many to 
commence their study, not more than one in a thou¬ 
sand has the perseverance to master all the intricacies 
of the art so as to become a successful verbatim re¬ 
porter. A smart boy or man can commit to memory 
all the principles in a few days, but at the end of 
this time he will write very slowly and imperfectly. 
On an average it takes about two years’ practice, de¬ 
voting two or three hours a day to the exercise, to 
become able to take down a speech as fast as it is 
uttered. It is like learning to play on a violin or a 
piano: the principles are few, but the practice is‘ 
much. Theoretically, one might memorize all the 
principles of piano playing in a few minutes, but he 
would have to jiractice for years before he could suc¬ 
cessfully entertain the public with his performances. 
So it is with short-hand. Now and then is seen an 
advertisement in a newspaper of some “system of 
short-hand that one can learn in half a dozen lessons, 
and be able with it to report a speech in three 
months,”—if you will “ only forward the small sum of 







SHOE T-HORN—SICKLE. 


1138 


25 cents!” or other words to this efifect. These are 
all catch-penny humbugs. 

We therefore do not advise any one to commence 
the study of this art with the hope of making himself 
a verbatim reporter, unless he has a special aptitude 
for phonetic writing as well as a determination to 
follow the business for a livelihood. If one has a 
fancy for playing with this fascinating art, of course 
no harm can come from it. There is a degree of 
mental discipline in its study. It gives clear views 
of and good practice in phonics and pronunciation. 

The course of study should be divided into 15 or 
20 lessons, and the lessons should be taken at least 
a week apart, with many hours’ practice between. 
The student should not look ahead of his lessons to see 
what is coming or pick up fragments of principles, as 
such practice tends to confuse and retard him. This 
is the most common reason why a student with a 
book and without a teacher fails to succeed. Also, with 
a book only, the task is apt to grow monotonous and 
be gradually dropped—apparently from the want of 
time. The more familiar one becomes with the 
ground he has gone over before taking new ground, 
the better. At first there is great enthusiasm—gen¬ 
erally too great. The student is dwelling upon it in 
his mind all day and nearly all night; he can hardly 
sleep on account of it. The regular course will take 
the learner to what is called the “ corresponding ” or 
“ easy reporting ” style ; after that the advances and 
improvements he will make cannot well be divided 
into lessons, as he has to catch them up one at a time 
in the progress of his practice. For this purjxjse, 
books are only aids, not complete guides. 

The average rate of delivery of a public extempor¬ 
aneous discourse is about no to 115 words a minute, 
commencing deliberately with 70 to 80 per minute, 
and increasing with the growing warmth of the effort 
to 125 to 140. If the discourse is read from manu¬ 
script, the reader keeps up a uniform rate from be¬ 
ginning to end, about one-half faster than he would 
speak extemporaneously. In reading, a person pronoun¬ 
ces more words to the minute than he appears, as his 
enunciation is so constant. On this account many 
wrong estimates are made of the comparative rate of 
different public speakers. One snaps out his words 
quickly, with frequent short pauses, which are not 
noticed by the hearers, and pronounces, say only 100 
words to the minute, while another speaker, who 
seems slow and deliberate, yet by a steady stream he 
utters 140 words to the minute. In this regard ap¬ 
pearances are very deceiving. 

' Now, a . learner of short-hand, everything being 
favorable, will at the end of two years write about 
100 words a minute, so that he can read them at any 
future time; at the end of three years he can write 
125, after another year 135 or 140, and so on in di¬ 
minishing ratio, until he reaches the rate of 160 or 
170 per minute, the rate of tolerably rapid speakers, 
but not of the mo5t rapid. Ordinary conversations 
cannot well be reported word for word, on account of 
rapid enunciatio*, interruption, fragmentar}' sentences 


and both talking at once. Many short-hand report¬ 
ers give the figures much larger than we have given 
above, boasting that they have written 200, 250 or 
300 to the minute, or that they held a watch while 
they saw some one else do it. But short races, on se¬ 
lected sentences, resulting in illegible writing, etc., 
yield no profitable instruction to the public. 

Short-horn, a most popular breed of cattle. See 
page 179. 

Shoulder. A horse is said to “ shoulder ” when 
he attempts to crush the leg of the rider against a 
wall or fence. 

Shovel, a hand implement of the spade kind, used 
for collecting and lifting. It differs from a true spade 
in having a broader and thinner blade, and in not 
being used for cutting and digging. Several varieties 
of it are used on the farm, for widely different pur¬ 
poses, and differing from one another in the size, 
form, and material of the blade, and sometimes has 
a blade of wood, edged with iron. 

Shrew {Sorex), a genus of small carnivorous ani¬ 
mals, somewhat allied to the moles. They live in 
holes which they dig in the earth, and seldom leave 
them until the evening, and they feed on insects and 
worms. They are covered with hair, and have on each 
flank a small band of stiff, thickly set spines, and dis¬ 
charge from that part of the body, during the rutting 
season, an odorous humor. Tlie shrew mouse, or com¬ 
mon shrew, is gray above, and ash-colored below, and 
has white teeth, exposed ears and square tail. It is 
found in fields, meadows and similar situations. It 
has been accused, but falsely, of producing a disease 
in horses by its bite. Cats kill it, but will not eat it. 
Some varieties of the shrew are the smallest quadru¬ 
peds known. They are about two inches long to the 
tail, which is about one and a half inchs long. They 
are found all over the world, and over 20 species be¬ 
long to North America. 

Shrub, a woody plant which tends to send up a 
number of stems, which do not grow to the height of 
trees. “Shrubbery” denotes a number or collection 
of shrubs, referred to in a general or indefinite man¬ 
ner. 

Shying of Horse: see page 720. 

Sickle, a curved blade or knife, set in a handle, 
and used for cutting grain and grass. A number of 
stalks are grasped by the left hand, while the right 
hand cuts them off with a sickle, by first thrusting the 
instrument around the bunch of stalks and then 
bringing it toward one’s self. This method of reap¬ 
ing was almost the universal mode up to the close of 
the last century—a very tedious process as compared 
even with the cradle. Sickles are spmetimes used at 
the present day, in trimming small lawns about the 
door yard. 

The term “ sickle,” as well as that of “knife,” since 
the invention of reaping machines, is also used to de¬ 
note the compound saw-toothed cutting blade of such 
machine. 











SICKNESS—SILK. 


Many devices for sharpening and grinding sickles 
have been invented, but the one represented by the 



Sickle Grinder. 

accompanying engraving illustrates one of the best. 
It is known as the “ Improved Boss ” sickle-grinder. 

Sickness: s ee Doctoring, Medicine, and the var¬ 
ious diseases. 

Side-board, a piece of furniture or cabinet work 
with compartments, or a series of shelves placed on 
one side in a dining-room, to hold dishes. Very 
costly and ornamental side-boards are sometimes 
found in the homes of the wealthy. 

Sight, vision: see Eye. Also, a small point of 
metal or aperture on a gun or a surveyor’s compass, to 
guide the eye. 

Silent Partner, one who invests his capital in a 
business house, but whose name does not appear in 
the firm. His liability is limited to the extent of his 
share of the capital, except in cases where he fails to 
make the proper publication of his connection with the 
concern. 

Silk, according to the ancients, was first brought 
from Serica, or Serinda (China), whence the silk¬ 
worm was introduced into other countries, but not 
until the reign of Justinian, when two Persian monks 
succeeded in secretly conveying a number of eggs to 
Constantinople in a hollow cane. From these 
eggs Euroj)e and America have been supplied with 
their race of worms. The time of the origin of the 
silk manufacture is uncertain, but the Chinese ascribe 
the invention to the empress Si-ling-shi, wife ofHoang- 
ti, about 2,700 years before the Christian era. How¬ 
ever this may be, the raw material had been exported 
from China long before the insect which produced it 




and had given employment to extensive manufacto¬ 
ries in Persia, Tyre, etc. Considerable interest has 
been paid to the culture of the silk-worm in the Unit¬ 
ed States, but the only two States where the industry 
is profitably carried on at present is in Kansas and 
California. 

To Remove Resin Spots fro.m Silk. Stains by 
wax, resin, turpentine, pitch and substances of a resin¬ 
ous nature, may be removed by pure alcohol. Applied 
to stains with a clean sponge it will remove the spo'ts, 
because alcohol dissolves the resin. The silk stains 
should be moistened with the alcohol first, and allow¬ 
ed to remain soaked for a few minutes. Fresh alco¬ 
hol is then applied with the sponge, and with a slight 
rubbing motion. It is then wiped as dry as possible 
and afterward allowed to dry perfectly in the open air. 

To Remove Grease from Silk or Velvet. Rub 
the spots on the silk lightly and rapidly with a clean 
soft cotton rag dipped in chloroform, and the grease 
will immediately disappear without injuring the color 
of the silk. Repeat the operation if necessary. Be 
careful to rub the article rapidly and lightly, then fin¬ 
ish with a clean,dry cloth. If these precautions are 
not taken, a slight stain is apt to be the result. Very 
highly rectified benzine, such as is prepared by the 
first-class druggists, will also immediately remove 
grease from the most delicate colored silks. 

Fluid for Removing Grease Stains from Silk, 
etc. A fluid for removing greasy stains from silk, 
etc., may be prepared by mixing 2 ounces rectified 
spirits of turpentine, kt ounce absolute alcohol, and 
ounce sulphuric ether. 

To Restore the Color of an Acid Stain on 
Violet Silk. Acid dropped on violet-colored silk 
destroys the color; to restore it, brush the discolored 
silk with tincture iodine; then, after a few seconds, 
saturate the spot well with a solution of hyposulphite 
of soda, and dry gradudly ; the color will be perfectly 
restored. 

To Extract Stains from White Cotton Goods 
AND Colored Silks. Salts of ammonia, mixed with 
lime, will take out the stains of wine from silk. Spir¬ 
its of turpentine, alcohol and dear ammonia, are all 
good to remove stains on colored silks. Spots of 
common or durable ink can be removed by saturating 
them with lemon-juice, and rubbing on salt, then put¬ 
ting them where the sun will shine on them hot for 
several hours. As fast as it dries, put on more lem¬ 
on-juice and salt. When lemon-juice cannot be ob¬ 
tained, citric acid is a good substitute. Iron-mold 
may be removed in the same way. Mildew and 
most other stains can be removed by rubbing on soft 
soap and salt, and placing it where the sun will shine 
on it hot. 

To Clean Silk Cord. White silk cord and tassels 
can be cleaned if not stained, in dry corn meal. Rub 
the meal over them with your hands, and renew with 
clean corn meal till they are thoroughly cleansed. 

To Wash Silk, see page 931. 




























1140 


SILO—SKIN. 


Silo, a repository for preserving green fodder in its 
juicy state, to be fed out during the following winter 
and spring. See Ensilage. 

Silver, a metal which appears to have been known 
almost as early as gold, and, without doubt, for the 
same reason, because it occurs very frequently in a 
state of purity in the earth, and requires but an ordin¬ 
ary heat for its fusion. Mention is made of silver in 
the book of Job, which is considered the oldest of the 
books contained in the Old Testament. Pure silver 
is of a fine white color, with a shade of yellow, with¬ 
out either taste or smell, and, in brilliancy, is inferior 
to none of the metallic bodies, if we except polished 
steel. It is sofcer than copper but harder than gold. 
When melted, its specific gravity is 10.47 i when 
hammered, 10.51. It is next in malleability to gold, 
having been beaten out into leaves only i-i00,000th 
of an inch in thickness. Its ductility is no less re¬ 
markable. It may be drawn out into a wire much 
finer than a human hair,—so fine, indeed, that a sin¬ 
gle grain of silver may be extended about 400 feet in 
length. Its tenacity is such that a wire of silver 
0.078 of an inch in diameter is capable of support¬ 
ing a weight of 187.13 pounds avordupois without 
breaking. 

The processes for silvering are too complicated for 
home work. We give here the best directions for 
cleaning silver, etc. 

To 'Pest Silver and Gold. Slightly wet the 
metal and rub gently with lunar caustic. If the metal 
be genuine the spot will scarcely change color; other¬ 
wise it will become quite black. 

To Protect Silver-Ware from Tarnishing. 
Coat it with collodion. First warm the silver, and 
then with a brush carefully put on the collodion dilut¬ 
ed in alcohol. Such a coating will effectually guard 
silver from tarnishing by the sulphurous atmosphere 
which is so certain to be present when coal is burned. 

To Preserve the Polish on Silver. Wash it 
twice a week (if in daily use) with soft soap and hot 
water, and polish with Canton flannel. 

To Clean Silver. With a nail-brush or tooth¬ 
brush wash it in a mixture of 2 teaspoonfuls of am¬ 
monia with a quart of hot soapsuds. Or boil i ounce 
finely powdered and calcined hartshorn in i quart 
of water, and while on the fire put in the articles, as 
many as the vessels will hold; in a few minutes take 
them out and dry them over a fire. When the work 
is done, if you saturate some clean woolen rags in this 
solution and dry them, you will have something ex¬ 
cellent for polishing the silver, as well as for cleaning 
brass door-knobs. A good cleaning powder is made 
as follows: Mix ^ pound jeweler’s rouge with 
pound prepared chalk; or, kt pound levigated putty 
powder, pound burnt hartshorn, i pound prepared 
chalk and i ounce rose-pink. 

To Remove Ink Stains from Silver. Rub them 
with a paste made with chloride of lime and water. 

To Clean Silver and Other Coins. Bath them 


2 or 3 seconds, not 7 nore., in a weak solution of cyan¬ 
ide of potassium, a deadly poison to be obtained at 
any drug store; then immediately wash them with a 
very fine brush in soap-suds; rinse in clean cold water 
and dry in box-wood saw-dust, to be had at jewelers’. 

German Silver, which consists of copper and 
Y each of zinc and nickel, is cleaned and polished 
as genuine silver. 

Silver Nitrate, or Lunar Caustic. See page 
949 - 

Single-Tree, a single whififle-tree, or the cross bar 
to which the traces, are attached. 

Sinus (si'nus), a cavity in a bone or other part, 
wider at the bottom than at the entrance; also, a 
venous canal into which several vessels empty them¬ 
selves. 

Sirloin, the loin of beef, or a piece of beef covering 
both kidneys. King James I., who loved good eating, 
being invited to dinner by one of his noblemen, and 
seeing a large loin of beef at his table, drew out his 
sword and in a frolick knighted it Sir-loin, since 
which time it has ever been thus known. For cut of 
sirloin see article Meat, page 963. 

Sirup (sir'up), or Syrup, the sweet juice of vegeta¬ 
bles or fruits, or sugar boiled with vegetable infusions; 
also, sweetened liquid of any kind. To make cane 
sirup see pages 154-6, and maple sirup, see article 
Sugar. 

Sit-fast or Warbles: see page 827. 

Sitz-Bath, a tub for bathing in sitting posture; al¬ 
so, the act of bathing the portion of the body thus 
immersed. This is one of the most important and 
general of all hydropathic processes, as it is beneficial 
in almost all diseases. Its action, according as to 
whether it is hot, warm, tepid, cool or cold, short or 
prolonged, etc., is to relieve congestion, relieve pain, 
invigorate (act as a tonic), regulate the bowels and 
urinary processes, etc., etc. The duration of the 
sitz-bath (or “hip-bath,” or “ sitting-bath,” as it is often 
called) is generally short,—from five to fifteen min¬ 
utes, and the temperature is regulated by the nature 
of the case and the sensations of the patient. Prob¬ 
ably it ought never to be administered by any one 
not educated at a “ hygienic institute,” else a chance 
will be risked of doing more harm by it than good, as 
indeed with all hydropathic processes. Some persons, 
however, have a sufficient degree of natural medical 
instinct, without special education, to work into these 
appliances without taking leaps in the dark. 

Skin, the natural covering of the body of animals. 
It defines the form of the body, protects it from in¬ 
jury, modifies the action of tlie surrounding elements, 
indicates sensation from without to the interior parts, 
and comprises an inconceivable minute and complex 
texture of organisms for the offices of touch, of exuda¬ 
tion, of absorption, and of many of the parts or con¬ 
comitants or dependences of the highest functions of 
animal life. Volumes might be written to describe 
the wonders of the skin. 





SKUNK—SLA UGHTERING. 


1141 


Skunk, an American quadruped of the weasel 
family, most noted for the excessively repulsive odor¬ 
ous fluid which it discharges upon an enemy attack¬ 
ing it. By sight it is most readily distinguished at a 
little distance by the white stripe along its back. It 
is about the size of a cat, but its legs are short, as 
those of weasels generally are, and it waddles along 
somewhat like a fat pig. It commits extensive dep¬ 
redations upon the poultry yard, killing the birds, 
sucking the blood, and devouring both eggs and young 
fowl. Skunks may be caught with the steel-trap and the 
fall. Some dogs are good at giving the alarm when 
finding them, when a person can approach with a gun 
and kill them. One can go up and kill them with a 
club or pole, but will be almost sure to be sprayed 
with the fetid liquid. Garments thus damaged can 
be buried in the earth a week or two, and in that way 
may be thoroughly deodorized; or, above ground, in 
much less time, by frequently, renewing the applica¬ 
tion of clay, or by a frequent sprinkling of dilute car¬ 
bolic acid for a week. A half-bushel of unslaked 
lime scattered about in a cellar will, in a few days, 
drive away (or absorb, rather) all the odor which a 
skunk may have left in it. The skins of these ani¬ 
mals bear a good price in the market. The pole-cat 
of Europe is of the same “ family,” but of a different 
genus. 

Skunk Cabbage, a coarse, fetid plant, abundant 
in many cold, swampy places throughout the North, 
and formerly in some repute as an antispasmodic, in 
doses of 10 to 20 grains of the pulverized root. By 
age the dried root loses its virtue. One may distin¬ 
guish it in early spring by the mass of pulp, about 
the size of a small walnut, and covered with small 
and indistinct flowers, appearing above the mud be¬ 
fore the leaves unfold, and later in the season by the 
plant’s having larger leaves than any other, as large 
as cabbage or rhubarb leaves. The whole plant is 
characterized by the same peculiar skunk-like odor 
that abounds in the root. 

Slab, the outside plank of a log of timber when 
sawn into boards; also a flat, thin piece of marble, or 
of other compact stone. 

Slate, a dark-colored stone, easily split into thin 
plates, used for covering houses, making tablets for 
writing upon, etc. Many of our most substantial farm 
houses are covered with slate, and it is found to be a 
good and durable roof. 

Slaughtering and Dressing. It is not expected 
that farmers can carry out the same details in this 
work as are practiced at the large slaughter-houses 
in cities, where they have steam machinery. We give 
here only such hints as are practicable in the country. 

All animals should be killed when they are in the 
coolest state, or when respiration is the least active. 
The flesh will then keep much longer fresh, and be 
more beautiful, sweet, and healthful. But when killed 
in a heated condition, or immediately after a hard 
drive, the flesh will take longer to cool through, spoil 
sooner, and the flesh and fat will have a feverish, dark 


look, caused by its being full of blood, and of course 
it will not be so inviting to the eye or so digestible as 
when better killed. 

Beeves. To kill the animal, shoot him with a rifle, 
sending the ball into the middle of the forehead, a 
little above a line with the eyes; or, in the absence 
of the rifle, strike him at the spot with a powerful 
blow of an ax or sledge-hammer; or with a strong, 
sharp-jxiinted instrument, reach the same point in 
the brain by striking in just behind a line connecting 
the bases of the horns. This last process is known 
among butchers as “ pithing,” because by it you cut 
the pith, or marrow, of the animal, and thus cause in¬ 
stant death. First blindfold the beef, so he will not 
dodge the blow. 

As soon as the beef falls, cut his throat with a sharp, 
long-bladed butcher-knife, making the gash square 
across, and deep enough to reach the spinal column. 
This is for the purpose of thorough bleeding. 

When the bleeding ceases, cut the skin from the 
throat along the center of the brisket and belly, into 
a line between the center of the thighs to the tail. 
Divide the skin of the legs in the same manner on the 
inside, the cuts running down into the former cut. 
Cut off the fore-legs at the knees, and the hind feet 
about three inches below the hock-joints. Remove 
the skin from the upper side of the animal to the 
back-bone; turn him over and skin the other side. 
The entrails may be partly removed while lying, or 
the carcass may be first strung up by the hind legs 
(page 963). Some butchers swing the animal before 
skinning, first removing the skin from the hind legs, 
and finishing on the hooks. 

A good way to swing the carcass is to fix up a hori¬ 
zontal pole eight or nine feet high, then place a heavy 
gambrel under the large tendons above the hock-joints, 
similar to those used for hogs, and applied in the 
same manner. The gambrel is placed over the 
hooks, or may be attached to the cross-nail by strong 
cords. The rack is then raised by drawing forward 
the hind legs or uprights, until the carcass swings 
from the ground. The entrails may then be removed. 
It wiU be found to be easier to skin the animal in this 
position than when lying on the ground. The brisket 
and belly should be opened in the center to remove 
the entrails. The carcass is then washed, after cool¬ 
ing divided into halves, by splitting the back-bone, 
and kept hanging from 12 to 24 hours, that all ani¬ 
mal heat may entirely escape. Then the sides may 
be cut into quarters, by cutting square across, about 
midway between the fore and hind legs. Finally, if 
for curing, cut the quarters in the usual manner, as 
indicated on page 963. 

For cutting meats, every farmer should have a fine¬ 
toothed saw, as all bones should be sawed, and not 
splintered by an ax or cleaver. 

Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and 
it is used in various states—fresh, salted, smoked, 
dried, etc. When intended to be eaten fresh, the ribs 
will keep the best, and with care will keep five or six 
days in summer, and ten days in winter, even without 











1142 


SLEEPSMALL-POX. 


freezing. The middle of the loin is the next best, and 
the rump the next. The round will not keeplongun- 
less it is salted. The brisket is the worst, and will 
not keep more than three days in summer. 

Hogs. Shoot the hog or stun him with an ax or 
large hammer. Turn him square on the back and 
stick him, care being taken that the knife does not 
penetrate either shoulder. As soon as bleeding ceases, 
dip in the scalding vat. Most farmers use a large 
barrel or hogshead for scalding. These, however, are 
very inconvenient, and anyone who has ever used a 
vat prepared for the purpose, would never use a bar¬ 
rel again. The vat or trough can readily be made of 
two-inch plank by any farmer. A trough six feet long, 
thirty inches wide, and two feet deep, is a convenient 
size. One end should be sloping so that the carcass 
of the hog may be easily thrust in and pulled out of 
the water. A wide platform on a level with the top 
of the trough should be constructed at the sloping end 
of the trough. The trough should be nearly filled 
with boiling water, and the hog immersed in it, being 
turned over several times. When the hair “ slips,” 
or is readily removed from the ankles, draw the car¬ 
cass out on the platform, and scrape. This is done 
with blunt knives, hoes or sticks. The hind-legs are 
then split at the hock joint and a gambrel inserted 
under the main cords, with which to hang the hog. 
In removing the entrails care should be taken not to 
cut into any of them. The rack, or frame, above de¬ 
scribed may be used as well in hanging hogs. The 
carcass should be thoroughly washed and left hanging 
until perfectly cool. After the hog is slaughtered and 
dressed it should hang in a dry place, where the air 
can circulate freely, for twenty-four hours before cut¬ 
ting, so that all animal heat may escape and the meat 
become firm. 

Sheep. These are slaughtered and dressed in a 
manner similar to that for beeves. Additional care 
is required to avoid touching the cut flesh with the 
hands after they have been in contact with the wool 
or outside surface of the skin, as that would taint the 
meat with a rank odor. 

Poultry. See page 1048. 

Sleep: see page 855. 

Sleigh (sla), a vehicle on sliding “ runners,”instead 
of wheels. A small, one-horse sleigh, for carrying two 
persons, and corresponding to a buggy, is called a 
“cutter;” if rudely made, a “pung.” A large sleigh, 
of one pair of runners, and employed as a wagon, is a 
“ sleigh ” or “ sled ; ” if of two pairs of short runners, 
corresponding to the four wheels of a wagon, it is a 
pair of “ bob-sleds.’ The latter, although more costly, 
is more substantial and convenient, as it can be 
turned about in deep snow or in rough places with 
comparative ease and without wrenching the tongue 
or fretting the team. For logging, it is a good plan to 
have the “bobs ” connected by chains, and the tongue 
attached by tw'o clevises so as to form a universal 
joint. By this arrangement the bobs can go “bobbing ” 
up and down more freely according to the unevenness 


of the road, and thus not be overstrained when a heavy 
log is uixjn them. 

Slough (pronounced by Webster slou, but popular¬ 
ly in the West called sloo), a deep miry place; a 
hole full of mud. Pronounced sluff, it is the skin, 
particularly the cast skin of a serpent; the part that 
separates from a foul sore. 

Slink: the young of a beast born before its time. 

Small-pox {variola). Small-pox, like the measles, 
is an eruptive fever, propagated by contagious matter, 
running a definite course, and as a general rule,—to 
which, indeed, the exceptions are extremely rare,—af¬ 
fecting persons but once in the course of life. Its 
origin is lost in antiquity, and the common opinion is, 
that in these days it never arises except by contagion. 

Symptoms. In from seven to twenty days after the 
exposure, the patient experiences a sense of languor, 
weariness, aching pains in the back and lower extrem¬ 
ities, slight creeping chills, with flushes of heat, and 
pain in the forehead, when more or less nausea and 
vomiting, thirst, tenderness of the stomach, and sore¬ 
ness of the fauces rapidly supervene. The eruption 
now makes its appearance, first on the face, neck, and 
breast, then, on the following day, it is seen on the 
other parts of the body. On the first and second 
days of the eruption, being about the fourth or fifth of 
the fever, the inflamed points are papular, small, glob¬ 
ular, red, painful, separate and distinct from each 
I other, the interstices being of the natural color and 
appearance. On the third, fourth, and fifth days, they 
become vesicular, containing a little yellowish fluid, 
and the interstices become red. 

About the eighthday, the eruption is perfectly pustu¬ 
lar. On the ninth and tenth, the pustules become or¬ 
bicular, and are filled; finally, on the eleventh,twelfth, 
and thirteenth, the pustules break or burst, and scabs 
are formed. 

The diagnosis of small-pox, after the eruption ap¬ 
pears, is not difficult; and before this, it matters not, 
as the treatment does not vary from that of the same 
symptoms in other affections. 

When the fever is mild, and tne strength of the pa¬ 
tient keeps up, and if, moreover, the color of the erup¬ 
tion keeps of a bright red, there is not much danger. 
But if the fever runs very high, and there is much de¬ 
lirium, the danger is considerable. When there is a 
dis[X)sition of a typhus character, and the pustules 
turn dark or black, and the strength fails suddenly, the 
case is almost certain to terminate in death. 

Prevention. Vaccination seems to be an effectual 
prophylactic against the small-pox, provided that the 
vaccine matter be genuine, and produces its constitu¬ 
tional impression on the subject. See Vaccination. 

Varioloid—Modified Small-pox. This disease 
has many of the symptoms common to the genuine 
small-pox, but they are invariably more mild. Vario¬ 
loid usually occurs but once during life. 

I The following particulars may be regarded as 
j among its most prominent characteristics: 

I. The eruption appears in clusters, occurring usu¬ 
ally from the second to the fifth day. 














SMART- IVEED—SNEjEZE. 


T143 


2. Unlike the genuine small-ixix, the eruption sel¬ 
dom or never enters into complete suppuration. 

3. Excepting in very violent cases, the eruption is 
seldom attended with much fever, and the desiccation 
or scabbing invariably occurs much earlier than in 
real small-pox, and instead of inclining to leave pits 
or depressions, the scabs leave rather an elevated disk 
or tubercle of a red appearance. 

Treatment. When the fever runs high and the skin 
is dry and husky (a condition unfavorable to the nat¬ 
ural development of the eruption), the body should be 
sponged with cold water, while the other usual means 
applied in fevers are instituted. Lobelia, thorough- 
wort, saffron, Seneca snakeroot, and black cohosh, are 
all valuable here. Should it be needed, the lobelia 
may be pushed to the extent of emesis. It is always 
comfortable in fevers to have the air rather cool and 
the skin moist, and this seems especially favorable in 
small-pox. The patient’s room should not only be 
kept cool, but well ventilated, and his surface should 
be daily sponged with tepid or cool alkaline washes, 
or lime-water. The skin should be kept relaxed, and 
the determining powers to the surface. 

In confluent small-pox, when the patient inclines to 
a typhus condition, stimulants and tonics must be 
freely used, such as capsicum, ginger, compound tinc¬ 
ture of myrrh, brandy, wine, columbo, gentian and 
poplar bark. 

About the time that the pustules are filling, the cir¬ 
culation should be well sustained with light, nourish¬ 
ing food and stimulating medicine, thus to prevent the 
pitting or jxjck-mark; and wth a view to this, the pa¬ 
tient should be well guarded against picking and 
scratching the pustules, which all have a disposition 
to do, owing to the intolerable itching that attends the 
drying up of the pustules. If the face be oiled, or 
covered with oiled silk so as to shield it from the air, 
it will serve to prevent the pitting. 

The black cohosh has of late proved itself of great 
utility in small-pox, and should be constantly used 
throughout the treatment. Indeed, it is thought by 
some that this article is a complete preventive of the 
disease. 

Another good remedy is the following; Sulphate of 
zinc I grain, foxglove (digitalis), i grain, tea¬ 
spoonful of sugar; mix with two tablespoonfuls of 
water; when thoroughly mixed add 4 ounces of water; 
take a teaspoonful every hour. 

Smart-weed, or Water Pepper, is a very common 
weed, the leaves of which have an acrid or peppery 
taste. It is a stimulent, diaphoretic, diuretic, em- 
menagogue an antiseptic. In cold infusion, it is very 
valuable in dropsy, gravel and urinar)^ diseases. 

Smoke is considered a disinfectant, but its jxjwer 
to disinfect is very weak, its main virtue consisting 
simply in overpowering a weaker odor which is sup¬ 
posed to be morbific. The germs of disease cannot 
be killed by smoke, unless it is poisonous enough to 
kill any large animal. In preserving meats, it simply 
keeps away vermin until they can be cured. See 
Bacon and Ham. 


Smoke-Kouse, a small house where meats are 
smoked. Its plan and purpose are so simple that no 
special directions concerning it are necessarj-. 

Smoking: see Tobacco. 

Smut, a parasitic fungus growing upon grain. On 
corn it generally grows into a mass of considerable 
size,—enough to fill a pint cup or more. It propa¬ 
gates itself by s^xires (minute granules answering to 
seeds or cions), and these have great vitality, retain¬ 
ing their germinating power for several years. The 
species of smut in wheat called “ bunt ” fills the gram, 
while the latter retains its normal size and propor¬ 
tions. On pressing the grain, it bursts easily^ exhibit¬ 
ing within a dark smutty mass instead of the natural 
farina. “Rusts” and “brands” are alsor.panjsitic 
fungi. 

All these growths are of course unfit to go into 
food, either for man or beast. Some of them are 
poisonous, especially ergot. Corn smut has been 
systematically experimented with, and found to be 
not very jxiisonous, but sufficiently acrid, to keep up 
a constant irritation of the alimentary canal as long 
as it is eaten. 

To prevent smut in wheat, soak the seed in brine 
and then dust it with unslacked lime. The same 
process might prove beneficial with corn. Sowing 
the land with salt is also recommended. Vigorous 
growth is the best general preventive of all fungoid 
and parasitic diseases. 

Snafl&e, a bridle consisting of a slender bit-mouth 
without branches. 

Snake. For remedies for snake-bites, see Bites, 
page 89. Most snakes are non-poisonous, and their 
bites (which indeed they seldom inflict) are as harm¬ 
less as that of a toad. All water snakes in the North, 
for example, never bite any one, and if they did they 
would do no more harm than a deep brier scratch 
would do. In the extreme northern portion of the 
United States the rattlesnakes are the only venomous 
species; further South are the copperhead, water 
moccasin, viper, etc. 

Snakeroot. A dozen or more wild medicinal 
plants in this countrjMiave been called “snakeroot.” 
We have Seneca, Black, White, Button, Virginia, 
Canada, Heart, etc., snakeroots; and like nearly all 
other weeds, if you take small doses the effect is 
“ alterative ” and “ tonic,” little larger doses, “ diapho¬ 
retic ” and “diuretic,” a little larger still, “purgative ” 
and “laxative,” and largest of all “emetic.” It is 
pretty evident now that “ milk sickness ” in cattle is 
due to their eating “ white snakeroot,” or Ei 4 patorium 
ageratoides. 

Sneeze, to expel the air suddenly from the lungs, 
by an involuntary, explosive impulse, to carry off 
some foreign substance from the nose. Most of the 
air thus emitted, however, is of necessity passed out 
through the mouth. To prevent sneezing, as soon as 
you perceive the sensation coming, commence emit¬ 
ting the breath through the nose gently and steadily; 












1144 


SJVIFE—SOAP. 


or, with the tips of your fingers press slightly against 
the region of the gums of the upper teeth in front, im¬ 
mediately below the partition of the nose; or rub the 
nose briskly. 

Snipe, the name of several species of game birds, 
of widely different genera. The principal inland 
species is called Wilson’s, American, Jack, etc.; but 
the woodcock also is a true snipe. Several species 
flourish along sea beaches. For an illustration of 
snipe-shooting, see cut facing page 624. 

Snore, to breathe with a rough, heavy noise in 
sleep. It is generally caused by the person’s sleep¬ 
ing on his back, with his mouth open, permitting the 
uvula, or soft palate, to fall down against the trachea 
and obstructing the respiration. Some persons, over¬ 
burdened with fatty deposits, will snore in ail recum¬ 
bent positions, even with the mouth closed, when 
they are asleep. If an individual desires to sleep on 
his back and at the same time avoid snoring, he must 
have a-bandage extending over the head and under¬ 
neath the lower jaw, to prevent the latter from falling 
down. 

Snuff, the charred portion of a lamp or candle- 
wick ; pulverized tobacco or other substance, to be 
taken into the nose. The scents generally used in 
the latter are tonka beans, and their oil or essence; 
ambergris, musk, civet, and their essences. “Ce¬ 
phalic ” snuff consists of dried asarabacca leaves, 3 
parts; marjoram, 1 part; lavender flowers, i part; 
these are rubbed together. 

Soap, a compound resulting from the combination 
of an oil or a fat with an alkali or an alkaline earth. 
It was invented by the Gauls at a period prior to 
historical record, and has long been a common article 
of manufacture, in many ways, of many varieties and 
in many lands. 

Hard soap owes its distinctive character to soda; 
soft soap, to potash; white soap, to comparatively 
pure tallow; yellow or brown soap, to a mixture of 
tallow and resin, and mottled soap, to the depression 
of lye throughout it in the last stage of its manufact¬ 
ure, or to the admixture of sulphate of iron, oxide of 
manganese and other coloring substances. The de¬ 
sirable properties and the detergent uses of all com¬ 
mon soaps are so universally known as not to require 
any remark. 

The principles of soap as a detergent substance are 
so fully laid down in the article Laundry that we 
need make no further observations upon that point 
in this connection. 

The old-fashioned, pioneer method of making soap 
at home consisted in the simple process of draining 
water through wood ashes, boiling it down until it is 
strong enough to “bear up an egg,” putting in all the 
old animal grease that could be found about the 
premises,—old, rancid, maggoty, with rinds, bones, 
etc., and then boiling this mess until it was “soap;” 
but, like everything else, as society advances, methods 
multiply and are refined, as human wants multiply. 

In the preparation of lye, water which is perfectly 


clear and free from organic matters, and even free 
from that which makes it hard, should be used. Hard 
water for lye will make good soap, but it is at the ex¬ 
pense of the alkali which has to be neutralized. At 
the present day the alkalies can be purchased very 
cheaply at groceries, and much soap is made from 
commercial potash and soda. Instead of the hen’s 
egg, the good soap-maker, in order to prepare his lye 
for the different kinds of soap, will use a simple and 
cheap hydrometer, that of Baume being in common 
use. 

Animal fats and oils are used for the cruder soaps, 
and vegetable oils for toilet and fancy soap. There 
are several methods of making almost any kind of 
soap, but we will endeavor to give the simplest and 
most practical. 

Be careful to use soda and potash in which there 
are no foreign salts, as such inferior kinds prevent a 
good union with the fats, and good suds is not obtain¬ 
ed. But when the soap has been sejiarated from the 
lye by a salt, lyes containing salt may be used. The 
lye must be caustic, in all operations, else it will not 
decompose the fat, for transforming 100 pounds of 
fat into soap about 14 pounds of caustic soda are 
necessary; but generally more is employed, because 
the soda used in this country is never a pure hydrate. 
Some add in the beginning the whole amount of lye, 
and others add it gradually in small quantities. The 
last mode is preferable, for water retards saponifica¬ 
tion, as the resulting soap, being insoluble in the 
strong lye, forms a smeary mass, that surrounds the 
decomposed fat and impedes the action of the lye upon 
the fat. But when one-fourth of the lye is added in 
the beginning, it soon forms an emulsion with the fat, 
which in heating gradually becomes clearer, produc¬ 
ing a transparent soap solution, with intermingled fat 
drops. From time to time in order to test it, a drop 
of the paste should be put on the tip of the tongue, 
when, if there still be free alkali in it, a burning sens¬ 
ation will be produced, in which case the boiling nmst 
be continued until a sweetish taste is experienced. 
More lye can then be added under constant stirring, 
until the entire quantity is consumed. At this sta^ 
the contents of the kettle are transformed into a 
homogeneous, clear liquid in which we can discover 
neither lye nor fat. _ If this liquid be perfectly clear, 
it shows that the right proportion of fat and lye has 
been applied. Should saponification progress too 
slowly, a weak lye of one to two degrees Beaume may 
be added, and even soap scraps will facilitate the 
process. By heating with an open fire that iwrtion 
of the paste which thickens first will sometimes be¬ 
come attached to the bottom of the vessel and burn¬ 
ed. ^ This burning is indicated by a black smoke 
passing off here and there with a vapor. In such a 
case the fire should forthwith be reduced and a con¬ 
siderable quantity of the strongest lye be added to 
prevent further mischief. By these means a slight 
separation of the soap from the lye is occasioned, and 
the contact between the former and the metallic sur¬ 
face destroyed. In all cases, however, the operation 















SOAI^. 


1145 


will be complete when^ having taken out the stirring 
rod, the paste no longer drops from it but slides down 
in long threads. This appearance is called “ spin¬ 
ning ” of the soap. 

The next operation is called “cutting up the pan,” 
which is done by stirring into the mass soda lye con¬ 
taining salt, or a solution of salt or dry salt. Soap 
does not dissolve in brine or strong caustic lye. Of 
all soaps the cocoanut-oil soap is the most remark¬ 
able, for, being dissolved by a brine solution, it is jje- 
culiarly serviceable for washing in salt water; hence 
its name, “ Marine Soap.” This soap becomes so 
hard that, when separated from the glycerine, it can¬ 
not be cut with a knife, and consequently the salting 
operation should not be performed, but the soap boil¬ 
ed in strong lye with one water. 

The following is a method by which the salting 
operation is performed; one person gradually adds 
the brine or dry salt while another agitates the paste 
with a stirring rod from below upward. This is done 
under gentle boiling. Be careful to add the salt in 
right proportion, namely, about one-sixth at the timq. 
After half of it has been dropped in, the soap should 
be allowed to boil for about ten minutes before any 
more is put in. According to concentration 12 to 16 
pounds of salt are necessary for 100 pounds of fat, in 
order to separate the formed soap from the surplus of 
water. The separation is perfect when the water runs 
off from the curdy mass, when a sample is taken up 
with the paddle while hot it is not sticky, and when it 
will harden into scales by rubbing some of it in the 
palm of the hand with the thumb nail. The process 
is done when the surface splits up into several patch¬ 
es separated from each other by deep furrows, in 
which the appearance is that of dry slabs, instead of 
froth. These slabs are arranged by the escaping va¬ 
por one above another. The fire should be extin¬ 
guished when the soap, which was always covered 
with froth and bubbles, suddenly sinks, and the froth 
breaks up into roundish massive grains, distinctly 
separated from each other, and from the saline solu¬ 
tion. The salting being completed, the mass should 
remain quiet for several hours, and then the under 
lye drawn off by a faucet. 

The object of “ clear boiling ” is to obtain hardness, 
consistency and complete neutrality of the soap. Be¬ 
gin to boil the paste gently with tolerably strong lyes. 
Should the soap, during the intervals, become too 
liquid, which may happen if the lye has been too weak, 
add some handfuls of salt, or the soap boiled with a 
weak lye containing salt. If, after each addition of 
lye there should be, in taking up a portion with the 
paddle, some difficulty in running off the lye, water 
must be added, that a quicker union of the lye and 
the fat may takejfiace. The process is ended when 
large, regular and dry scales appear on the surface, 
and when these give elastic, brilliant, white scales, 
and are easily pulverized by rubbing in hands. The 
soap should then be covered, left for some time, and 
eventually removed in the ladles. The spent lye 
does not have to be of an alkaline test. 


Marbling results from the sulphurets of iron and 
sodium in the soda, but as some kinds of soda have 
not a sufficiency of these compound's, marbling can be 
induced by adding copperas, previously dissolved,— 
in quantity about four ounces of dry copperas to 100 
pounds of fat. Mottled soap as thus prepared is the 
“ Castile soap ” of commerce. ' The streaks in the 
course of time assume a brownish colon To be suc¬ 
cessful with this process, be careful to run the soap 
into the frames as soon as it shows signs of being in 
that condition where the operator has been successful 
in his own experience: the process is a difficult one. 

Hard soap is made by the use of soda, and soft by 
the use of potash, and “grained” soaps are those 
from which the under-lye has been drained, as before 
described, and “ filled ” soaps are those in which the 
whole contents of the vessel are kept together and 
sold as soap. Cocoanut-oil soap, an exception to the 
rule, is soluble in brine, and it is employed in the 
making of filled soaps; weak lyes produce light soap, 
and strong lyes heavy soap,—that of 25 to 30^* B. 
heavier than water. Sometimes a small addition of 
soda sulphate is made to prevent too great solubility 
of the soap, but it interferes with the practical use of 
the same if too great quantity is introduced; the soap 
ought not to contain more than one per cent, of it. For 
hardening, one-third to one-fourth of the fat is fre¬ 
quently substituted by rosin. 

For making hard soap, about one pound of soda is 
employed for eight pounds of fat, on an average. To 
make no mistake in the proportions, the strength of 
the soda and the character of the fat must be exactly 
ascertained. 

Rosin, when incorporated with a soap to a certain 
amount, will make it more soluble and detersive. 
The lighter the rosin, the more it is valued-; 15 per 
cent, of rosin with 85 per cent, of tallow is probably 
the best limit; beyond that the soap is depreciated in 
color, firmness and qualty. Even for the cheapest 
grade the quality of rosin should not exceed 33 per 
cent. Rosin is sajx)nified with alkali; for every ten 
pounds of rosin about three quarts of lye of 300 B. are 
needed. Stir and beat thoroughly for half an hour, 
pass through a sieve and then fill into frames, where 
it should be well stirred and crutcbed. Some palm 
oil, when saponified with tallow, will very much im¬ 
prove the appearance of the soap. 

To make rosin soap, to eight gallons of lye, while 
boiling, throw rosin in every five or six minutes, each 
time one and a half to two pounds until 130 pounds 
have been added. The rosin must be previously well 
pulverized and one should stir while anotlier throws 
in, to prevent its rising to the top. In this oiieration 
it is not necessary to keep the contents actually boil¬ 
ing, but near the boiling point. Constant stirring is 
required, to keep the rosin from collecting into lumps. 
Saponification will be finished in two hours. 

To make cocoanut-oil soap, use lye 25 to 30 strong, 
which will saponify an equal weight of cocoanut oil. 
Heat the oil and lye together for one or two hours, 
continually stirring it, when the mass will commence 









SOAP—son. • 


1146 


thickening; moderate the heat and continue the stir¬ 
ring; after awhile the mass becomes a white semi-solid, 
when it should be immediately filled into the frame. 

Palm oil is rarely used as a soap stock, but gener¬ 
ally with a mixture of rosin, when it yields a yellow 
soap. For white soap they are employed in the 
bleached state. 

Transparent Soaps are prepared by dissolving 
well dried soaps in alcohol. Take good suet soap, 
cut It into very thin ribbons, dry it on strong paper, 
pulverize it in a marble mortar, pass it through a fine 
sieve and then dissolve the powder in strong boiling 
alcohol. While the soap is liquid, put in the colors 
and the perfumes. Three and a half gallons alcohol 
about 85-iooths as heavy as water are required for 50 
ix)unds of soap. 

1 o color soap red, use vermilion or chrome red ; 
violet, a fuchsine dissolved in glycerine; brown and 
red brown, use caramel and various kinds of umber; 
for green, take chrome green ; for blue, smalts or ultra- 
niarine, for yellow, take palm butter; for rose, the 
tincture of carthamineor arcfiil; for yellow and orange 
a tincture of annotto or saffron; for blue and violet, 
a tincture of litmus, or of alkanet root, or Prussian 
blue, ora very little pure indigo in impalpable powder; 
for black, common lampblack. 

Po Perfume a so?.p the process is very simple, 
though much mechanical work is required, as the soap , 
has to be taken hard and drj’, cut into thin shavings 
by machinery, perfumed in air-tight cylinders kept in 
motion. 

_ Windsor Soap is made of one part of olive oil to i 
eight or nine of ox suet or tallow, with a lye of caustic 
soda. The fatty basis of French Windsor soap is usu- 
ually hog’s lard, with the addition of a little palm oil. 

Brown Soap is so made with umber or brown ochre. 

Honey Soap is made of one part each of olive oil 
and palm oil soaps to three parts of white curd soap, 
scerited with essential oils, as that of rose geranium or 
of ginger grass, supjxirted or not with a little oil ber¬ 
gamot or verbena. 

Musk and Ambergris Soaps are scented with the 
essence or oil of musk, supported with a little of the 
oil of bergamot, cinnamon and cloves. 

Glycerinated Soap has about one-fifth of its 
weight glycerine and scented variously. 

Almond Soap is white curd soap with one-ninth to 
one-seventh of olive oil soap, scented with oil of al¬ 
monds, I ounce, to 4^4 or 5 pounds of soap. 

Violet Soap is strongly scented with essence of 
orris root and colored or not with tincture of litmus 
or a little levigated smaltz, ultra-marine or indigo. 

Bouquet Soap is rnade of the finest white curd soap, 

1 7 /^ pounds, olive oil soap 2^^ pounds, oil of ber'ja- 
mot one ounce, 1% drams each of oil of cassia, oifof 
cloves, oil of sassafras and oil of thyme, i dram of 
neroh and two ounces levigated brown ochre. There 
are other formulas. 

Rose Soap is perfumed with the finest otto of roses. 


with the essentials in the usual projxirtions. There 
are several formulas. 

Cinnamon, lavender, orange flower and other soaps 
are also made. 

Shaving Paste may be made of white soft soap 
4 ounces, finest honey soap 2 ounces, olive oil i ounce, 
sodium carbonate i dram and one or two tablespoon¬ 
fuls of water. 

A good shaving essence or fluid may be also of one- 
fourth of a jK)und of white hard soap in shavings, one 
pint of rectified spirits and one gill of water. There 
are several other recipes. 

Hard Soap. It is a simple matter to make hard 
soap, which is not only agreeable to use, but which 
has the greatest merit of cleanliness. To seven pounds 
of tallow use three pounds of rosin, two pounds of 
potash, and six gallons of water; boil for three hours, 
or, better still, for five hours; turn from the kettle into 
a wash-tub; let it stand all night. In the morning 
cut into bars, and lay them on a table or board in the 
sun to harden for two or three days. This quantity 
will last a family of four persons a year if used for or¬ 
dinary household purposes. 

Anothei'. 6 jx)unds of unslacked lime, 6 jxiunds 
sal-soda, 5 gallons soft water; when dissolved and 
settled, pour off, and add 6 pounds of fat, and boil 
until thick, and pour into a tub that water has stood 
in; \vhen cold cut, and put where it can dry. It is a 
first-class soap. 

To Make Hard Soap with Concentrated Lye 
OR Potash. Take two wooden buckets of hard water 
to one box; when this comes to a boil add five pounds 
of grease of any kind (the cleaner the grease the 
whiter die soap will be), boil slowly until it gets thick, 
which it will take about a half day; allow it to cool 
over night; cut in square pieces to dry. When per¬ 
fectly dry take each piece and wrap it in a piece of 
newspaper; do so with all you have made, then pack 
it in a box with a tight cover, set in a dry place, and 
keep it well covered. 

Erasive Soap. Take two pounds of Castile soap 
and half a pound of carbonate of potash dissolved in 
half a pint of water. Cut the soap in thin slices and 
boil it with the potash until it is thick enough to mold 
into cakes. Then add half an ounce of alcohol and 
the same of camphor and ammonia. Stir till it begins 
to cool. When cold cut in cakes and dry in the sun. 
This is excellent to wash tinware and pantry shelves 
and to clean grease spots out of carpets and clothing. 

Adulteration. Perfumed toilet soap is generally 
adulterated with ground glass, soluble glass, silex, 
pipe clay, rotten stone, borax, plaster of Paris, tin crys¬ 
tal, magnesia, pumice-stone and oatmeal and colored 
with such poisonous substances as vermilion, Venetian 
red and carmine, ultra-marine green and blue, pot pig- 
.nent green, copperas, Spanish brown, yellow' and scar¬ 
let anilines and burnt umber. 

Sod, in plowing, is sometimes used in the sense of 
the unplowed “land,”or the“ furrow slice.” The word 
also means a turf of grass. 
















SODA—SOIL. 


1147 


Soda, a mineral alkali: called mineral because it was 
originally dug out of the ground in Africa and other 
countries. It is largely prepared from sea-weed. In 
the mineral kingdom it is abundant as a silicate and in 
the form chloride of sodium, or salt. Kelp, barilla, and 
soda ash all owe their value to the carbonate of soda. 
The uses of soda for laundry purposes are given on 
page 927. Soda in its various salts is also a useful 
article in culinary art, in medicine and as a constituent 
of the soil. 

Soda bears the same relation to its metallic base, 
sodium, as potassa does to potassium, but its basic 
and alkaline action is rather less powerful than that of 
potassa. Pure soda is obtained from a carbonate of 
soda. Glauber’s salt is sulphate of soda. Carbonate 
of soda is prepared by lixiviating the ashes of sea¬ 
weed, or from sulphate of soda. The relation of soda 
to the acids and the nomenclature of its salts are set 
forth in a chart form on page 1094. 

“ Soda water” is not just what its name indicates, 
there being no soda in it. It is carbonic-acid water. 
Its manufacture is impossible without a reservoir two 
or three times as strong as a steam boiler. The car¬ 
bonic acid is made by mixing sulphuric acid with 
marble dust, and the sirups are only flavoring. These 
sirups, by the way, are generally drug im'itations of 
the fruit juices. 

Soil, the covering or the uppermost stratum of the 
earth’s crust. It is understood by general observers 
as simply the ground, without any reference to either 
its depth or constitution or uses; by geologists, as the 
superficial alluvial or diluvial deposit of the earth, 
to whatever depth it possesses homogeneity of char¬ 
acter; by botanists, as the portion of the earth’s sur¬ 
face which supports vegetation, in all its classes and 
kinds, whether natural or with the aid of culture, and 
by farmers and gardeners as the portion of the earth’s 
surface which is stirred by the plow or the spade, or 
otherwise subjected to tillage. The soil, in the farmer’s 
sense, is sometimes of the same depth as the mold, 
sometimes not so deep, and sometimes deeper. 

Classification of Soils. A good classification of 
soils, together with a simple, fixed, comprehensive, 
and well defined nomenclature, is essential for en¬ 
abling farmers to form comparative estimates of the 
different soils of their own farm or district, to trace 
the resemblances between these and the soils of other 
districts; to decide how far any peculiar treatment of 
one soil may be profitably imitated upon another, to 
determine the kind and amount of mineral admixture 
which any soil may require for its proper textural 
amelioration, and especially to reap fair or full bene¬ 
fit, or even to obtain clear ideas or intelligible hints, 
from the multitudes of reix)rtsof valuable experiments 
on manures, methods of reclamation, improvements 
in culture, and other similar subjects, which abound 
in the agricultural periodicals of the day, and founded 
entirely on the relative proportions of the four chief 
constituents of all soils, clay, sand, lime and humus. 
In this we may begin with those soils which contain 
little or no calcareous or limy matter, at the outside 


not so much as five per cent, of the whole mass. 
These, supposing them to possesss 50 per cent, of 
clay, are placed under the head of argillaceous soils, 
and are distinguished into two orders, the first wholly 
destitute of lime, the second containing less than 5 
per cent, of that earth. Each of these orders is then 
sub-divided into three species, distinguished as rich, 
poor, and intermediate, according to the proportion of 
humus or vegetable mold present in them. If the 
amount of this ingredient be not more than one-half 
per cent, the soils are called poor, as the fertility of a 
soil is in all cases influenced by the proportion of this 
ingredient. If it varies from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent.it is 
called intermediate; if from 1.5 to 5 per cent, it is 
distinguished as rich. 

The second class of soils comprehends those which 
contain from 30 to 50 per cent, of clay, and is de¬ 
nominated loamy. These likewise are divided into 
two orders, the one with, the other without, lime; and 
again into three species, according to the proportion 
of vegetable mold present in them. 

The third class embraces those soils which contain 
not more than 30 nor less than 20 per cent, of clay. 
They are called sandy loams, and are subdivided into 
orders and species, on the same principle as before. 

In the next, or fourth class, under the denomination 
of loamy lands, are ranged those soils which contain 
from 10 to 20 per cent, of clay, the remainder, with 
the exception of the small percentage of limestone and 
humus they may contain, consisting of sand. 

The fifth class, designated as sandy, includes all 
those soils in which the proportion of clay does not 
exceed 10 percent.; and here again the same sub¬ 
divisions are adopted. Hitherto, the amount of cal¬ 
careous matter present is not supposed to exceed 5 
per cent; but in the next class, that of marly soils, 
the above ingredient ranges in a proportion varying 
from 5 to 20 per cent, of the whole. 

Marly soils are to be distinguished into five orders, 
of which the first is called argillaceous,contains about 
50 per cent of clay; the second, loamy, from 30 to 
50; the third, sandy loam, from 20 to 30; the fourth, 
loamy sand, from 10 to 20; and the fifth is distin¬ 
guished by the larger proportion of humus, which ex¬ 
ceeds in epantity 5 per cent, of the whole, and is 
therefore denominated humous marl, which last is 
divided into three species, viz.; argillaceous, which 
contains about 50 per cent, of clay; loamy, which con¬ 
tains from 30 to 50 per cent., and sandy, jxissessing 
20 to 30 per cent, of the same ingredient. 

We next arrive at that class of soils which contains 
more than 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and which 
is therefore distinguished as calcareous or marly soil. 
These are subdivided according to the proportion of 
clay they may contain; when this earth exists in the 
proportion of more than 50 per cent, they are to be 
called argillaceous; when it is from 30 to 50, loamy; 
when from 20 to 30, they are said to belong to the 
sandy loams of the calcareous or marl class; when 
from 10 to 20 to the loamy sands; and when either 
destitute of clay altogether, or containing at most 










1148 


SOIL. 


only 10 per cent, of it, they are called sandy. Lastly, 
a calcareous soil,which contains more than 5 percent, 
of vegetable mold, belongs to the sixth order, that 
of humous calcareous soils, of which there are three 
species, namely: the argillaceous, the loamy, and the 
sandy, characterized as before, by the larger or small¬ 
er proix)rtion of clay present in them. 

The last class, that of humous soils, is distinguished 
in the first place in three orders. The first consists in 
soluble, mild humus, that is of that description of veg¬ 
etable mold which is in a fit condition to nourish the 
plants which grow in it; the second of acid humus, 
namely, containing a free acid, which by its presence, 
is highly destructive to most kinds of vegetation ; a 
third order consists of fibrous vegetable matter, such 
as peat, which though not acid is yet in a condition 
little fitted for imparting nourishment to plants. 

These orders are again sub-divided into argilla¬ 
ceous, loamy and sandy, according to the proportion of 
clay present in them; and lastly, distinguished in 
two species, the one containing, the other destitute of, 
calcareous matter. 

To ascertain the proportion of sand and water in 
any given soil, it is only necessary to spread a weigh¬ 
ed quantity of the soil in a thin layer upon writing 
paper, and dry it for an hour or two in an oven or 
upon a hot plate, the heat of which is not sufficient 
to discolor the paper. The loss of weight gives the 
quantity of water which the soil contained. While 
this is drying, a second weighed portion may be boil¬ 
ed or otherwise thoroughly mixed with water, and the 
whole then poured into a vessel, in which the heavy 
sandy parts are allowed to subside until the fine clay 
is beginning to settle also. This point must be care¬ 
fully watched, the liquid then poured off, the sand 
collected, dried as before upon paper, and again 
weighed. This will show the quantity of sand in the 
known weight of moist soil, which by the previous ex¬ 
periment has been found to contain a certain quantity 
of water. For example, if 20 ounces, dried in the 
oven, loses 5 ounces of water, and another quantity of 
20 ounces, treated in the bottle, leaves 6 ounces of 
sand, then the 20 ounces of moist are equal to 15 of 
dry, and this 15 of dry soil contains 6 of sand, or 40 
per cent. It would therefore properly be called a 
“loam,” or a “ loamy soil.” To determine the pro¬ 
portion of lime, when it exceeds 5 per cent, to a half 
an ounce of the dry soil diffused through a pint of 
cold water, add a wine-glassful of hydrochloric acid; 
stir it occasionally during the day, and let it stand 
over night to settle; pour off the clear liquor in the 
morning and fill up the vessel with water, to wash 
away the excess of acid; when the water is again 
clear, pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it; the loss 
will amount, generally, to alxjut i per cent, more than 
the quantity of lime present. If the loss e.xceeds 5 
per cent, of the dry soil, it may be classed among the 
marls; if more than 20, among the limy soils. To 
determine the projxjrtion of vegetable matter, dry the 
soil well in an oven and weigh it; then heat it to dull 
redness until the combustible matter is burned away; 


weigh it again, and the difference in the two weights 
will be the quantity of organic matter. 

Pure sand will hold 24 per cent, of its own 
weight of water, calcareous sand 28 per cent., loamy 
soil 38, clay loam 47 and peat 80. 

Clay soils are usually denominated “cold and wet,” 
and above all others they need under-draining. Such 
soils are greatly improved by coarse vegetable manures, 
as straw, corn-stalks, chips, etc., which tend to a sepa¬ 
ration of the particles. The addition of sand is of course 
beneficial, but this is too expensive for large fields. 
Lime and gypsum are also valuable additions to clay 
soils. The plowing of clay lands for spring crops 
should be done in autumn if practicable, so that the 
frosts of winter may more thoroughly pulverize the 
soil. Plowing in the spring should be done when the 
ground is neither too wet nor too dry. This is very 
important, as plowing when too wet causes the soil to 
dry into very hard clods, and when too dry the ground 
is baked and the work of cultivation is too difficult. 
The action of the atmosphere will pulverize these 
masses of earth after a time, but not sufficiently early 
or thorough for the crops of the season. Clay land 
is best adapted to most of the grains and to the red 
and white clovers. They are characterized as strong 
and lasting soils. Sandy soils are so greatly improved 
by the addition of clay that it is really remunerative 
to add a few loads to each acre, which should be 
done in autumn; harrow it in thoroughly in the spring. 
It is really better than the same quantity of the best 
manure. Heavy rollers, to make the sand more com¬ 
pact, are an advantage. Lime, gypsum, clay marls, 
peat, vegetable manures and ashes, leached or un¬ 
leached, are also good for sandy land. Sandy soils 
can never be profitably cultivated till they have ac¬ 
quired sufficient compactness and fertility to sustain 
a good growth of grass or clover; and when once 
brought to this condition they are among the most 
valuable. 

Gravelly soils are somewhat like the sandy, but 
they are much less desirable, being appropriately 
termed “hungry.” They are peculiarly “leachy,” 
permitting the rapid escape of manures, both by 
evaporation and drainage. They are better for the 
pasturage of sheep than for any other purpose. 

A loamy soil is of course one of the best, if not the 
best, for general farming. It requires no special 
treatment except when the clay or the sand in it is 
too predominant. Marly and calcareous soils are 
greatly increased in their fertility by the addition of 
putrescent and vegetable manures. They are partic¬ 
ularly durable. Loamy and sa.ndy soils characterize 
“bottom” lands, and they are the best for crops in all 
respects except that they are more exposed to un- 
tiinely frosts than are high situations in the same 
vicinity. M hen exposed to overflowing it is safer to 
keep such land in grass. Peaty soils in their natural 
state are totally unfit for profitable farming, but when 
the peat is left exposed to the atmosphere it absorbs 
nutritious gases, crumbles and becomes a good ad¬ 
dition to poor soils. It is especially good for muck 














SOILING-SOLDERING. 


1149 


heaps. Peat abounds in nearly all the Northern 
swamps which are undergoing so extensive drainage 
nowadays, and becoming the chief places of rich 
farming. When a swamp has been properly drained, 
the hummocks, if any, must be cut up with the mat¬ 
tock or spade, thrown into heaps and burned, and the 
ashes scattered over the surface. This affords the 
best top-dressing it can receive. Sand or fine gravel, 
with a thorough dressing of barnyard manure and 
slacked lime should then be added. On some of 
these lands, according as they approach ordinary 
soils in their character, good crops of oats, corn, roots, 
etc., may be raised, but they are better suited to 
grasses and clover. Subsequent dressings of sand, 
lime, manure and wood ashes, or, better still, all com¬ 
bined, may be afterwards required when the crops are 
deficient or the grasses degenerate. 

Soils should also be sufficiently deep and friable, 
and of the right color. A black soil absorbs a great 
deal of heat during sunny days, and at nightfall the 
dew is rapidly formed, which is easily carried down 
through a loose or friable soil to the roots of the 
plants. A porous soil also more readily drains itself 
of superfluous water, and absorbs nutritious gases 
from the atmosphere. These are carried down both 
by the air and the circulating vapor or moisture, in 
the vicinity of the rootlets, which take up the elements 
as food. 

But the best soil in the world may be materially 
diminished in value by an impervious sub-soil. 
Tenacious clay, or a “ hard-pan” immediately under¬ 
neath will hold water until it stagnates or sours, and 
thus entirely ruin a piece of ground, which otherwise 
would be of the very best quality for cropping. A 
real hard-pan can not be so altered as to redeem the 
tract under which it lies ; but clays less hard can be 
drained and broken up by a sub-soil plow. 'Phis not 
only affords an outlet for the superfluous water, but 
opens up to the access of the crops a great quantity 
of good mineral plant food, and moisture from below 
during drouths. The value of the farm may thus be 
protracted several times in as many years. But in a 
few cases the sub-soil is too open on account of the 
superabundance of sand or gravel in its composition. 
There is scarcely any remedy for this, except to 
deepen, or heighten rather, the soil above by the ad¬ 
dition of manures. It is generally best to pasture 
such lands. 

Books and periodicals give many tables of the 
analysis of soils and manures, with the chemical 
principles of successfully treating them together; but 
if one adopts the general principle to enrich his 
ground with a compost of all sorts of manures and 
fertilizers, he will do better than to undertake to carry 
out a great number of detailed rules. 

Renovation. The means of renewing soils are: 
I. Manure; 2. fertilizers; 3. rotation; 4. raising 
clover; 5. summer-fallowing; 6. pasturing. These 
topics are thoroughly treated in this work; but all 
intelligent farmers understand their nature and their 
necessity. 


Rotation of plants seems to be a law of nature. 
Where plants are removed from the soil and the land 
left to nature, she supplies their place with plants of 
a different kind. Even manures and fertilizers should 
be rotated. (See Rotation). Summer-fallowing con¬ 
sists of letting the land rest from cropping, but it is 
followed in several different ways,—permitting it to 
run to weeds and grass, pastured or not pastured, and 
plowed in the fall, plowing it clean all summer, plow¬ 
ing under a crop of weeds or clover once or twice 
during the season, etc. By all the above means to¬ 
gether, moderately poor land can be fully renewed in 
two or three years, so that it can bear heavy crops 
for many years, especially if rotation be followed. 
But agricultural science at the present day has attain¬ 
ed such a jxjint that no farmer can be excused for 
letting his land run down at all, so as to need any 
renovation. ' 

Soiling, a mode of feeding horses and cattle, in 
the stable or yard, with grass or other green food, 
brought to them, as cut in the fields. 

Soldering. Soldering is the art of uniting the 
surfaces of metals by partial fusion, and the insertion 
of an alloy between the edges, which is called solder, 
it being more fusible than the metals which it unites. 
Solders are distinguished as hard and soft, according 
to their difficulty of fusion. Hard solders usually 
melt only at a red heat, but soft solders fuse at lower 
temperatures. In order to join metals, it is obvious 
that a solder must be used that melts at a lower 
temperature than the metals to be joined, but it may 
also be necessary that it approach as nearly as possi¬ 
ble to them in point of hardness; and occasionally, as 
is especially the case with jewelry, similarity of color 
is an object. The heat requisite for soldering small 
articles, such as jewelry, etc., is usually obtained by 
employing a common blowpipe, as by its use a sud¬ 
den heat may be concentrated on a small point. 
Where a larger surface has to be heated, the flame of 
a spirit lamp is used. In working tin plates, the sol¬ 
der is applied and fused by a heated copper tool 
called a soldering-iron. The surfaces of parts to be 
joined by soldering must be perfectly clean; and in 
order to ensure this, as well as tc counteract the ox¬ 
idization which most metals undergo wffien heated, a 
flux is used, which neutralizes or removes these other¬ 
wise serious impediments, securing a firm joint. For 
common pur^xises j^xiwdered resin is used as a flux. 

To Make Soldering Fluid for Soft Solder. 
Into muriatic acid put small pieces of zinc until all 
bubbling ceases; some add i ounce sal-ammoniac to 
each pound of the liquid. 

Hard Soldering or Brazing. The alloy used in 
hard soldering is generally made of equal parts of 
copper and zinc ; much of the zinc, however, is' lost 
in the process, so that the real proportion is not equal 
parts. The alloy is heated over a charcoal fire, and 
broken to granulations in an iron mortar. A different 
proportion is used for soldering copper and iron, viz.: 
3 zinc to I copper. The commercial name is “ spel- 








1150 


SOLE-SOUP. 


ter solder.” The flux employed for spelter solder is 
borax, which can either be used separately or mixed, 
by rubbing to a cream, or mixed with the solder in a 
very little water. 

To M.4KE Solder. The mixture of the metals is 
performed by melting theni together in the same 
manner as for alloys, with the aid of a flux. The 
metals employed should be pure, especially silver, as 
silver coin makes the solder too hard. 

Solder for Tin. Take 4 parts pewter, i part tin, 
and I part bismuth. Use powdered resin when 
soldering. 

Fine Soft Solder. Take 2 parts tin and i part 
lead. Used for soldering tin plates, and tinning cop¬ 
per. Add resin as a flux when melting. 

Gold Solder. Melt in charcoal fire 24 grains gold 
coin, 9 grains silver, 6 grains copper, 3 grains brass. 

Silver Solder. Melt as above 2 parts silver, 1^4 
parts brass. 

Sole, of a plow, the horizontal bar at the foot, to 
keep it running level and steady. 

Solvent, able to pay all indebtedness; also, a fluid 
employed to dissolve a substance. 

Somnambulism (som-nam'bu-lism), sleep-walk¬ 
ing ; a state of sleep in which some of the powers are 
partially awake, but the consciousness of the subject 
is entirely suspended. During this singular abnormal 
condition of the nervous system persons have been 
known to do a deal of work unaware to themselves, 
such as changing the articles of furniture in a room’ 
feeding^ the live stock, milking cows, butchering hogs, 
etc. The treatment consists in carrying out every 
measure calculated to promote sound sleep. 

Soothing Sirup. The following sirup contains no 
opiates and will be found as effective as Mrs. Wins¬ 
lows Sirup: Take 3 drams of compound tincture of 
lavender, i dram tincture of lobelia and i ounces of 
simple sirup, mix and give to i teaspoonful, accor¬ 
ding to the age of the child. 

Sores. For old sores of almost all kinds, the oint¬ 
ments given on page 995 and the salve on page 1095 
will be found excellent remedies. 

Sore Throat, To Cure. Dissolve one dram chlor¬ 
ide potash in half a pint of water, and gargle the 
throat therewith. A few applications will allay 
inflammation. Simple “sore throat,” such as is oc¬ 
casioned by colds, are best relieved by cold wet com¬ 
presses to the part, especially during the night. 

Sorghum, Sorgho, or Sorgo: see Cane, Sugar 
and Sirup. 

Sorrel, the name of several species of acid jilanfs, 
as the Common (of England), Field or Sheep (com- 
mon in sandy soils in this country), French, Roman 
or Garden (of Europe), Mountain or Welsh (rare in 
the United States) and Wood. The latter, of which 
there are two kinds, have clover-like leaves, and is 
sometimes erroneously called “ sheep sorrel ” in the 


West. The term “sour sorrel” is very indefinite. 
All these sorrels abound in oxalic acid and have a 
similar taste, although the two Wood sorrels belong to 
an entirely different order from the others. The leaves 
of these have been used as “ greens,” and the roots of 
all except the Wood species have the nature of rhu¬ 
barb, in medicine ; indeed, rhubarb is a sorrel. Sour 
or yellow dock also belongs to the latter class. 

The term “ sorrel,” as a color of horses, denotes a 
yellowish or reddish brown. 

Soundness, freedom from injury or defect, or, in 
case of a horse, the absence of everything which im¬ 
pairs now, or may probably impair hereatter, his use¬ 
fulness. The constitutents of soundness in horses 
are well defined, both in the phraseology of common 
life and in that of law; and they afford occasion for a 
perfect wulderness of disputes in the horse market and 
render it quite unsafe for an inexperienced person to 
purchase a horse without the aid of a professional 
man or without a full written warranty of soundness 
from the seller. See page 740, under head of Guar¬ 
anty. 

Soup. Soups may be described as decoctions, more 
or less strong, of animal and vegetable substances, 
generally of meat with vegetables, and seasoned with 
salt, spices, etc. They may be made in an infinity 
of ways; there being no end to the combination of 
meat, fish, vegetables, spices, etc., with water, that 
may be made. Meat soups have a basis formed by 
boiling together meat and water; the soluble parts of 
the former uniting with the water; this, simmered 
down to a certain strength, is termed “stock.” When 
this is obtained it is ready to be employed as the basis 
of any meat-soup, and the soup receives its name ac¬ 
cording to the vegetables employed, or of the ingre¬ 
dients used in seasoning it. The proportion of meat 
to water for stock, from which the richest soups are 
made, is two {xiunds of meat to a quart of water; for 
more ordinary soups, one pound to a quart. 

Brown soup stock is made of beef-shins and a piece 
of coarse beef; white stock is made of veal shins and 
an old fowl of your choice. One shin of veal will 
make three quarts of good veal stock, and one hind 
shin of beef will make five quarts of good beef stock. 
The veal and beef together make the best soup. To 
make gc^d soup stock rub salt into the skins; put them 
into an iron pot, in twice as much cold water'as you 
expect to have soup. It must be set on top of the 
range, and gradually heated up; do not forget to 
skim it before it comes to a boil. Let it simmer 
slowly all day. If it boils away too much, add more 
water. All kinds of bones of roast or boiled meat or 
poultry, and the liquor beef, mutton or fowl are boiled 
in, make good soup stock. They should be boiled 
all day to extract the substance from the bones as 
well as the meat, then strained into a stone jar or 
earthen pots to stand until the fat cools, then take 
that off. If this process is observed, you can always 
have a good stock to begin with; you can flavor it as 
you please. 

Hard or fast boiling should be carefully avoided in 











SOUP. 




making soups. It hardens and contracts the fibers of 
the meat, so that it cannot yield its juices to the water. 
Gentle boiling or stewing, however, has a contrary ef¬ 
fect. The water gradually warming the meat, has a 
tendency to relax its fibers, and while penetrating into 
the meat, extracts from it and carries away with it the 
finest of its flavors, and if the pot be closely covered 
it does not escape with the steam. To extract the 
full strength from the meat, long and slow boiling is 
necessary; but care must be taken that the pot is 
never off the boil. All soups are better for being 
made the day before they are to be used, and they 
should then be strained into earthen pans. When 
soup has jellied in the pan, it should not be removed 
into another, as breaking it will occasion its becoming 
sour sooner than it would otherwise do. When in 
danger of not keeping, it should be boiled up. Veg¬ 
etables should never be put into soup stock; it is 
much better to boil the vegetables in just water enough 
to extract the flavor, than to boil them in the stock; 
for if you put the vegetables to boil in the soup, by the 
time the flavor is extracted from the soup it will be 
reduced one-half. The fat can be removed after it is 
cool. Nothing looks more disagreeable at the table 
than greasy soup. 

Barley Soup. Take six pounds of the thick flank 
of beef, and cover it with six quarts of water, and a 
quarter of a pound of barley; boil it gently for an 
hour, skimming it frequently. Then add three heads 
of celery, two carrots, two turnips cut into pieces, one 
onion, a bunch of sweet herbs, and a little parsley; 
boil all together till you find the broth very good. Sea¬ 
son it with salt. Then take out the beef, the onion, 
and sweet herbs; pour the broth into the tureen, and 
put the beef into a dish garnished with carrots and 
turnips. 

Bean Soup. Take a large knuckle of veal, add to 
it four quarts of water and one quart of black beans 
that have been soaked in water over night, and let 
them boil with the veal four or five hours; also, a 
small bit of onion and a dozen whole cloves, some salt 
and pepper; cut three hard-boiled eggs and two 
lemons into slices and put into the bottom of your 
tureen, and strain the soup, boiling hot, upon them. 
If the water boils away, you must keep adding to it, 
as this recipe ought to make a gallon of soup. It 
should be of the consistency of pea soup. If you 
have no veal, the bones of salt pork make a good sub¬ 
stitute, but not equal to the knuckle. 

Chicken Soup. Boil a pair of chickens with great 
care, skimming constantly, and keeping thern covered 
with water. When tender, take out the chicken and 
remove every bone from the meat; put a large lump 
of butter into a frying-pan, and dredge the chicken 
meat well with flour, lay in the hot pan, fry a nice 
brown, and keep it hot and dry. Take a pint of the 
chicken water, and stir in two large spoonfuls of curry 
powder, two of butter, and one of flour, one teaspoon¬ 
ful of salt and a little Cayenne; stir until smooth, then 
mix it with the broth in the pot; when well mixed. 


simmer five minutes, then add the browned chicken. 
Serve with rice. 

Green-Pea Soup. Take two quarts of green peas, 
one small onion, and a sprig of parsley cut fine; add 
two quarts of hot water, and boil slowly for half an 
hour, then add a pint of small new potatoes which 
have been peeled and laid in cold water an hour; put 
in a teaspoonful of sugar and a little salt; boil till the 
potatoes are done ; now add a teacupful of cream or 
a pint of milk, boil a minute or two, and then serve 
with small slices of toasted bread or gems cut in 
halves. 

Pea Soup. Soak a quart of split peas in soft water 
for twelve or fourteen hours, and remove tliose which 
float on the top. Then simmer in two quarts of water 
until tender; put them in a stew-pan ; add two quarts 
of beef stock, about a couple of pounds of shin of 
beef, any odd meat bones, chopped up, and a slice of 
fat ham; a head of celery, six onions, three each of 
carrots and turnips—all peeled and sliced—and sea¬ 
soning to taste. Simmer the whole for two to three 
hours, stirring and skimming from time to time; pass 
all through a fine hair sieve, give it one boil, and serve 
with toasted bread. 

Potato Soup. Eight potatoes, two turnips, four 
large onions, boiled together (in beef, mutton or poul¬ 
try water) to a jam and strained through a colander; 
then add butter rubbed in flour (a little), with cream 
or sweet milk, pepper, and salt; chopped parsley in 
the bottom of the tureen; let the soup boil well, then 
pour over the parsley. 

Tomato Soup. Take twelve large tomatoes, peel 
and chop them; boil them an hour, then stir in a 
half teaspoonful of soda; when the foaming ceases 
add two soft crackers, rolled very fine; add a quart 
of milk, one tablespoonful of butter and boil fifteen 
minutes. Salt and pepper to taste. If too thick add 
a little boiling water or milk. 

Vegetable Soup. Take a third as much water as 
you want soup; cut up some onions, carrots and tur¬ 
nips, a little celery, some salt and a little mace. Put 
this all into a sauce-pan; boil it one hour, add the 
two-thirds of soup stock. Boil this altogether an hour 
and a half. If it is not seasoned to your taste, add 
whatever is required. 

Macaroni Soup. The macaroni must be boiled 
in water for ten minutes, strained and put into boil¬ 
ing stock, in the proportion of half a pound to the 
gallon ; simmer slowly for half an hour, and serve very 
hot, with grated cheese on a separate dish. 

Mock-Turtle Soup. Take about ten pounds of 
shin of beef, cut it into small pieces, and fry the lean 
parts a light brown; put the rest of the beef (f. e., the 
fat part) into a stew-pan with boiling water, and stew 
it for eight hours, with a bunch of sweet herbs and 
two onions; when cold take off the fat. Then get half 
a calfs head with the skin on, half boil it, and cut it 
into small square pieces and put them, with the lean 
beef and the soup, into the same pot, and let them 
stew altogether till quite tender. Thicken it with a 


73 






SFABti—SPARRO IV. 


1152 


very little flour; add a little pounded mace and cloves, 
and a grate of nutmeg, two spoonfuls of mushroom 
catsup, and pepper and salt to taste. A wine glass 
of sherry or white wine improves it. It should be 
served with egg balls and lemon. 

Ox-tail Soup. Take two tails, divide them at the 
joints, and soak them in warm water. Put them in 
a soup pot with two quarts of cold water. Skim it 
carefully. When the meat is boiled to shreds, take 
out the bones, and add a chopped onion and carrot. 
Use spices and sweet herbs, or not, as you prefer. 
Boil it three or four hours. 

Oyster Soup. To each dozen or dish of oysters 
put pint of water; milk, i gill; butter, ounce; 
powdered crackers to thicken. Bring the oysters and 
water to a boil, then add the. other ingredients pre¬ 
viously mixed together, and boil from three to five 
minutes only. Each one will choose to add salt, pep¬ 
per, etc., to his own taste. Keep about the above 
proportions if you should have to cook for an oyster 
supper, for parties, etc. 

Another. Boil the liquor with chopped celery and 
a little butter. When it boils up, add half as much 
milk as there is liquor. Have the oysters ready in a 
dish upon a slice of toasted bread, and when the liq¬ 
uor boils up again, pour it over them. 

Spade, a hand implement used for digging. It 
comprises a number of varieties, yet even inclusive of 
these is everywhere so well known as to require no 
description. 

Spaniel, a family or breed of hunting dogs. See 
page 313. 

Spanish Fly (Cantharides), an insect ground 
into powder, and mixed with lard or oil, making 
what is familiarly known as a blister. The powder 
is of a grayish-brown color, interspersed with shin¬ 
ing green particles, which are the fragments of the 
feet, head and wing cases. The Spanish fly is, be¬ 
sides its blistering qualities, a very valuable internal 
medicine, a powerful tonic and alterative. In veter¬ 
inary practice it has been used with success in the cure 
of glanders in the horse. In the same diseases where 
they were free from the tubercles they have been 
cured with Spanish fly, gentian, copper, and the sul¬ 
phate of soda. 

Dose. Spanish fly is given to the horse in five- 
grain doses once a day only, and mixed in cut or soft 
feed. Horses are more easily affected by the Span¬ 
ish fly than mares. • Blisters of Spanish fly are made 
as follows; Powdered Spanish fly, i dram; hog’s 
lard, 6 drams ; mix and apply by the hand, rubbing 
into the part to be blistered; wash off the part next 
day, oil or lard it for a week, and the swelling will 
leave when the inflammation has gone out' of the 
part. An excellent application for the removal of a 
splint, or soft tumors about the legs of horses is made 
as follows: Tincture of Spanish fly, i ounce; oil of 
croton, 20 drops; well rubbed into the part. It acts 
like magic, that is, if the tumor can be removed by 
any means. 


Antiuote for Poisoning by Spanish Fly. The 
effects of poisoning by Spanish fly are acrid taste, burn¬ 
ing heat in the throat, stomach, and belly, bloody 
vomitings, colic, purging, retention of urine, convul¬ 
sions, death. 

Treatment. Give large draughts of olive oil, thin 
gruel, milk, starch enemas, linseed tea, laudanum, and 
camphorated water. The poisonous effects are to be 
counteracted by emetics, cathartics, bleeding and 
opiates by the stomach and rectum. Animal char¬ 
coal is claimed to be an antidote. Some eminent 
physicians recommend the officinal solution of potassa, 
given in 30-drop doses, as an effectual remedy in 
strangury from blisters. 

Spanish Fowl, a breed of domestic fowl: see page 
229. 

Spanish Needle, a troublesome weed, most com¬ 
mon south of latitude 40^ North. The almost omni¬ 
present “ beggar-ticks ” of the North are congeners of 
the true Spanish needle and are scarcely distinguish¬ 
able from it. For an illustrated account of Spanish 
needle lice, see pages 880-1. 

Sparrow, the name of several species of perching 
birds, well-known by their almost ceaseless chip-chip. 

European House Sparrow. This is by far the 
most celebrated of the whole sparrow family, and is 
probably the one referred to in the New I'estament— 

“ not even a sparrow shall fall to the ground without 
your Heavenly Father’s notice.’' It is sometimes 
called simply European sparrow, and is also well 
known by the appellation “English sparrow.” It was 
introduced into this country from England many 
years ago, apparently for the purpose of adding to 
our list of insect destroyers; but so far it seems to 
confine itself to cities, where it subsists exclusively 
upon street garbage. So far as these sparrows range, 
they drive out all our native song-birds, and from 
their prolific power it is feared they will spread all 
over the country, substituting their useless omnipres¬ 
ence for all the beautiful songsters that have educated 
our childhood’s ears to the sweetest sentiment which 
nature affords. Moreover, if they take but few or no 
insects, after they have driven out all the birds that 
do take them, we shall sorely repent of having ever 
encouraged their introduction into this country. That 
they are w'orthless is settled by the fact that carefully 
calculating England has for more than a generation 
paid a premium for their death. 

Chipping Sparrow. This is a very common little 
bird throughout North America, not sojourning in 
cities. It does not drive away other birds, being 
native on this continent. Its song consists of six or 
seven notes, rapidly uttered. Its beak and forehead 
are black, crown continuous chestnut, black and white 
striping about the forehead and eyes; the sides of the 
head and neck and the rump are ashy, while the 
upper part of the back is covered with Mack and 
brown streaks. Its four or five eggs are greenish 
blue, marked with dark brown spots, laid in slender 

















Record 2:14^^ 



’WM§M§M 








wMS^§Mi 





























































































































] 

'( 

( 

r’ 

{ 

I 

(■ 

i 


SFA VIN—SPEED. 


”55 


nests, which are built of grass and hair, on apple- 
trees or low bushes. 

Field Sparrow. This is found almost throughout 
North America. It has a red beak, crown and back 
a dusky red streaked with blackish, builds its nest 
on the ground at the foot of a small bush or on 
branches near the ground, where it lays four to six 
eggs, of a grayish rusty color. 

Other sparrows, of less note, are Townsend’s, Brew¬ 
er’s, Fox-colored, Slate-colored, Swamp, Song (four 
species), Black-chinned, Tree, Black-throated, White- 
throated, Golden-crowned, White-crowned, Yellow¬ 
winged, Lark, Spotted, Beaked, Nootka and Savannah, 
besides a large number of finches, buntings, snow¬ 
birds, etc., all of which belong to the sparrow family. 

Spavin, a variety of disease affecting the hock 
joint of the horse: see pages 739, 827-8. 

Spaying, the destroying of the ovaries of heifers, 
bitches, young sows and other female animals, in 
order to prevent conception and promote fattening. 
It is usually done by making an incision into the 
mid-flank on the left side, with a lancet or sharp 
knife, cutting off the ovary and stitching up the 
wound. The part should be so dressed as to exclude 
the air; and the animal should be kept warm and 
quiet for two or three days after the operation. The 
spaying of heifers is practiced far less now than for¬ 
merly, not on account of any failure of its object, but 
because the great improvement in the breeds of cattle 
has correspondingly enhanced the value of breeding 
cows. See page 283. 

Spearmint, a very popular, spirituous-aromatic 
herb, found in some gardens. Its properties are 
about the same as those of peppermint, being a stim¬ 
ulant, sedative, carminative, etc. For medicinal pur¬ 
poses the volatile oil is preferred. Fresh sprigs of 
spearmint are used to make the celebrated “ mint 
julep.” 

Species, a class of plants or animals resembling 
each other in essential characteristics, and capable of 
indefinitely continued fertile reproduction through the 
sexes. In these days of advanced science, however, 
myriads of the lower forms of life are found to have 
no sex, and the lines between vegetable and animal 
life become completely obliterated. Among inanimate 
objects the word denotes a group of most nearly allied 
specimens. A genus is a more ideal classific term, 
comprising one or more species. Classification con¬ 
tinues upward or more general through family, order, 
class, branch and kingdom; and all these terms are 
also prefixed by the modifier sub. 

Speed. The steady increase in speed, both trot¬ 
ting, pacing and running, since “ Boston Blue ” ac¬ 
complished his (then) wonderful feat of trotting a 
mile in three minutes at Boston, Mass., in 1818, is a 
significant commentary on the excellence of the pres¬ 
ent method of breeding and training the horse. Speed 
has increased so rapidly since that date that it would 
require a volume to enumerate all horses that have 


made a record better than “ Boston Blue ” made. In 
fact, many of our common road horses can trot a mile 
as quickly as was done by this pioneer trotter. In 
the following list we give the name of every horse 
which has a record as a trotter of 2:30 or better, with 
the year in which the iierformance was made and the 
number of heats each animal has trotted in 2:30 and 
better, up to the season of 1882. Wagon records of 
2:35 o*" ketter are treated as equivalent to harness 
records of 2:30 or better. We also give the names 
and best record of those horses who have trotted over 
one mile and up to 100 miles. This driving at long 
distances at speed is a practice that is greatly depre¬ 
cated by humane admirers of this noble animal and 
cannot be too strongly condemned by all. We are glad 
to note that of late no special attempts have been 
made to surpass the records of several years ago, and 
it is hoped that there will never be any further 
need of recording a longer list of this long-distance 
speed. Four horses have trotted 20 miles within an 
hour, and several others have tried it and failed. 
Black Joke, the horse that trotted 50 miles in three 
hours and fifty-seven minutes, was severely injured 
by it. Conquerer, which trotted 100 miles in less 
than nine hours, died the same day. 

In the following tabular statement of the record of 
all horses that have trotted one mile in 2:30 or bet¬ 
ter, the date given is the year in which their best 
time was made, and the figures to the right of the year 
indicate the number of times the animal has trotted 
heats within 2: 30. 

Yr. No. of 
Times. 

2:165^ 

Charley Ford 1880 100 
Occident 1872 27 

2: 17 

Gloster 1874 39 

2:171^ 

Dexter 1867 87 

Piedmont i88r 41 

So-so 1881 11 

2: 17 

Edwin Thorne 1881 32 

Santa Claus 1881 36 

2: 173^ 

Hannis 1880 76 

2:18 

Dick Swiveller 1879 41 

Edwin Forrest 1878 30 

Great Eastern 1878 30 

Josephus 1881 19 

Judge Fullerton 1875 104 
Kate Sprague 1881 21 

Nettie 1871 51 

Proteine 1879 52 

Red Cloud 1874 46 

Robert McGregor ’81 36 


Yr. No. of 
Times. 

2; loi^ 

Maud S 1881 

2 ; I r 1/ 

35 

St. Julien 1880 

60 

Rarus 1878 

2:14 

185 

Goldsmith Maid 1874 

332 

Trinket <881 

2:1454 

56 

Hopeful 1878 

2 :i5 

137 

Lula 1875 

2: 

56 

Smuggler 1876 

2: 151^ 

44 

Hattie Woodward ’80 
2: i6i^ 

24 

Lucille Golddust ’78 
2: 1654 

37 

American Girl 1874 
Darby (Jno. Mur¬ 

150 

phy, Jr.) 1879 

92 










1156 


SPEED. 


Year. No. of 
Times. 

2 : i8i^ 

Lady Maud 1875 33 

Lady Thorne 1869 106 

Lucy 1872 62 

Midnight 1878 38 

Monroe Chief 1880 61 

2; i8>^ 

Col. Lewis 1878 21 

Slow Go 1877 23 

2 :18^ 

J. B. Thomas 1881 ii 

Nutwood 1879 36 

Patchen (Orwell 

Boy) 1880 16 

2:19 

Albermarle 1878 23 

Alexander 1881 24 

Alley 1879 46 

Bonesetter 1879 88 

Cozette 1876 66 

Edward 1878 20 

Graves 1878 20 

Kitty Bates 1880 12 

Wedgewood 1880 56 

2: 

Bodine 1875 66 

Comee 1877 71 

Croxie 1878 16 

George Palmer 1869 32 

Keene Jim 1880 n 

Parana 1880 27 

2: 19^ 

Driver 1880 129 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2 : 20 


Moose 1880 38 

Thomas L. Young ’75 27 

Troubadour 1881 20 

Will Cody 1880 42 

2 : 193^ 

Adelaide 1878 67 

Camors 1874 35 

Clingstone 1881 i 
Daisydale 1880 18 

Dick Wright 1880 40 

Fanny Wither¬ 
spoon 1881 9 

Flora Temple 1859 99 

John S. Clarke r88i 24 
2; 20 

Annie W. 1881 25 

Belle Brasfield 1879 37 

Capt. Emmons 1880 42 

Elaine 1880 n 

Etta Jones 1879 16 

Fleety Golddust 1884 12 

Frank 1877 15 

Humboldt 1881 17 

John H 1878 76 


Little Fred (Iowa) ’77 
Mambrino Gift 1874 
May Queen 1875 
Nancy Hackett 1878 
Orange Girl ’80 

Prospero ’7 7 

2 - r’o^ 

Amy ’79 

Fanny Robinson ’79 
Henry ’7 r 

Lucy ’80 

Martha Wash¬ 
ington ’77 

Mazomanie ’78 

Sheridan ’80 

Silverton ’81 

William H '81 

2:20!^ 

^'oltaire ’79 

2: 20j^ 

Chance 79 

Glendale ’80 

Gov. Sprague ’7 6 

Lida Bassett ’79 

Noontide ’80 

Richard ’7 8 

J. P. Morris ’81 

Irene ’80 

Sam Purdy ’76 

2 : 2o3^ 

Huntress ’76 

Lysander Boy ’77 

Mountain Boy ’68 

2:21 

Banquo ’77 

Castle Boy ’74 

Castleton ’7 9 

Clementine ’75 

Doty ’78 

Gazelle ’72 

Gen. Garfield ’75 

Gen. Grant ’76 

Indianapolis ’78 

King Phillip ’77 

May Bird ’77 

Powers ’78 

Scott’s Thomas ’78 

Susie ’76 

Lady Pritchard ’78 

Lucille ’78 

Richards 

Phil Thompson ’81 

White Stockings ’77 

Wild Flower ’81 

2:21!^ 

Dan Smith ’80 23 

Hambletonian 

Bashaw ’80 20 


54 

17 
25 

7 

20 

19 

28 

7 

I 

39 
12 

50 

18 

43 

60 


2 : 211/ 


3 

13 

15 

r8 

23 

26 
11 

24 

30 

61 

2 

29 

12 

^9 
11 

31 

21 
20 
12 

15 

12 

9 

69 

40 

22 

44 

9 

26 

3 

20 

I 


Hambletonian 
Mambrino 
Independence 
Jersey Boy 
Kansas Chief 
Kentucky Wilkee 
Mambrino 
Pilot R 

2; 2iJ4 
Abbottsford 
Black Cloud 
Jay Gould 
Music 

\Voodford Mam¬ 
brino 

Steve Maxwell 
2: 2l3^ 
Charley Champlin ’81 

>5 
72 


'ear. 

No. oi 


Year. 

Mo. of 


1 imes 

2:22 

Capitola 

’ 8 r 

rimes. 

3 

’78 

16 

Chestnut Hill 

’79 

19 

’81 

6 

Convoy 

’80 

10 

’80 

52 

C. W. Woolley 

’77 

8 

’76 

57 

Deception 

26 

’80 

12 

Dick Moore 

’80 

25 

’79 

’81 

16 

Elsie Good 

79 

37 

19 

Gibralter 
Honest Harry 

’81 

77 

8 

50 

0 

19 

Jenny 

72 

75 

’81 

18 

78 

’80 

f 

Joker 

41 

23 

Little Sioux 

7 

11 

72 

20 

Mattie 

78 

75 

23 

Nancy 

’81 

16 

’78 


Romero 

’81 

17 

20 

Scotland 

77 

27 

80 

43 

Sweetheart 
Tanner Boy 

’8r 

’77 

6 

28 


Moisey 
Rosalind 
Rose of Wash¬ 
ington 

2:22 

Bateman 

Bella 

Blackbird 

Brigadier 

Calmar 

Chickamauga 

Commonwealth 

(Dred) 

Dame Trot 
Emma B 
George Wilkes 


19 

10 

6 


79 19 


’81 

75 

’64 

’81 

’81 

’78 

’76 

79 

’68 


42 

31 

5 

47 

39 

36 

29 

15 

46 


2 : 223 ^ 
Flora Belle 
Palma 

Young Bruno 
2:23 

Alcantara 
Blue Mare 
Bonner 
Bonner Boy 
Buzz Medium 
Clifton Boy 
Commodore 
Ethel 
Eureka 
Fred Hooper 


72 

’80 

74 


’80 

’77 

>5 

79 

’81 

’78 

79 

’78 

’8r 


19 

4 

19 


11 
18 
16 

9 

10 

42 

16 

20 

6 


Helene 

’81 

23 

Hector 

’80 

I 

Joe Brown 

’76 

40 

Hugh McLaughli 

n ’81 

I 

Little Gipsy 
Mambrino Dudle} 

’77 

'’81 

56 

8 

Idol 

Jim Irving 

75 

’81 

8 

Molly Morris 


3 ^ 

John R 

12 

Mystic 

75 

’76 

’79 

’78 

8 

Kate McCall 

’81 

10 

Oakland Maid 

16 

Katie Middleton 

’79 

12 

Von Arnim 

11 

Kilbourn Jim 

f 

72 

'75 

’77 

’79 

12 

Wolford Z. 

29 

Lady Banker 

3 

2:22^ 

Big John 

’81 

6 

Lady Mac 

Lady Palmer 

16 

9 

Dictator 

J 

79 

25 

11 

Lew Scott 

’79 

82 

Grafton 

/ J 
r 

7 5 

Lady Turpin 

75 

14 

Hannah 1) 

76 

22 

Minnie R 

’8,1 

15 

Jennie Holton 

77 

’80 

I 

Oceana Chief 

’79 

9 

Lady Rolfe 

4 

Pickard 

’81 

10 

Sensation 

>5 

76 

45 

10 

Proctor 

■76 

2 

Thorndale 

Robert Lee 

’81 

10 

Woodford Chief 

77 

>6 

10 

Scott’s Chief 

’79 

2 

2 ; 2 2 54 
Badger Girl 

26 

Thomas Jefferson 

Unknown 

Trampoline 

’75 

’75 

’78 

’81 

39 

8 

36 

Blackwood, Jr. 

'76 

16 

Victor 

9 






























































































































































































































































































































































































SPEED. 1159 


Year. No. of 


Times. 

2:23 

Volney 

79 

12 

Wildair 

’78 

12 

2: 23^ 

Argonaut 

’80 

27 

Belle Echo 

’81 

9 

Blackwood Prince 

’81 

9 

Dan Voorhees 

76 

19 

Fearnaught 

’68 

4 

Fred Casey 

’80 

13 

Frank ReeYes 

’76 

14 

Gen. Butler 

’62 

46 

Lady Snell 

’75 

14 

Nerea 

>5 

78 

9 

Phil 

3 

Post Boy 

’79 

18 

St. James 

’73 

79 

42 

Sciola 

37 

Tolu Maid (Net¬ 
tie C.) 

’80 

11 

Trio 

’76 

8 

Unab.la 

’81 

23 

W. H. Allen 

’72 

25 

Wizz 

York State 

75 

5 

2:23^ 

Annie Collins 

’76 

40 

Belle H 

’79 

75 

9 

Blanche 

40 

Fashion 

’8r 

2 

Geo. M. Patchen 

’60 

34 

Gloster, Jr 

’79 

8 

Goldfinder 

’81 

14 

Grey Cloud 

’80 

3 

Iron Age 

’80 

19 

Jewett 

’79 

4 

Jim 

’81 

6 

Knox Boy 

’80 

5 

Lad) Vorhees 

— 

6 

Lizzie 2d 

’80 

I 

Marion 

’76 

9 

Mary Russell 

’78 

14 

Nancy 

Rhode Island 

’68 

14 

Rosa Wilkes 
Shepherd Boy 

77 

4 

St. James 

Tariff 

’81 

7 

2:233^ 

Abe Edgerton 

’78 

13 

Billy Barr 

’70 

16 

Billy Ray 

’76 

4 

Damon 

’77 

9 

Frank J. (Milton 
Day) 

75 

6 

Harry Clay 

’77 

2 

Major Lord 

79 

11 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2: 24 


Breeze 

’76 

73 

77 

77 

6 

Brother Jonathan 

30 

Champion, Jr. 

4 

Dan Bryant 
Defiance 

Dr. Lewis (Lean- 

6 

der) 

78 

37 

Del Sur 

’81 

4 

Empress 

’81 

11 

Frank Wood 

74 

9 

Geo. B. Daniels 
G. T. Pilot 

74 

21 

Glide 

79 

7 

Grey Salem 

’79 

15 

Harry Gilbert 

79 

10 

Hotspur 

79 

46 

James Howell 

’74 

8 

Jessie Hayes 
John W. Conley 

79 

9 

(Beppo) 

73 

7 

John Morgan 

’64 

6 

Joseph A. 

’72 

16 

Kirkwood 

Lady Star (Capi¬ 

’69 

6 

tol a) 

’76 

40 

Lucy Fleming 

’79 

10 

Magdallah 

’79 

15 

May Howard 

’76 

39 

Mambrino Kate 

’78 

10 

Middlesex 

’79 

4 

Neome 

’78 

6 

Nettie Burlew 

’76 

7 

Nil Desperandum 

’78 

16 

Orient 

’75 

12 

Potol G. T. 

’78 

12 

Sadie Bell 

’78 

12 

Sooner 

78 

9 

Tommy Gates 

’79 

22 

Tommy Dodd 

’80 

3 

Wild Lily 

2: 24 

’77 

19 

Abdallah Boy 

’81 

11 

Amy B. 

’76 

11 

Belle Oakley 

Big John 

’81 

30 

Calamus 

’80 

10 

Carrie 

Crown Point 

76 

13 

Dick Taylor 

’77 

5 

Draco Prince 

7 ^ 

16 

Flora F. 

’81 

9 

Forest Patchen 

’81 

16 

Jimmy Stewart 

’81 

4 

John Hall 

’80 

2 r 

Lady Foxie 

’80 

46 

Leontine 

Lucy Fleming 

’80 

4 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2:241^ 


Major Allen (Lo¬ 



cust) 

71 

7 

Monarch Rule 

’77 

’75 

’75 

24 

Observer 

25 

Vanity Fair 

9 

2: 245^ 

Big Soap 

’80 

13 

Black Frank 

78 

’81 

11 

Bonita 

I 

Brown Dick 

75 

5 

California Damsel ’63 

5 

Carbolic 

’80 

4 

Corisande 

’78 

’80 

6 

Crown Point 

11 

Dispatch 

’79 

7 

Fred Douglas 

79 

X 2 

George 

’80 

2 

George 

74 

4 

Hylas 

’76 

6 

Kate Hall 

79 

3 

Loafer 

;78 

’77 

’77 

12 

Laura Williams 

4 

Magenta 

9 

Monarch, Jr 

’76 

21 

Myron Perry 

7 ^ 

24 

Pilot Temple 

’71 

44 

Planter 

’76 

’63 

15 

Prince Hartford 

11 

Randall 

’74 

9 

Sea Foam 

75 

21 

Sleepy John 

Stonewall 

’80 

8 

Wilbur F. 

’80 

12 

Windsor 

2; 243^ 

Albert 

75 

3 

Bashaw, Jr. 

’68 

28 

Blondihe 

79 

3 

Chicago 

’68 

41 

Col. Dawes 

’78 


Dan Donaldson 

’81 

TO 

Ella Wright 

’74 

— 

El wood Medium 

’81 

• 7 

Florence 

’81 

27 

Galatea 

'81 

6 

Grey Chief 

’80 

11 

Lady Mills 

’78 

5 

Silas Rich 

’68 

14 

2:25 

^mulus 

79 

21 

Allie West 

’75 

3 

Anodyne 

’77 

11 

Aulinda 

’81 

8 

barney Kelly 

’77 

38 

Bill Thunder 

’76 

’78 

5 

Cairo 

15 

Chas. Henson 

’79 

3 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2:25 


Charley B. 

79 

5 

Charley Mac 

’77 

15 

Chicago Maid 

’78 

6 

Commodore Van¬ 



derbilt 

'66 

5 

Crown Prince 

’73 

’81 

31 

Dave C. 

2 

Echora 

’8r 

8 

Ella Earl 

’79 

34 

Elsie Groff 

’81 

15 

Everett Ray 

’74 

14 

Frank Munson 

79 

33 

George H. 

79 

9 

Gold Note 

’80 

9 

Golden Girl 

Hiram Woodruff 

’77 

9 

Joe Ripley 

’77 

51 

John W. Hall 

75 

4 

John Hall 

’78 

3 

John Taylor 

’76 

’75 

I 

Jubilee Lambert 

2 

Lady Lockwood 

65 

I 

Lady Martin 

’81 

TO 

Little Mary 

’76 

7 

Lady Moore 

’81 

I 

Lady Thorne, 2d 

’81 

6 

Maggie C. 

’8r 

10 

Modoc 

’78 

15 

Mohawk, Jr. 

(Clark’s) 

’72 

’76 

’74 

8 

Ned Wallace 

18 

Nelly Irwin 

50 

Pat Hunt 

’77 

’78 

’79 

’78 

12 

Queechy Maid 

I 

Reliance 

2 

Result 

14 

Ripon Boy 

’73 

12 

Robert B. Thomas 

’79 

’79 
’81 

15 

Rolla Golddust 

4 

Tom Hendricks 

r 

Tom Keeler 

77 

60 

Tommy Gates 

Valley Chief 

’80 

16 

Vanity Fair 

Vulcan 

77 

23 

2:251^ 

Adelede Clark 

’77 

'8 

Amber 

’80 

18 

Barney 

’78 

2 

Brown Dick 

’59 

12 

Clover (Bright- 

wood) 

81 

28 

Eva 

75 

8 

Faugh-a-Ball- 

a ugh 

77 

9 

George K. 

’81 

3 

George Treat 

’76 

2 

Golden Girl 

’80 

13 





















I i6o 


SPEED 


Year No. of 
Times. 


. 7 ^ 

8o 

77 
’8o 
’81 
’81 

79 
’8o 
’81 

79 

’81 

75 


2:251^ 

Joe (Triumph) 
Johnny Gordon 
Lewinski 
Lumps 
McLeod 
Onward 
Red Line 
Rienzi 
Rosa Wilkes 
Star 

Stella Blake 
Susie Parker 

2:251^ 

Alta 

Andy Mershon 
Annette 
Ashley 
Barkis 

Bradley, J. J. 

Byron 

Chas. E. Lowe 
Chieftain 
Derby (Dutchman)^ 2 
Dream ’7 8 

Early Rose ’81 

Effie Deans ’76 

Embassador ’81 

Ethan Allen ’60 

Ethel Medium ’81 

Gray Mack '69 

Hill, H. C. ’74 

John Grant ’80 

Kate Campbell ’74 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


’80 

I 

77 

’79 

’81 

’81 

% 

71 

71 

’71 

’80 


Lady Groesback ’78 
Lady Sherman 
Led a 
Lyman 

Mambrino Belle 
Membrino Genl. 


’81 

79 

’80 

’80 

78 


Mountain Quail ’78 
Myrtle 
Nonesuch 
Onaway 
Rockingham 
Sam. Bruno 
Sir Walter 
Spotted Colt 
Sue Grundy 
Wagner Bashaw 

2: 253^ 

Camors 
Col. Russell 
Ella Madden 
Fred Crocker 
Harry Harley 
Honesty 
Jerome 


79 

’71 

’81 

’62 

’75 

’80 

’65 

’8r 

’81 


5 
4 

33 

9 

3 

3 

I 

6 
6 

11 


11 

4 

5 
8 

6 

13 

14 
7 

16 

5 

7 

6 
I 
I 

11 
9 
9 
3 

3 
87 

5 

5 

9 

10 

8 

11 
30 

r o 

15 

18 

5 

4 

3 
11 

^5 

22 


77 
’81 

’79 

76 

78 

’80 

’79 

’78 

’81 

’61 

70 

’74 

’80 


77 

I 

71 


2:253^ 

Katie Jackson 
Lady Brownell 
Steinway 
White Cloud 

2: 26 

Ada Paul 
Alfred (Little Al¬ 
fred) 

Alice West 
Amboy 
Almont, Jr, 

Belle of Portland 
Belle Strickland 
Big Fellow 
Bliley 

Billey Platter ’75 

Blanch Amory ’80 

Capt. Jack 
Clara G. 

Columbus Hamble- 
tonian ’80 

Cooley ’66 

Confidence ’77 

Dick Jamison ’74 

Enigma ’76 

Eva ’81 

Executor ’81 

Fearnaught, Jr. ’80 
Foxie V. ’78 

Frank Ferguson ’77 
Geo. H. Mitchell ’77 
Granville ’76 

Harry 79 

Harry Conklin ’79 
Harry W. Genet ’7 i 
Hattie Arnold ’80 
Highland Mary ’80 
Hogarth ’7 7 

Jacksonville Boy 77 
Joe Bunker ’80 

Jewess ’77 

Kitty Cook ’76 

L.ady Daggett 78 
May Queen ’67 
Mill Boy ’81 

Mohawk Jr (Halls) 77 


80 4 

70 7 
76 T4 

80 2 

71 9 

81 I 

80 8 


Nelia 
Parrott 
Peace 

Phil Dougherty 
Prospect Maid 
Richmond 
Russell 
Sadie Howe 
Schuyler 
Sleepy Bill 
St. Charles 
Surprise 


78 

79 

78 

79 
’80 

’78 

76 
79 

77 
’76 

’77 

’70 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


3 

2 

8 

4 

3 
12 

7 

7 

3 

2 

17 

3 
3 

10 

9 

5 

3 

I 

7 

4 

32 

8 
I 

IS 

7 

5 

13 

3 

4 

3 

6 

4 

T I 

4 
9 

5 

10 


15 

4 

8 

17 

4 

6 

3 
7 

13 

2 

4 
12 


2:26 

T. A 

Tacky (Polly) 
Tattler 
Tom Britton 
Warrior 
W. K. Thorn 
Voung Sentinel 
2:261^ 

Aldine 

Bay Whalebone 
Billy Hoskins 
Black Mack 
Capt. Herod 
Coaster 
Dakota Maid 
Deucalion 
Dora 
Du roc 
Frank F 
Frank Palmer 
Green Charley 
Hazor (Atwood) 
Kitty D 

Lady Blanchard 
Lady Emma 
Lady Monroe 
Lady Suffolk 
Lucrece 

Lydia Thompson 
Magnolia 
Mary Davis 
Phyllis 

Queen of the West 
Royal John 
Susie 

Sweet Brier 
Timothy 

2 : 2614 

Alexander Button 
Arthur 
Ben Flagler 
Billy Boy 
Cyclone 
Duke 

Gen. Howard 
Gen. Tweed 
George Judd 
Grand Duchess 
Frank Kernan 
Honest Dutchman 
Joe Green 
License 
Lily 

Maggies ’76 

Mambrino Boy ’76 
Mamie M ’81 

Matthew Smith ’71 


77 

’67 

’68 

’77 

’79 

’68 

77 

’81 

’71 

’70 

> 

71 

’80 

’76 

’78 

’82 

’80 

’80 

’81 

>5 

79 

’76 

74 

’72 

’64 

’79 

’44 

’81 

’72 

74 

’74 

’81 

.71 
'71 
’81 
’77 

’80 


5 

10 

I 

7 

8 

12 

13 

6 
4 

I 

I 

4 

3 

10 

4 

11 
11 

8 

7 

3 
22 

ro 

4 
16 

' 3 

8 

3 

13 

ro 

7 

9 

2 

1 2 

4 
r 2 

9 


Year 


No. of 
Times. 


’8r 
’81 

f 

72 
’81 
’81 

>5 

76 
’76 
76 
’72 

,’77 

’72 

’73 

’70 13 

78 2 

7 

3 

8 

3 


3 
8 

I r 

4 
4 

3 

6 

8 

2 

6 

2 

6 

3 


2: 26^4 
McCurdy’s Ham- 
bletonian 
Mila C (Mila 
Caldwell) 
Modesty 
Morrisey 
Myrtle 

Nellie Walton 
North Star Mam¬ 
brino 

Orange Blossom 
Parole 

Phil Sheridan 
(Wis) 

Piiil Sheridan 
Prince Allen 
Rose Medium 
Royal George 
Russian Spy 
Small Hopes 
Startle 

Star of the West 
Tommy Norwood 
Uncle Dave 
Vivandiene 
Wellesley Boy 
W estfield 

2: 26^ 

Belle of Lexing¬ 
ton 

Charley Green 
Corbin Bashaw 
Enchantress 
George H 
Gilbreth Knox 
Gus 
Herod 
Little Fred 
Lou Whipple 
Parkis 
Rachel 
Red Cross 
Taylor 

2: 27 

Adison Lambert 
Ancient Order Boy 
An geline 
All rora 
Baron Luff 
Ben Morrill 
Ben Smith 
Bertie 
Billy Dow 
Billy O'Neil 
Bushy John 
Currie N 

Champion Morrill 


79 10 


73 

’78 

72 

’80 

75 

’72 

’75 

’80 

’81 

’74 

’73 

’78 

’74 

’78 

77 

77 

’72 

’81 

’80 

77 

74 

’73 


’81 

’72 

■81 

’81 

’80 

’69 

’80 

’76 

’69 

’77 

’74 

’71 

’79 

’80 


79 

’78 

’70 

’72 

’77 

79 

78 

74 

’77 

>5 

77 

71 

’77 


8 

4 
11 

3 

6 

10 

2 

6 

6 

5 

3 

5 
9 

7 

6 

2 

2 

4 

3 

8 
12 

2 


3 

12 

8 

6 

3 
2 

8 

5 

4 
8 

7 

12 

6 
7 


2 

5 

15 

3 
3 

10 

6 

3 

3 

9 

12 

3 

3 




























































































































SPEED. 


1163 


Year. N 

0. of 

Year. N 

0. of 

Years. No. of 

Year. No 

of 


1 imes. 


Ti 

mes. 


Times. 


Times. 

2 ; 27 



2:27 



2:27 



2 :28 



Charles R 

76 

2 

Starr King 

’8r 

6 

Lida Picton 

73 

I 

Governor 

’77 

2 

Chester 

’80 

3 

Stewart Maloney 

79 

3 

Maggie M 

79 

2 

Gypsy Boy 

’80 

I 

Clara (Crazy Jane:) 67 

5 

Tacony 

’53 

6 

Mamie 

’81 

3 

Harry Velox 

’81 

4 

Colonel 

78 

3 

Tennesse (Dora 



Molly 

’69 

5 

Header 

78 

I 

Uanielthe Prophet 77 

4 

Thayer) 

’71 

3 

Monroe 

’76 

3 

Highland Grey 

’77 

2 

Uickard 

79 

8 

Tom Malloy 

’77 

2 

Sir William Wal- 



Hope 

’75 

3 

Dictator 

’79 

2 

Twilight 

’76 

7 

lace 

75 

4 

Ki-Ki 

’74 

2 

Dirigo 

’77 

16 

Volunteer 

’80 

4 

Snowball 

75 

7 

Lady Byron 

’75 

7 

Donald 

’80 

3 

Volunteer Maid 

’78 

5 

St. Helena 

77 

8 

Lady Crossin 

’81 

3 

Dom Pedro 

’78 

2 

Winthrop Morrill, 


Tom Brown 

’75 

4 

Lady Dahlman 

75 

2 

Edwin B 

’79 

8 

Jr 

’77 

2 

Traveler 

’65 

3 

Lady Ellen 

’80 

2 

Ed. Getchell 

77 

I 

Yankee Sam 

78 

3 

2:27^ 



Lady Emma 

’73 

3 

Ed. White 

’77 

11 

2:271/ 



Aristos 

’76 

3 

Lady Lowe 

77 

2 

Ella Lewis 

’74 

8 

Annie Page 

’80 


Handicap 

’81 

2 

Lew Ives 

7 3 

4 

Elmo (St. Elmo) 

’73 

8 

Boston 

’79 

7 

Hickory 

’80 

13 

Logan 

’73 

4 

Eva 

’81 

2 

Chauncey H 

’80 

I 

Jackson 

’74 

I 

Lottie 

’78 

4 

Fanny 

79 

3 

Clark S 

’81 

4 

J. W. Thomas 

’81 

2 

M R 

79 

5 

Forest King 

’77 

14 

Ella Doe 

’80 

20 

Kisbar 

’81 

3 

Mack 

53 

7 

Francis 

’77 

3 

Flora Belle 

76 

12 

Maud Macey 

•76 

3 

Maid of Monte 

79 

2 

Frank (Bemis) 

’78 

4 

Grace 

> 

7 2 

3 

Midge 

’80 

5 

Mary 

’71 

5 

Geo. Cooley 

’61 

I 

John S. Heald 

76 

K 

Mountain Maid 

’66 

11 

Mary A. Whitney 

74 

4 

Geo. M. Patchen, 



Kentuckian 

’81 

7 

0 . Biennis 

56 

3 

Marvel 

’81 

I 

Jr. 

’67 

7 

Lady Lumber 

> 

77 

2 

Ohio Boy 

75 

8 

Mattie Lyle 

’77 

I 

George Henry 

78 

2 

Lady Sargeant 

’80 

I 

Pilot Boy 

’80 

3 

Mohawk 

79 

4 

Grace 

’78 

5 

Legal Tender 

’80 

3 

Prince 

'■76 

I 

Mollie Kistler 

’80 

3 

Glengarry (Uncle 



Lizzie M 

’81 

n 

Professor 

’76 

I 

Nellie Holcomb 

’63 

I 

Abe) 

’71 

4 

Mignon 

’80 

4 

Resolute 

’81 

5 

Panic (Frank 



Grey Eddy 

’72 

3 

Molly 

78 

3 

Shepherd 



Vernon) 

’67 

5 

Highland Maid 

’53 

2 

Naiad Queen 

’81 

5 

Knapp, Jr 

’70 

5 

Pat Ring 

’72 

I 

Idol 

’69 

10 

Nelly Patchen 

’76 

9 

Tom Medley 

’80 

I 

Pelham 

’49 

2 

Jack Drape 

’76 

17 

Nigger Baby 

’80 

7 

2:28 



Pete 

’79 

I 

Jerome 

79 

3 

Russ Ellis 

’80 

4 

Annie G 

’78 

I 

Pratt 

77 

6 

Jerome 

’76 

4 

Stella C 

’81 

3 

Albert W 

’81 

I 

Princeton Boy 

’76 

2 

Jerome Eddy 

’81 

4 

Tom B. Patchen 

’81 

11 

Alice 

’7 9 

2 

Red Dick 

’72 

4 

Jessie Dixon 

’81 

7 

Tom Wonder 

’74 

3 

Bay Fanny 

’79 

10 

Roland 

’79 

4 

John B 

76 

3 

Venture 

’77 

4 

Belle Lawrence 

’77 

I 

Shadow (Ayer) 

’78 

I 

Judge Hawes 

’81 

2 

2 ; 27 j/ 



Bill Ed 

’78 

2 

Sam Curtis 

’77 

2 

Lady Blessington 

’79 

4 

Alameda Maid 

» 

77 

4 

Billy L 

’80 

2 

Sciota Belle 

75 

2 

Lady Clark 

’81 

I 

Arthur 

’81 

2 

Bully Brooks 

’66 

3 

Shamrock 

’81 

3 

Lady H 

’76 

7 

Bay (Tea Boy) 

’76 

6 

Capoul 

79 

2 

St. Cloud 

’78 

2 

Lottery 

71 

9 

Bertrace 

79 

11 

Captain 

74 

5 

Tom Moore 

75 

I 

Lottie K 

’79 

8 

Clarence 

71 

I 

Careless Boy 

’79 

3 

Up-and-Up 

78 

3 

Maggie Briggs 

’74 

I 

Commodore Perry ’73 

, 2 

Clara J. 

77 

12 

Viola (Hattie) 

73 

2 

Maggie F 

’81 

I 

Daciana 70 

3 

Confidence 

’67 

I 

Webber 

76 

6 

Major Root 

’74 

I 

Director 

’81 

6 

Cora F 

’78 

2 

West Liberty 

77 

3 

May 

79 

21 

Dread 

77 

2 

David Wallace 

’78 

2 

2:281/ 



Molly 

’74 

I 

Dreadnaught 

’71 

5 

Delaware 

’77 

3 

Alexander S 

’78 

r 

Molly Drew 

"80 

2 

Emperor William 

’79 

I 

Diamond 

’80 

I 

Allen 

’76 

I 

Neli 

79 

6 

Ella Clay 

’76 

4 

Doble 

75 

4 

Arthur 

75 

5 

Nino 

79 

5 

Fritz 

’81 

3 

Don Cossack 

’81 

I 

Bay Chieftain 

’80 

3 

Penelope 


7 

Gov. Stanford 

76 

6 

Ed Eaton 

73 

3 

Belle 

’74 

3 

Prince Allen 

76 

7 

Happy Traveler 

’81 

I 

Envoy 

’78 

9 

Bellflower 

’78 

I 

Prince (Roden s) 

71 

3 

Hermes 

’81 

2 

Farmer Boy 

’79 

2 

Birdie C 

’80 

I 

Richwood 

’79 

3 

James H. Burke 

72 

4 

Fearless 

’66 

6 

Black Frank 

73 

2 

Rosewood 

75 

3 

John Chambers 

76 

2 

Filbert 

75 

2 

Brandy Boy 

’81 

I 

Sannie G 

80 

3 

John Fero 

’72 

4 

Fleta 

’81 

6 

Chester 

’80 

3 

Sir Walter 

’65 

6 

Lady Morrison 

’76 

2 

Frank (Wilson’s) 

’75 

4 

Cleveland 

’78 

2 

Sophia Temple 

’78 

7 

Lancet 

’61 

6 

Geo. F. Smith 

79 

2 

Coquette 

77 

8 















me 

( 

] 

] 

] 

z: 

] 

] 

J 

2 

I 

3 

2 

5 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

4 

I 

r 

I 

I 

5 

2 

3 

3 


SPEED. 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2: 28]^ 

Sisson Girl ’74 6 

Sleepy Tom ’80 7 

Sorrel Dapper ’75 i 

St. Remo ’80 2 

Stephanus ’80 3 

Stride-away ’69 i 

Tamarack ’79 2 

Tartar ’61 3 

Twang ’69 I 

2: 28^ 

.\lexander ’78 i 

. 41 m a ’81 I 

Arthur ’81 5 

Bristol Girl ’80 i 

Clemmie G. ’81 2 

D. Monroe ’79 i 

Fanny Otis ’74 i 

jen. Sherman ’73 4 

drey Hawk ’69 i 

Tall Terrill ’73 2 

Tambletonian ’72 i 

Tarry Mitchell (Ed. 

Foster) ’74 7 

fas. D. McMann ’7 i 2 

f. G. Blaine ’75 2 

fohn E. ’743 

-,ady Sampson ’78 j 

i^argesse ’80 3 

^ew Sayers ’70 2 

doscow ’72 2 

'lelly Webster ’78 2 

^at McCann ’76 3 

Mcahontas ’66 2 

Mlot ’59 2 

Quaker Boy '64 3 

lilver Duke ’81 r 


Years. 


2:29 

dice (Canadian) ’77 
ijax ’7 2 

>adger Boy ’81 

lelle of Saratoga ’58 
lelle Smith ’76 

ien Franklin 79 

ristol Boy ’73 

rookside Flora ’80 
usiness ’80 

apt. Smith ’80 

assius Prince ’77 

laremorit ’8r 

ommodore Nutt ’68 
'irigo ’64 

'oily Davis ’78 

11 a Ellwood ’71 

llsworth ’78 

nfield ’76 

ssex ’76 

anny ’73 

earnaught ’78 


3 
2 

I 

I 

1 

9 

4 

2 
6 

1 

4 

2 

3 

I 

I 

1 

4 

2 

I 

6 

I 


2:29 

Fleetwood ’7 6 

Fleetwood 2d ’71 

Frank Fisk ’80 

Freeman ’80 

Gen. Lee ’78 

Gen. McClellan ’65 
Gen. McClellan ’68 
Grace Bertram ’72 

Great Western ’78 

Grey Charley ’77 

Hancock ’81 

Harry Clay ’64 

Honest Billy ’80 

Hunter (Wild 
Irishman) ’77 

Indicator ’8r 

J.G. Morrill ’78 
Jack Barry ’77 

Jessie Maude ’79 

John McDougal ’79 
John Virgin ’75 

Judgment 80 

Lady Griswold ’75 
Lady McFatridge ’78 
Lady Stout ’74 

LadyTighe ’79 

Lady Woodruff ’57 
Lew Pettee ’68 

Little Sam ’77 

Major Ed sail ’7 i 

Major S. ’77 

Marguerite ’78 

Morris ’78 

Motion ’81 

Nellie K. ’80 

Nina Belle ’76 

Pompey ’78 

Reindeer ’60 

Rose Standish 
(Maud O.) ’76 

Rufus ’79 

Sam West ’75 

Shennan Morgan, 

Jr. ’79 

Stephen M. ’81 

Tom Walter '63 

W. F. Allen ’77 

Western New York ’68 
Whalebone ’75 

Widow Machree ’61 

William H. 76 

Young Magna ’75 

2:29^ 

Alice Medium 81 

Bickford ’7 8 

Billy '76 

Black Princess ’81 

Carrie K. ’78 


No. 0 

rj 

Year. 

limes 

2:291^ 

' 

3 

Charley T. 

’81 

I 

Cora 

’81 

2 

Daniel Webster 

’81 

2 

Deceiver 

’80 

1 

Dutchess Boy 

’79 

2 

Eagle Plum 

’81 

2 

Edna 

’70 

’72 

I 

Factory Girl 

2 

Fanny Lee 

’67 

’77 

5 

Frank Davis 

2 

Grand Sentinel 

’81 

< 

Henry (Whitcomb) ’7 6 

2 

Ingomar 

’81 


Janesville 

’77 

2 

Joseph 

’80 

4 

Josephine S. 

’80 

3 

Kate Bennett 

’73 

’81 

I 

Kitty Fisher 

I 

Lady Alice 

78 

8 

Little Longfellow ’7 3 

I 

Lizzie OBrien 

’81 

5 

Louise 

’81 

I 

Lucy 

’80 

\ 

Mussette 

’80 

I 

Monitor 

’81 

8 

Milo 

’81 

2 

Patch 

’81 

T 

Peralto 

’80 

I 

Phil. Dwyer 

’80 

2 

Pluck 

’76 

I 

Potter, T. J. 

’81 

I 

Ripton 

'80 

I 

St. Elmo 

72 

I 

Stranger 

81 

I 

Sucker Maid 

’80 

4 

Tola 

’78 

2 

Una 

’80 

5 

Victor 

’81 


W. H. Taylor 

’68 

I 

\V ild Oats 

’75 

3 

2: 291^ 

I 

Administrator 

’78 

’74 

’78 

’78 


Alton Boy 

2 

Bay Dick 

I 

Beautiful Bells 

2 

Billy Burr 

’80 

4 

Blonde 

’65 

I 

Bolly Lewis 

’60 

3 

Bushwhacker 

’78 

I 

Bruno 

’67 

>5 

74 

’77 

’73 

’76 

79 

’76 

I 

Caledonia Chief 

2 

Capitola 


Cottage Girl 

3 

Col. Pike 

I 

Columbia Chief 

I 

Dacia 

2 

Dan Howell 

2 ^ 

Delhi 

76 


No. of 
Times. 


1 

2 
2 
2 
2 
I 
I 

1 

2 
2 
4 

I 

1 

2 
2 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

I 

3 

3 

I 

I 

1 

2 

4 
2 

1 

2 

I 

I 

5 

I 

I 

I 

5 

3 


I 

I 

8 

3 

1 

3 

2 
2 
2 
2 

I 

I 

1 

2 

I 

4 

I 









































































































































































































































SPEED. 


> 


Year. No. of 
Times. 

2:2914 

Year. No. of 
Times. 

2: 293^ 

Doubtful 

> 

72 

I 

Sentinel 

’72 

I 

Drummer Boy 
Dutch Girl 

’77 

’67 

I 

I 

Sinbad 

2:30 

’81 

2 

Emperor 

77 

I 

Abdallah 

’73 

I 

Fairmount 

’81 

5 

Alice Tyler 

’81 

I 

Falmouth Boy 

74 

2 

Alonzo Hayward 

’79 

I 

Hankinson 

’74 

I 

Ambler 

78 

’80 

’80 

I 

Harvest Queen 
Haviland (Ned 

70 

I 

Annie Laurie 
Arthur T 

1 

2 

Cole) 

75 

I 

Baby Boy 

73 

I 

India Rubber 

68 

I 

Bashaw Maid 

’70 

I 

Jennie L. 

’78 

’78 

3 

Bay Jack 

>5 

I 

John J Cook 

I 

Belle Dean 

2 

Judge Pollard 

’77 

I 

Belle of Fitchburg ’80 

I 

Keney 

*80 

I 

Belle of Toronto 

71 

2 

Lady Faustina 

79 

3 

Ben McClelland 

79 

2 

Little Gem 

’81 

2 

Bettie Bump 

I 

Lady K 

76 

2 

Billy 

’60 

I 

Lady Vernon 

’53 

I 

Billy Bolden 

’80 

I 

Lillie Shields 

’74 

I 

Black Dan 

’79 

I 

Lothair 

’76 

’68 

4 

Black Douglass 

!53 

79 

’80 

I 

Madawaska Maid 

I 

Black Pilot 

2 

Mattie Graham 

’81 

4 

Bliss 

I 

Mike Jefferson 

’79 

I 

Barney H 

77 

I 

Mohawk Maid 

’81 

2 

Capt. Gill 

’68 

I 

Music 

’80 

I 

Chicago Jack 

56 

I 

Nabocklish 

’64 

2 

Capt. Jenks 

’74 

’80 

I 

Nettie Ward 

’77 

I 

Catchfly 

1 

New Berlin Girl 

’70 

I 

Champaign 

’67 

I 

Novelty 

81 

2 

Chancey M Bedle 

o^oo 0 

I 

Pemberton 

’79 

’80 

I 

Champion Girl 

4 

Pickwick 

I 

Charley Douglas 

I 

Portia 

’81 

2 

Charley R 

’77 

2 

Red Cross 

’81 

2 

Clermont 

’79 

’78 

’67 

’74 

I 

Romance 

’77 

2 

Clifton Boy 

2 

Selkirk 

’76 

3 

Cardinal 

I 

Warwick 

’68 

I 

Colburne 

I 

Young Buchanan 
Zephyr 

2 ; 293^ 

’80 

’79 

I 

I 

Cooloo 

Dan Mace (Sorrel 
Dan) 

Denmark 

79 

’66 

7 1 

I 

I 

I 

Ashland Kate 

’76 

I 

Dexter (Oregon) 

’81 

I 

Brignoli 

67 

I 

Dinah 

74 

I 

Cattaraugus Chief 75 

2 

Dio 

’78 

3 

Carrie 

64 

I 

Dixie 

’68 

I 

Daisy Burns 

’67 

I 

Dolly 

74 

I 

Dot 

74 

I 

Don Elipha 

>5 

79 

79 

’79 

’76 

’72 

’63 

I 

Drift (Norwood) 

’69 

I 

Duck 

I 

Frank Landers 

’81 

I 

Duster 

2 

Harry Spanker 

’76 

2 

Edgar 

3 

Josh Billings 

77 

I 

Ed. Wilder 

4 

Kentucky Girl 

’81 

2 

Ella Wilson 

I 

Lady Ross 

’71 

2 

Elmore Everett 

I 

Mars 

82 

2 

Emma C 


I 

M and 

75 

I 

Emperor 

’68 

I 

Nick 

73 

I 

Empress 

’65 

I 

Nightingale 

’76 

I 

Erskine Fuller 

81 

3 

Ross 

’73 

I 

Essex Maid 

78 

I 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2:30 


Fancy 

78 

I 

Fancy Day 

’81 

I 

Fanny Raymond 

’77 

I 

Favorite 

’76 

I 

Fitzgerald 

’79 

3 

Flora Shepherd 

75 

I 

Flora Windsor 

’78 

I 

Fox 

74 

I 

Frank Forrester 

56 

I 

Fred (Rodens) 

’72 

I 

Fred 

’79 

I 

F remont 

’81 

I 

Gen, Love 

’74 

I 

Gen. Picton 

’74 

I 

George A. Ayer 

’76 

3 

George Miller 

73 

2 

Governor 

73 

I 

Grey Bill 

’75 

2 

Grey Eddy 

54 

4 

Happy Jack 

’78 

I 

Hattie 

74 

I 

Headlight 

79 

I 

Hickok, 0 . A 

’77 

2 

Iron King 

’78 

I 

Jennie W 

’80 

I 

Jericho 

77 

I 

Jessie Wales 

’69 

2 

Jim Crandall 

’81 

I 

Jim Raven 

77 

I 

Joe Hooker 

’70 

I 

Joe Kellogg 

78 

3 

Joe Pettit 

’77 

I 

Joe S 

’76 

2 

Joe Udell 

73 

I 

John Stewart 

’71 

78 

I 

Josephine 

I 

Kitty 

77 

I 

Kitty Clyde 

’81 

I 

Kitty Morris 

’79 

I 

Lady Augusta 

’70 

I 

Lady Dismore 

77 

I 

Lady Fox 

73 

I 

Lady Hamilton 

’71 

I 

Lady Hughes 

’70 

I 

Lady Jane 

’62 

I 

Lady Lemmon 

78 

I 

Lady IM 

77 

I 

Lady Mack 

-78 

I 

Lady Moscow 

49 

2 

Lady Prew 

’76 

I 

Lady Sutton 

49 

I 

Little Frank 

’76 

I 

Little Jake 

74 

2 

Little Wonder 

77 

I 

Lizzie Keller 
(Emma E) 

77 

4 

Lola 

77 

I 

Lucy C 

79 

I 


I 167 


Years. No. of 


2:30 

T 

imes. 

Lucca 

’76 

I 

Major King 

’78 

I 

Mambrino 

’8r 

I 

Martha 

’79 

2 

Matt Kirkwood 

’79 

2 

May Morning 

’8r 

I 

Messenger Knox 

’77 

r 

Marion H 

’79 

r 

Montreal Girl 

’8t 

r 

Mohawk Chief 

’77 

r 

Morning 

’77 

4 

Moscow 

45 

r 

Natchez 

’73 

r 

Nellie 

’79 

r 

Nellie Rose 

’75 

7 

Nemo 

77 

r 

Newbrook 

’79 

r 

Newburgh 

’67 

r 

Old Put 

’69 

r 

Orient 

’79 

I 

Oscar 

’78 

2 

Pearl 

’79 

r 

Pochuck Maid 

’60 

r 

Poscora Hayward 

’78 

r 

Princess 

’58 

I 

Prince Charles 

75 

r 

Purity 

’7 t 

I 

Red Bird 

’58 

I 

Red Jim 

’71 

I 

Rex Patchen 

’73 

I 

Rival 

75 

I 

Rilly 

’80 

T 

Roanoke Maid 

’65 

r 

Rosewood 

’80 

2 

Rustie 

’77 

I 

Rutledge 

’74 

2 

Shakespeare 

’73 

r 

Silky B 

79 

T 

Silver 

75 

r 

Simon 

’75 

t 

Sligo 

’79 

2 

Sunbeam 

’74 

r 

Sunnyside 

’62 

I 

Sussex 

’78 

r 

Spider 

’79 

T 

Spinella 

■8t 

r 

St. Elmo 

’68 

r 

Star 

’73 

I 

Stranger 

’55 

r 

Stranger 

’77 

r 

Strathmore 

’66 

r 

Sweetness 

’78 

2 

Sweet Home 

’8t 

I 

Tom Hendricks 

’80 

I 

White-Line 

’76 

I 

Will Benham 

’81 

I 

Wildwood 

’77 

I 

W. M. Mallory 

’79 

2 


74 












1168 


SPEED. 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2:30 

Woodchuck 7 8 

Young Columbus ’80 
Young Royal 

George ’62 


Year. No. of 
Times. 


2: 30 

Young Rattler ’74 i 
Zephyr ’75 i 


TWO MILES—TROTTING. 


1831—Top Gallant, Philadelphia, to saddle, 5: 19^. 
1840—Edwin Forrest, Philadelphia, May 6, to saddle 

5:05- 

1847—Lady Suffolk, Long Island, to saddle, 5 : 03. 

1852— Lacony, Long Island, to saddle, 5 : 02. 

1853— Lady Franklin, Long Island, wagon, 5:11. 

1859— Flora Temple, Eclipse Course, L. I., Aug. 16, 
in harness, 4:5054- 

1860— Geo. M. Patchen, Union Course, L. L, June 14, 

4:53^- 

1865—Dexter, Long Island, to wagon; 4:5654- 
1867—Dexter, Fashion Course, L. I., in harness, June 
14, 4:51. 

1870—Dreadnaught, Fleetwood Park, N. Y., June 29, 
in harness, 4:595^ 

1872—Tennessee, June ii, in harness, 5:00. 

1880—Steve Maxwell, Rochester, N. Y., 4:4854- 


THREE MILES-TROTTING. 

1827—Screwdriver, Philadelphia, to saddle, 8:02. 
1832—Columbus, Long Island, to saddle, 8: 00. 

1839—Dutchman, Hoboken, N. J., to saddle, 7 : 3254* 
1841—Lady Suffolk, Philadelphia, to saddle, 7 : 4054. 
1853—Pet, Long Island, to wagon, 8:01. 

1864—Stonewall Jackson, Long Island, in harness, 

7:39- 

1872—Huntress, Brooklyn, in harness 7 : 21:54- 
FOUR MILES-TROTTING. 

1836—Dutchman, Long Island, under saddle, 10:51. 
1869—Longfellow, to wagon, 10: 34 5 ^. 


TWENTY MILES—TROTTING. 

1848—Trustee, Union Course, L. L, in harness, 

59:35^^- , 

1855—Lady Fulton, Centerville, L. L, in harness, 

59:55- . . , . 

1855—Trustee, Union Course, in harness, 59: 35 /^- 
1865—Captain McGowan, Boston,in harness,58; 25. 
1868—John Stewart, Fashion Course, L. I., in harness, 
58:30. 

1868—Tohn Stewart, Boston, to wagon, 59: 23. 


FIFTY MILES-TROTTING. 

1835—Black Joke, Providence, R. L, in harness, 3h, 

5 7 

1846—Ariel, Albany, N. Y., in harness, 3h, 55 :4054. 
1855—Spangle, to wagon, 3!!, 59: 04. 

ONE HUNDRED MILES-TROTTING. 

1845— Fanny Jenks, Albany, N. Y., May 5, 9h, 
38: 34- 

1846— Fanny Murray, Albany, N. Y., May 15, 9h, 
41: 26. 

1850—Kate, Centerville, L. L, June 7, 9h, 41: 54 - 
1853—Conqueror, Centerville, L. L, Nov. 12, 8h, 

55:53- 

ONE MILE-PACING. 

1855—Pochahontas, Long Island, 2 : 17 54 - 
1868—Billy Boice, Buffalo, 2 : 14 54 * 

1879—Sleepy Tom, Rochester, 2: 1354. 

1879—Sleepy Tom, Chicago, 2: 1254- 

1871—Little Brown Jug, Hartford, Conn., 2: ii 54 - 


TWO MILES-PACING. 

1850—James K. Polk, Philadelphia, 4:5754. 
1853—Hero, Long Island, 4: 5 6 54 - 

three MILE PACING 


1843—Oneida Chief, 7 : 44. 

1847—James K. Polk, 7:44. 

FASTEST RUNNING RECORD. 


FIVE MILES-TROTTING. 

1863—Lady Mac, to wagon, 13:4354. 

1874—Lady Mac, in harness, San Francisco 13:00, 

TEN MILES-TROTTING. 

1844—Fanny Jenks, in harness, 29:59. 

1853—Prince, Union Course, L. I., Nov. 11, in har¬ 
ness, 28:0854. 

1858—Julia Aldrich, San Francisco, in harness, 
29:0454. 

i860—Capt. McGowan, Cincinnati, in harness. 

28: 1154. 

1868—John Stewart, Boston, to wagon, 28:0254. 

1878—Controller, San Francisco, in harness, 27 : 2354. 

TWELVE MILES-TROTTING. 

1830—Top Gallant, Philadelphia, 38:00. 

FIFTEEN MILES-TROTTING. 

1874—Girder, San Francisco, 47 : 20. 


54 mile—Olitipa, Saratoga, N. Y., 1874, o: 47^. 

54 niile—First Chance, Philadelphia, 1876, i: 15. 

§4 mile—Bonnie Wood, Saratoga, 1878, i :o2^. 

1 mile—Ten Broeck, Louisville, Ky., 1877, i: 39 ? 4 - 
154 miles—Bob W^ooley, Lexington, Ky., 1875, i : 54. 
154 miles—Charley Gorham, Lexington, Ky. 1877, 

2:0854. 

154 miles—Mollie McCarthy, San Francisco, 1879 

2:0854. 

154 miles—Tom Bowling, Lexington, Ky., 1874, 
2 : 343 / 4 - 

miles—Ten Broeck, Lexington, Ky., 1875, 2: 4954. 
1:54 miles—Courier, Louisville, Ky., 1877, 3.0554. 

D/x miles—One Dime, Lexington, Ky., 1879, 3: 0554. 
\'i/x miles—Irish King, Louisville, Ky., 1879, 3: 0554. 

2 miles—Ten Broeck, Louisville, Ky., 1877, 3:2754- 
254 miles—Aristides, Lexington, Ky., 1876, 3:45^4. 
254 miles—Preakness and Springbok, Saratoga, 1875, 

3 = 5 . 654 - ... / 

254 miles—Aristides, Lexington. Ky., 1877,4: 2754. 









SPEED.. 


1169 


3 miles—Ten Broeck, Louisville, Ky., 1876,5-26^. 

4 miles—Ten Broeck, Louisville, Ky., 1876, 7 : 14^. 

DOUBLE TEAM TROTTING. 

The first gentleman’s team race took place Jan. 7, 
1836. It was for a stake of ^100 each, winner to re¬ 
ceive the entire stakes; two miles and repeat, onCen- 
treville Course, Long Island. It was won by Mr. G. 
T. Wilson's team, Jerry and Blackbird, in straight 
heats, beating Dutchman and mate, Yankee Doodle 
and mate, and three other teams. Time, 6:27, 6:30. 

The next remarkable team race was made by the 
famous Lady Suffolk and Rifle in 1842, over the 
Hunting Park Course, Philadelphia, when they dis¬ 
tanced Hardwood and Apology the first heat, two 
miles 1115:19. This feat stood long on the books as 
the best of its kind. Hiram Woodruff, in comment¬ 
ing upon it, states that notwithstanding Mr. Bonner’s 
team twenty years afterwards surpassed this perform¬ 
ance, its excellence should not be lost sight of, as the 
team had had no practice together. From the year 
1842 until 1856, driving in double harness does not 
appear to have been much in vogue. There was a 
match between Lantern and Whalebone vs. Stella and 
Alice Grey, June 5, 1855, at the Union course. Long 
Island, which was easily won by Lantern and mate; 
time, 2:46^, 2:4254. 

Nov. 3, 1856, Lantern and Don beat black mare 
Belle of Saratoga, and black gelding John Irving, over 
the Union Course, Long Island, a match race $2,000 
time 2:43^, 2:41^, 2:4254. 

Nothing worthy of note occurred with teams from 
1856 until the fall of 1859, when Hiram Woodruff 
and Capt. Rynders took the Widow Machree and 
Frank Temple to Boston, and were beaten by Ad 
Carpenter’s Telemachus and Nellie Holcomb. The 
first two heats were won by Hiram’s team, and it is 
said Dick Doree bet $100 to $5 nine times in succes¬ 
sion on the Widow and mate, who lost the next three 
heats in 2:42, 2:44 54 > 2:44. William Whelan’s team 
was distanced in the third heat. 

The notable team race of the following year was at 
Louisville, Ky., where Miller’s Damsel and John 
Watts defeated Bolly Lewis and Ike Cook in straight 
heats—time, 5:3054, 

Another race of this year is entitled to be mentioned 
as it appears to be the first one in which 2:40 was 
beaten in a race of mile heats. Horace Jones’ team 
Putnam and mate, beat Jim and mate. 

The year 1862 marks an epoch in team trotting. 
Mr. Robort Bonner drove his world-renowned pair. 
Lady Palmer and Flatbush Maid, to a road wagon, 
in public, over the Fashion Course, L. I., one mile, in 
2:26, May loth, and on the 13th of the same month, 
under similar conditions, they were driven by him two 
miles in 5:0154, the second quarter of the second mile 
in thirty-three seconds. On both occasions they were 
taken out of his private stable untrained and unpre¬ 
pared for such trials. The mile event remained un¬ 
beaten by any gentleman driver until Mr. Vanderbilt 
drove Small Hopes and Lady Mac in 2:23, and the 


two-mile performance stands the best of its class until 
the present day. 

Dan Mace subsequently put Ethan Allen and Hon¬ 
est Allen together and they beat Simon Bound’s To¬ 
ronto Chief and mate on Fashion Course, L. I., at the 
annual fair, in 2:33—last half in 1:15. It is also a 
duly accredited performance by many gentlemen who 
were present, that Ethan Allen and Honest Allen 
were driven by Dan Mace, at private trial, as a team, 
in 2:25 and repeated in 2:23. 

The next event in the annals of team-trotting was 
on June ii, 1867, when Mr. Joseph Harker’s team, 
Bruno and Brunette, driven by John Lovett, trotted to 
road-wagon over the Fashion track in 2:2554. This 
very creditable mile belongs to the category of private 
trials. 

The year 1865 developed some very good team 
races. A black mare called Jessie Wales was found 
to be a very clever performer to the pole. She got in¬ 
to the hands of B, S. Wright, and as he was always 
quite a match-maker, he kept the boys busy finding 
teams to beat her and mate. These team races were 
continued with unflagging zeal and varying success, 
until the year 1871, when it was ascertained that 
George Wilkes and Honest Allen had all other teams 
at their mercy. Herewith is appended a summary of 
the best records of each year during this period : 


Date. 

Place. 

Time. 

Team. 

1867, Sept. 20. 

1868, Juiy 31.. 

1869, J line 16. 
i86q. j une i6. 
1869, Sept. 30. 
1869, Sept. 30. 

1869, Oct. 5. • • 

1870, May 31.. 
1870, J une 9.. 
1870, July 21.. 
1870, June 22.. 

1870, June 22.. 

1871, July 4--- 

Bost on, Mass.... 
Buffalo, N. Y.... 
Boston, Mass.... 
Boston, Mass.... 
Milwaukee, Wis. 
Boston, Mass.... 
Cranston, R. I... 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Boston, Mass- 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cranston, R. I... 
Cranston. R I... 
Boston, Mass... 

2:32 

2 : 32 X 

2:33 

2:32 

2:31^ 

2:29^^ 

2:30 

2:29 

2:32^ 

2:30 

2:2^y^ 

2:28^ 

2:28 

Jessie Wales & Ben Franklin. 
Medock and Nabocklish. 
Honest Allen & Myron Perry. 
Rubber Ben and Lady Walton. 
India Rubber Ben and mate. 
Jessie Wales & Honest Allen. 
Blk- Harry & Belle Strickland. 
Kirkwood and Idol. 

Kirkwood and License. 
Kirkwood and Honest Allen. 
Jessie Wales and Darkness. 
Kirkwood and License. 

Geo. Wilkes & Honest Allen. 


Subsequent to this nothing of noteocurred till 1877, 
when Mr. W. H. Vanderbilt drove Small Hopes and 
Lady Mac a mile to road-wagon on Fleetwood Park 
track in 2:23. 

In 1877 the technical record was also beaten by 
Gen. Cobb and Lulu McCord trotting a third heat at 
San Francisco, Cal., in 2:2654- 

For three years no team succeeded in beating this 
record, until June 10, 1880, W. H. Doble drove Nigger 
Baby and Mollie two heats to beat 2:27, at Belmont 
Park, Philadelphia, and gained a record for them of 

2:2654, 2:2554. 

For four years, although often attempted by both 
professional and amateur reinsmen, no team was 
found able to beat the 2:23 of Small Hopes and Lady 
Mac, until Sept. 23, i88r. Mr. John Shepard, of 
Boston, drove his new team. Mill Boy and Blondine, at 
Beacon Park, a mile to his roiid-wagon in 2:22, and, 
being, for a valuable consideration, over one of the 
National Association tracks, it now stands the best 
time on record. 

The owners of New York teams were anxious to 



















a 


1170 , SPELLING REFORM—SPINACH. 


maintain Gotham’s supremacy and were not content 
to let all the glory center in the Hub. Mr. Foster 
Dewey’s team, Boston and William H., showed 2:23 
and 2:221^. i\Ir. T. C. Eastman drove Capt. Jack and 
Glendale in 2:24. Mr. Vanderbilt let Dan Mace com¬ 
mence driving William H. and Lysander, and they on 
two occasions trotted in 2:20. But ]Mr. Frank Work’s 
team, Swiveller and Edward, capped the climax Sept. 
27; when driven by Dan Mace, they trotted at Fleet- 
wood Park to a tojj-wagon in 2:193/^. 

Spelling Beform. A consistent mode of spelling 
in the English language would save the people not 
only several years of the most precious time of their 
youth, but also an infinite amount of vexation through 
life. ^Ve may say that the difficulty of learning any 
system is in direct projxjrtion to the square of the 
number of its rules, including the cross-rules and ex¬ 
ceptions which generally characterize “ systems ” 
which have grown from chance, instead of being in¬ 
vented by sensible thinkers. Thus, for example, a 
system of short-hand which has three times as many 
rules, cross-rules, etc., as another system, would be 
three times three, or nine, times more difficult to 
learn, such is the law of memory. Now, what is 
called the “ spelling reform ” simply proposes to dis¬ 
pense with the scores of rules and thousands of ex¬ 
ceptions which exist in our orthography; and the 
reform is actually inaugurated, as it is taught to some 
extent in many of our modern school-books and prac¬ 
ticed by hundreds of the newspapers. Of course 
there is opposition, as there always is to any good 
thing that might be proposed; but, fortunately for 
this cause, there is almost perfect unanimity among 
the scholars of the land in favor of the immediate 
adoption of a compromise but transitional system of 
reformed orthography. The following sentence gives 
an example of what can be done without at all inter¬ 
fering with legibility among even the most plodding 
class of readers: 

“ Tho I laft at ur tho’ts az u exprest them last nite, 

I dout not u wer rite, az u alwayz hav bin in such 
matrz. Meny pepl in this naborhood wer, sum 
yearz ago, and ar stil, ov our opinion.” 

The above example is not perfectly phonetic; but 
after the people became familiar with this style they 
could the more easily glide into a strictly phonetic 
system, which necessitates the use of three or four 
new characters. This is thought by many to be far 
the greatest educational reform of the age. 

Spices. All the substances classed as spices are 
the produce of tropical climates only; none of our 
native plants, and no plants that come to maturity in 
the open air in this climate, possess sufficient aromatic 
flavor to be reckoned among the spices. The most 
valuable of these natural productions were originally 
found in the islands situated in the Indian Ocean, 
called the Spice Islands, or Moluccas, and were prob¬ 
ably conveyed from them in the most distant ages. 
The spices which the queen of Sheba presented to 
Solomon were unknown in Palestine, and probably 


came from Ceylon or some of the islands to the east. 

The delicious aromatics of tropical regions were 
highly prized by the ancient nations; and, besides 
spices, we read of frankincense and myrrh, from the 
East, as ranking among their most esteemed luxuries. 
The wealthy Romans indulged in these to an extrava¬ 
gant degree. As navigation and the means of inter¬ 
course between distant nations improved, from the 
facility of transix)rt, they found their way, as articles 
of traffic, to countries ver}^ remote from the places of 
their production. 

The foreign spices .in common use in the United 
States are pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, mace, 
ginger and allspice. Black pepper is the fruit of a 
species of climbing vine, a native of the East Indies. 
(See Pepper.) Cinnamon is the inner bark of a tree, 
a native of Ceylon and several Oriental countries, as 
China, Borneo, etc., but it is now cultivated in the 
West Indies and South America. Cloves are the fruit, 
or rather the calyx of the unexpanded flowers of the 
clove tree. The tree is a native of the Malacca 
Islands. The clove is described “as a tree of noble 
height, somewhat like the bay, and composing by the 
beauty of their form, the luxuriance of their foliage, 
and the spicy fragrance with which they perfume the 
air, some of the most delightful objects in the world.” 
The nutmeg is also a native of the Spice Islands. 
The tree is not unlike the pear tree and bears fruit all 
the year round. The exterior part of the shell is a 
pulpy substance; within this is a thin shining black 
shell surrounded by membranous layers, vvhich con¬ 
stitute another of our spices, the mace, and within 
this shell is the nutmeg. Ginger is the tuber of a 
plant which is a native of the mountain Gingi, in Hin- 
dostan: whence the name. It was carried from India 
to South America and the West Indies. Allspice is 
the berr}' of a handsome tree that grows to the height 
of 20 feet in the last named countries. It combines 
the flavor of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves, and hence 
known as allspice. 

We wish to remark that any and all of the spices 
that are ground in factories and sold throughout the 
country, both in bulk and in small packages, are in¬ 
variably impure,—at least none have ever been 
analyzed and found free from adulteration. There¬ 
fore the only way to obtain the pure article is to pur¬ 
chase the unground. 

Spider, an eight-legged animal akin to insects in 
its general appearance, but, as science now restricts 
the terms, is not a true insect. Spider bites are poi¬ 
sonous; for remedy, see Bite of Rattlesnake, etc., 
page 89. The term “ spider” also denotes a skillet or 
frying-pan. 

Spigot (spigot), a pin or peg used to stop a faucet, 
or to stop a small hole in a cask of liquor. 

Spinach, early greens, something like beet tops. 
For summer use sow in early spring, in drills eight 
inches to one foot apart, covering the seed one inch 
deep. A succession may be obtained by sowing at 
intervals of two weeks. For very early spring use. 








SPIT—SQUASH. 


1171 


sow in August, and protect during the winter by cov¬ 
ering with straw. The varieties are the Round-seeded 
Savoy, the New Zealand, the Prickly-seeded, the 
Round-leaved and the Extra Large Round-leaved. 
The Prickly-seeded is the hardiest and best for early 
fall sowing, and the Round-leaved is the best sum¬ 
mer variety. 

To Cook Spinach. Wash and clean the spinach 
thoroughly from grit, then boil it in salt and water; 
press the water entirely out of it and chop it as fine 
as powder. A quarter of an hour before serving put 
it into a saucepan with a piece of butter mixed with a 
tablespoonful of flour and half a tumblerful of boiling 
water, some salt, pepper, and nutmeg, and let it sim¬ 
mer 15 minutes. Serve with hard-boiled or poached 
eggs on the top. Some serve also with drawn butter. 

Spit, in horticulture, a spadeful of earth. 

Spleen, a spongy, honey-comb-like organ compris¬ 
ing numerous little ones and multitudes of minute 
vessels, and lying along the left side of the stomach 
of some of the higher order of animals. It is one of 
the few organs whose precise function has as yet 
baffled scientific research; but has been supposed to 
serve as a reservoir for any excess of fluid which the 
stomach receives and does not immediately require 
for any purpose of digestion. It is sometimes very 
much enlarged, and has even been known to be rup¬ 
tured ; but does not appear to be often or seriously 
the seat of disease. 

Splenic Fever, the modern name of Texas fever, 
a cattle disease; see page 217. 

Splint, a small bony enlargement on the fore-leg of 
the horse; see page 828. 

Sport, a freak or extraordinary form of a plant or 
animal which lasts for only one generation and does 
not constitute a variety. 

Sprains and Bruises. To treat these, apply 
warm-water compresses or hot fomentations of bitter 
herbs and vinegar. When the pain and swelling are 
considerably reduced by these means, apply arnica 
liniment, or some of those recommended on page 944 
of this volume, or some of the preparations prescribed 
for rheumatism, page 1082. Some prefer to use arnica 
from the first, and rtiis is advisable when there is no 
inflammation. 

Spray, of ornamental trees, the twiggy or leafy ex¬ 
pansions of the outermost branches. A “ spray drain” 
is one made by laying under the earth the spray of 
trees, which keep passages open. 

Spring, a natural fountain. The more perennial 
or constant the flow of a spring, the deeper in the 
earth is the source ; but this has nothing to do with 
its purity. Springs from deep sources are often too 
mineral for ordinary use, and those which run only 
during wet seasons give nothing but surface water, 
which also is more or less impure, sometimes very 
deleterious, or even dangerous. 


Squash. Squash vines, as well as all other vines 
of the order, delight in a warm and ricli soil. Prepare 
the- ground by thoroughly pulverizing ; manure at the 
rate of ten to fifteen wagon loads to the acre, working 
it just under the surface with the cultivator or gang 
plow; plant in hills nine to ten feet apart for running 
varieties, and five or six feet apart for bush sorts; 
work some fine rich manure into each hill; leave two 
plants to the hill; keep well covered with plaster or 
air-slacked lime in early stages of growth; wire-gauze 
cages may be used to keep off the bugs; or, the com¬ 
mon striped squash bug may be kept away by fre¬ 
quently throwing dust at them as they appear on the 
vines; cultivate frequently until the runners are well 
started ; to provide against bugs, freezing etc., plant 
two or three times as many as will finally be wanted. 

Varieties. Hubbard. The standard winter squash. 

Boston Alar row. A 
standard fall squash, 
of a rich orange color 
and very productive. 

A merican Turban. 

Decidedly the best of 
all fall sijuashes. 

Butman. A compar¬ 
atively new variety sim¬ 
ilar to the Hubbard, of 
a bright, grass green 
color, intermixed with 
while; flesh is of a Early white Bush Squash. 
lemon color and very fine grained. 

Marblehead. Light blue, with remarkably delicious 
flesh. 

Summer Crook-Necked. Early; fine for summer 
use. 

White Early Bush. The earliest sort. 

Cambridge Afarrow. Earlier than the Boston Mar¬ 
row; the skin has a remarkable deep, orange color, 
which renders it very attractive; popular with market 
men; quality hardly up to Boston Marrow. 

Cocoanut. A half-bush variety of small size, but 
remarkably heavy and very prolific, fine-grained and 
very rich, having a chesnut-like flavor; worth raising 
as a parlor ornament. 

Yokohama. Has the flavor of the crook-necked 
class, but is finer-grained and much superior in 
quality. 

Mammoth Yellow. Has been grown to weigh from 
100 to 300 pounds. 

Canada Crook-Necked. The small well-known ex¬ 
cellent kind. 

Large Winter Crook-Necked. The old standard 
sort and one of the best of keepers; cross-grained. 

Round Warted Afarrow. Medium size, flesh 
orange and of good quality, skin bright red, covered 
and netted with gray warts. 

Bush Scallop. Of this there are two kinds, the 
yellow and the white; both early and fine squashes. 

Other kinds are advertised by seedsmen. 

To Cook Winter Squ.ash. Cut it in pieces, take 










1172 


6 ' TABLES TAINS. 


out the seeds and pare as thin as possible; steam or 
boil until soft and tender. Drain and press well, then 
mash with butter, pepper, salt and a very little sugar. 
Summer squash may be cooked the same way; if ex¬ 
tremely tender they need not be pared. 

Stable. See article Barn. 

Stack, a large quantity of hay, wood, straw or corn 
piled up in a circular or regular form. See article Hay, 
page 645. 

Stag. In natural history the stag is the male of 
the red deer or hind. It is also sometimes applied 
incorrectly to a colt or filly. As we understand the 
term, it is only used to denote a male animal castrated 
after he has attained near or full maturity. Fre¬ 
quently applied to animals of the ox kind, which are 
castrated at such an age as to preclude their gaining 
the full size of an ox. In commercial parlance, used 
to designate an outside irregular dealer in stocks, not 
a member of the exchange. 

Staggers, a serious nervous disease of the horse: 
see page 828. Also, a similar disease of the pig, for 
which see Swine. 

Stains. To remove stains of various kinds and 
from various articles we append the following practical 
directions. See also Gloves and Silk. 

Methods of Removing Various Stains. Fruit- 
stains, wine-stains, and those made by colored vege¬ 
table juices, are often nearly indelible, and require 
various treatment. Thorough rubbing with soap and 
soft water; repeated dipping in sour buttermilk, and 
drying in the sun; rubbing on a thick mixture of starch 
and cold water, and exposing long to sun and air, are 
among the expedients resorted to. Sulphurous acid 
is often employed to bleach out colors. It may be 
generated at the moment of using, by burning a small 
piece of sulphur in the air, under the wide end of a 
small paper funnel, whose upper orifice is applied near 
the cloth. Coffee and chocolate stains require care¬ 
ful soaping and washing with water at 120®, followed 
by sulphuration. If discoloration has been produced 
by acids, water of ammonia should be applied ; if 
spots have been made by alkaline substances, moder¬ 
ately strong vinegar may be applied; if upon a deli¬ 
cate article, the vinegar should be decolorized by filter¬ 
ing through powdered charcoal. 

The Effect of Acids and Alkalies upon Dif¬ 
ferent Colors. The effect of acids upon blacks, 
purples, blues (except those produced by indigo or 
Prussian blue), and upon all those shades of colors 
which are produced by means of iron, archil, and as¬ 
tringent substances, is to turn them red. They ren¬ 
der yellows more pale, except those produced by an- 
notto, which they turn to an orange color. 

Alkalies turn scarlets, and all reds produced by 
Brazil or logwood, to a violet color; they turn green 
(upon woolen cloths) to yellow, and they give a red¬ 
dish cast to the yellow produced by annotto. The 
effect of the perspiration is the same as that of the 
alkalies. 


vSpots occasioned by acids are removed by alkalies, 
and vice versa. 

To Remove Fruit Stains. Spots caused by fruit 
are removed by sulphurous acid, or what is 
still better, by water acidulated with a little muria¬ 
tic or oxalic acid, or salt of lemons; but care must be 
taken not to apply this liquid to colors that it will in¬ 
jure. A lighted sulphur match held under the stain 
will produce sufficient sulphurous acid. 

To Restore the Color to Garments. Chlor¬ 
oform will restore the color of garments, where the 
same has been destroyed by acids. 

When acid has accidentally or otherwise destroyed 
or changed the color of the fabric, ammonia should 
be applied to neutralize the acid. A subsequent ap¬ 
plication of chloroform restores the original color. 

Sjxjts produced by hydrochloric or sulphuric acid 
can be removed by the application of concentrated 
ammonia, while sixits from nitric acid can scarcely be 
obliterated. 

To Remove Alkali Stains from Garments. Spots 
produced by alkalies, such as soap-boiler’s lye, soda, 
ammonia, etc., can generally be made to disappear 
completely by the prompt application of dilute acetic 
acid and a good deal of water. 

To Remove Stains of Wine, Fruit, etc., after 
they have been long in the linen, rub the part 
on each side with yellow soap; then lay on a mixture 
of starch in cold water very thick ; rub it well in, and 
expose the linen to the sun and air till the stain comes 
out. If not removed in three or four days, rub that 
off and renew the process. When dry it may be 
sprinkled with a little water. 

To Take out all Stains Which are not Me¬ 
tallic. Mix two teaspoonfuls of water with one of 
spirit of salt (muriatic acid); let the stain lie in it for 
one or two minutes; then rinse the article in cold water. 
This will be found particularly useful in removing 
stains from white napkins. 

To Remove Common Ink Stains. Ink stains may 
be readily removed from white articles by means of a 
little salt of lemons, diluted muriatic acid, oxalic acid, 
or tartaric acid, and hot water; or by means of a little 
solution of chlorine or chloride of lime. When the 
stain is caused by ink manufactured with logw(X)d, a 
red mark remains, which may be removed by the ap¬ 
plication of a little chloride of lime. All strong acids 
and alkalies tend to injure the fabric; therefore, im¬ 
mediately the stains are removed, the spots should be 
well and repeatedly rinsed, in cold water. 

To Remove Marking Ink from Linen. Dip the 
garment in a solution of i ounce cyanide of potassium 
in 4 ounces of water. After a few hours the stain 
will be obliterated. This is very effectual, but the 
mixture is highly poisonous, and should be carefully 
removed. 

Ink Stains from Carpets. Ink stains can be re¬ 
moved from a carpet by freely pouring milk on the 
place, and leaving it to soak in for a time; then rub it 










STALLION. 


1173 


so as to remove all ink, and scoop up remaining milk 
with a spoon, repeat the process with more milk if 
necessary; then wash it off completely with clean 
cold water, and wipe it dry with cloths. If this is 
done when the ink is wet the milk takes all stains out 
of woolen materials instantly; but when it has dried, 
a little time is required. 

Stallion. It is not our intention in this article to 
treat of the value of certain kinds of sires in the pro¬ 
duction of different grades of horses, nor of the impor¬ 
tance of pure blood in the stallion, nor to discuss the 
ixjwer of the sire in transmitting his characteristics to 
the offspring, for these subjects have been thoroughly 
treated in the article Breeding, and on page 704 of 
the article on Horse. We only wish in this connection 
to discuss the training, care and management of the 
the stallion used as such, or devoted to service, and 
his potency at different periods in life to beget off¬ 
spring, etc. 

In reference to the training of a stallion during his 
colthood, the remarks made on page 707, under head 
of Care of the Colt, and those on page 708 and subse¬ 
quent ones, under head of Breaking, are equally ap¬ 
plicable to the colt designed to be kept as a stallion. 
Special training should begin, however, from the time 
it is intended to keep the colt as such, or any way as 
early as at the age of one year. It will require con¬ 
siderable time, a large stock of patience and close 
watching, to train the animal properly; but if this be 
done ample reward will be received for the labor, by 
his future usefulness and enhanced value as a sire. 
In beginning to train him he should be exercised in 
a close yard, first at the end of the halter, and at 
length without bridle or halter rein, and made to ad¬ 
vance, to back, to circle, to describe the figure 8, to 
rear and come down at the word of command, to 
kneel, to sit on his haunches, to down, and, especially 
to come instantly to his keeper at the word of com¬ 
mand. 

His care and keeping should be of the best possible 
and his daily exercise enough to keep his mucles firm, 
certainly not less than eight miles a day during the 
season of service. However well trained the stallion, 
when it comes to actual service, there is always a time 
when he may refuse to obey. Then he must be made 
to do so at whatever cost, and to accomplish the ob¬ 
ject, the whip may be used to any extent sufficient to 
conquer him. Cut sharp and strong, but with temper¬ 
ate judgment Do not rain a succession of blows. 
This will only make him fight. A few well-directed 
blows will generally suffice, if they are sharp and cut¬ 
ting. Do not be afraid of drawing blood. If it can 
be done at the first stroke, so much the better. Give 
him time to think before you strike the second time. 
Give him the order you wish him to execute. If there 
is the least hesitation, strike again, and so on until he 
is concpiered. If he has been properly trained jne- 
viously, he will handle nearly as easy as a gelding. If 
not, he may become a brute, dangerous for any man 
to handle. Above all, a stallion once trained, never 
intrust him to an incompetent keeper, and never allow 


a valuable one to be ridden during the season of hard 
service. If he travels from one station to another, or 
is otherwise exercised, it should be with a leading rein, 
the rider being on another horse. 

The remaining portion of this article was written by 
Mr. J. H. Sanders, editor of the Breeders’ Gazette, 
Chicago, Illinois. It appeared in that journal during 
the early part of 1882, and is so thorough, plain, and 
practical that we present it almost bodily. It is cer¬ 
tainly one of the finest and most satisfactory articles 
on this subject yet published ; and as Mr. Sanders is 
excellent authority on all matters pretaining to the 
breeding of stock we can safely present this as a 
standard article. 

Grooming, Feeding and Exercising. The most 
frequent mistake made by inexperienced persons in the 
management of a stallion, and even by many who 
ought to know better, is the endeavor to have him in 
fine show condition by the time the season opens. 
To this end various drugs, nostrums, and roots are 
recommended ; the horse is kept carefully housed, and 
closely blanketed; he is loaded with fat; his muscles 
become soft and flabby for want of exercise, and, al¬ 
though he may come out of the show yard at the 
opening of the season, looking “ as sleek as a mole,” 
and apparently in the very pink of condition, he is in 
reality not nearly so well fitted for service in the stud 
as he would have been had this fitting-up process been 
entirely dispensed with. 

It may be laid down as a general rule, that a 
healthy horse needs no medicine whatever to put him 
in condition for the stud. The whole secret of suc¬ 
cessful preparation lies in a few words. Let him be 
well and regularly fed on healthy, nutritious food, 
with plenty of exercise every day, to keep his muscles 
firm and hard, and let him be well groomed, so that 
his coat may present a fine appearance. The skin 
should be kept thoroughly clean, by occasional wash¬ 
ing and frequent brushing and rubbing. The mane 
and tail should be especially looked after, with ref¬ 
erence to cleanliness of the skin. If very dirty, soap 
may be freely used in the cleansing process; and 
when this is faithfully attended to, there will be but 
little danger of having a fine tail or mane ruined by 
rubbing. 

Tlie food should mainly be good, sound oats— 
nothing is better; but this should be varied by an oc¬ 
casional ration of corn or barley; for horses, like men, 
are fond of variety in their food, and an occasional 
change of diet is conducive to health. Wheat bran as 
an invaluable adjunct to the grain ration, can never 
be dispensed with. It is the cheapest, safest, and 
bestof all regulators for the bowels,and it is esiiecially 
rich in some of the most important elements of nutri¬ 
tion. No specific direction as to the quantity of food 
can be given. Some horses will require nearly twice 
as much as others; and the quantity that may be 
safely given will depend somewhat iqx)!! the amount 
of exercise in any given case. Some horsemen recom¬ 
mend feeding three, and others four, times a day; but 
in either case no more should ever be given than will 












1174 


STALL/ON. 


be promptly eaten up clean. If any food should be 
left in the box, it should be at once removed, while 
the quantity at the next time of feeding should be re¬ 
duced accordingly. As a rule, it will be safe to feed 
as much as the horse will eat with apparent relish 
and then, with plenty of exercise, he will not become 
overloaded with fat. The hay, as well as the grain 
feed, should be sound, and free from mold and dust, 
and the stall should be kept clean, well lighted, and 
perfectly ventilated. 

The amount of exercise to be given will vary some¬ 
what with the condition and habit of the horse. If he 
is thin in flesh, and it is thought best to fatten him 
up, the exercise should be lighter than it otherwise 
would be; and, on the other hand, if there is a ten¬ 
dency to become too fat, this may be corrected by 
increasing the amount of exercise that is given. Draft 
horses should rarely be led or driven faster than a 
walk in taking their exercise, and will require much 
less of it than the roadster or the running horse; a 
moderate “jog” daily will benefit them. We are 
clearly of the opinion that in no one particular is there 
more faulty management on the part of lazy grooms 
and stable hands than in the matter of exercising 
stallions while doing service in the stud. They should 
not be walked nor jogged so long that they become 
jaded or wearied, but should have enough of it daily to 
keep the muscles hard and firm, the appetite good, 
and to prevent them from layingon an undue amount 
of fat. No draft horse, under ordinary circumstances, 
should have less exercise than three miles a day, and 
the roadster and running horse may safely have five 
miles, which in some cases should be increased to 
eight or even ten. 

The point to be aimed at in the stable management 
of the stallion is to so feed, groom, and exercise as to 
keep the horse to the very highest possible pitch of 
strength and vigor. The idea which prevails among 
many stable grooms that feeding this or that nostruna 
will increase the ability of ahorse to get foals, is sheer 
nonsense. Anything that adds to the health, strength, 
and vigor of the horse will increase his virility or sex¬ 
ual ix)wer, simply because the sexual organs will par¬ 
take of the general tone of the system ; and, on the 
contrary, whatever tends to impair the health and vigor 
of the general system, will have a deleterious effect 
upon the sexual organs. A healthy horse needs noth¬ 
ing but good food, pure air, plenty of exercise, with 
due attention to cleanliness and regularity in feeding 
and watering; and when all these things are attended 
to properly, the drugs and nostrums that stable lore 
prescribes as “ good for the horse ” would better be 
thrown to the dogs. 

. The Stall. For the use of stallions we like a box 
stall not less than twelve by eighteen feet, without 
any manger or rack whatever for the hay, and with a 
box snugly fitted in the corner for the grain. Many 
prefer that the feed boxes should be entirely detached 
from the stall, to be removed as soon as the horse is 
done eating. The hay is put on the floor, in one 
corner of the stall; and thus there is nothing—no 


projections, boxes, racks, mangers, sharp angles, etc. 
—upon which a spirited, restless horse may injure 
himself. If, in addition to these precautions, the sides 
of the st.all be lined all around—doors and all—with 
stout boards, standing out at the bottom about one 
foot from the wall, and sloping upward and towards 
the wall for a height of three and a half feet, you will 
have a stall in which it will be well nigh impossible 
for a horse to injure his mane or tail by rubbing. In 
such a box the horse need not be kept haltered, and 
the owner may feel assured that the liability to injury 
is reduced to a minimum. 

How TO Control the Stallion. While the tem¬ 
per and disposition of the stallon are largely matters 
of inheritance, yet much depends upon the breaking 
and management. It is easier to spoil a horse than it 
is to cure him of bad habits, after these are once form¬ 
ed. If there is any appearance of a disposition to be 
‘ headstrong and unruly, he should never be led out 
except by a bridle that will enable the groom to exer¬ 
cise the most perfect control over him. The one that 
we have found most effectual is made by taking an 
ordinary “ snaffle ” bit, with rings of moderate size, 
and with the head-piece made in the usual way; get 
a blacksmith to attach a well-polished, round, iron bar 
to the right-hand ring, by means of a small link con¬ 
necting the bar and the ring; to the other end of the 
bar attach the usual sliding rein used on stallion 
bridles. Put the bridle on the horse in the usual 
way, and then, with the right hand on the bar, and the 
left on the bridle-ring next to you, press the bar back 
and the ring forward until the bar will pass through 
the ring in the left hand. This bar should be made just 
as long as it can be to admit of its being passed into 
the other ring in this manner; and the bit and rings 
should be so adapted to the size of the mouth and 
under jaw that, when a little pressure is brought to 
bear upon the rein attached to the end of the lever 
formed by this iron bar, the rings of the bit will be 
brough within an inch of touching each other. The 
leverage given by this appliance, when well fitted, 
will enable any one to hold the most unruly and 
headstrong horse in check. It is not necessarily severe 
when the horse behaves himself; and wnen he is not 
disposed to do this, he can very suddenly be brought 
back on his haunches by a moderate touch on the 
rein. When the bar is not needed, the rein to which 
it is attached may be passed over the head and down 
through the ring on the other side, instead of under 
the jaw. We have described this device fully, because 
It is cheap, simple and effective, and yet it does not 
appear to have been extensively used. 

How TO Prevent Accidents. It requires some 
skill and good deal of patience to teach a stallion how 
to behave himself properly when brought out to serve 
a mare. He should never be allowed to go upon her 
with a rush; but he should be led up on the nearside 
of the mare, to within about ten to fifteen feet of her, 
and made to stand with his head towards the mare, 
about opposite her head ; and, when he is ready, he 















STALLION. 


should be led towards her and made to commence 
the mount when at her side, instead of going, fora rod 
or so, with his fore feet sawing the air, as is often the 
case. By observing these directions, there will be but 
little danger of injury to the stallion by a kick from the 
mare when he is mounting, especially if a good man 
is at her head to prevent her from wheeling towards 
the horse when he approaches. The danger to the 
horse is always greatest when he is coming off, be¬ 
cause many mares will kick then that will stand per¬ 
fectly still when he is mounting. To obviate this, it 
is always better for the groom who holds the horse to 
seize the mare by the bits with his left hand at this 
moment, and bring her head around towards him by a 
sudden jerk as the horse is coming off. 

But in most cases, indeed in all cases where there 
is not an absolute certainty that the mare will stand 
perfectly quiet, the hobbles should be used, and then 
there can be no danger. To make these, prepare two 
straps of very strong but soft harness leather, two 
inches in width, and long enough to buckle comfort¬ 
ably around the mare s hind pasterns. The buckle 
must be strong and well made , and in each of these 
straps there should be sewed a strong, flattened ring, 
Ne.xt, prepare a collar piece of two-inch leather, and 
about as large as an ordinary horse collar, so that the 
mare’s head will readily pass through it; to this collar 
fasten, securely, two stout straps, each an inch and a 
half wide, and just long enough to pass down between 
the fore-legs,and reach the straps on the hind-legs; 
attach stout buckles near the ends of these straps, but 
far enough from the ends to leave room to adjust them 
to different-sized mares; buckle these straps to the 
hind-legs, and buckle up short enough to effectually 
prevent the mare from kicking, if she should be dis¬ 
posed to do so. All this can be adjusted in a mo¬ 
ment’s time, and by its use all danger from kicking is 
avoided. 

When Mares Should be Tried. A point upon 
which there is a great diversity of opinion is, when and 
how often a mare should be tried after she has been 
served by a stallion. A mare will almost invariably 
be “in heat ’’ on the ninth day after foaling, if she is 
healthy and has received no injury in giving birth to 
her foal; and in most cases it is best that she should 
receive the horse at that time, if it is desired that she 
should be kept for breeding purposes. We can re¬ 
member when it was almost universal custom to try 
mares every week after they had been served, but 
that is not the present practice of most experienced 
horsemen. . The rule that now receives the most gen¬ 
eral sanction is, not to try the mare again after ser¬ 
vice before the lapse of two weeks. We have taken 
a great deal of pains during the past four years to 
ascertain the views of prominent, intelligent, and ex¬ 
perienced breeders upon this point, and we find them 
with very great unanimity agreeing that after the ninth 
day from foaling there is no regular period for the re¬ 
turn of the heat; neither is the period uniform in 
duration. Some mares will appear to be in heat near¬ 
ly all the time, while with others it recurs but rarely. 


1175 


and lasts but a very short time; consequently, if the 
mare, after service, goes out of heat within a few days, 
she should be re-served when she comes in again, 
even if that should be within nine days. But should 
the period not pass off, she should not be served again 
under eighteen days. As a rule, it is best to try the 
mare again from two weeks to eighteen days after 
service ; and then, if she refuses the horse, she should 
be tried every week for some four weeks; and, if she 
fails to come in within that time, it will be reasonably 
certain that she is in foal. She ought to be closely 
watched, however, for some weeks afterward, because 
in some cases mares will pass over a period of one or 
two months, or even longer, without any appearance 
of heat, and yet not be pregnant. Again, there are 
other mares, and they are more numerous than one 
would suppose, that will appear to be in heat and 
will freely receive the horse when they are in foal, and 
even almost up to the time of foaling. Such mares are 
always very annoying, both to their owners and to the 
keepers of stallions. 

For convenience in trying mares, it is best to erect 
the barrier parallel to and about four feet-distant from 
a solid fence or w'all, so that the mare will be com¬ 
pelled, w'hen behind it, to stand with her left side 
toward the horse; and the barrier should be so sub¬ 
stantially built that it cannot be kicked or pushed 
down. In many cases the only barrier used is a strong 
pole fixed about three and a half feet from the ground; 
but it is much safer and better to build up the space 
to that height, close and solid, with strong material of 
some kind, so as to lessen the danger from kicking or 
striking. This may be conveniently done by setting 
three posts firmly in the ground, about five feet apart, 
and nailing strong oak or other hardwood boards to 
these posts, on both sides, from the ground up to the 
required height, and then capping them over with a 
board of the same material. When trying the mare 
keep the horse well in hand, by the use of the bit pre¬ 
viously described in this article, if necessary, and 
don’t let him get his nose further back than to the 
mare’s flank. If the stallion is a very valuable one, 
and is expected to do much service, it will be best to 
have another horse of but little value for a teaser, but 
when the service recjuired is but light it will work no 
injury to the horse to let him do his own teasing. Oc¬ 
casionally a horse will be found to have such an aver¬ 
sion to a certain mare that he will refuse to serve her. 
In such a case it is well to bring into the same en¬ 
closure another mare that is in heat; and, when his 
amorous desire is aroused by her presence he can us¬ 
ually be made to serve the one that he had formerly 
refused. 

The Number of Mares to be Served. The num¬ 
ber of mares that a stallion may safely be jiermitted 
to serve during a season has long been a subject of 
discussion among horse breeders. It is generally held 
that the two-year-old stallion will be all the better for 
not serving any mares at all, that a three-year-old 
‘should be limited to fifteen or twenty services, and 
that a four-year-old should not go beyond twenty of 









1176 


STALLION. 


thirty. There can be no ([uestion that the use of the 
procreative powers by the uninatured horse tends to 
retard his physical development, and as a general rule 
it may be stated that there is no horse but what would 
be the better for absolute continence until he is fully 
matured. 

But while this is unqestionably based upon sound 
physiolo'gical law, and is the true theory of perfect 
physical development in the male, there are advan¬ 
tages attending the earlier use of the stallion, to a mod¬ 
erate extent, that perhaps more than compensate for 
all the damage that may result from it. It is very de¬ 
sirable, at the earliest possible stage in the life of a 
stallion, to ascertain what his qualities as a foal-getter 
are likely to be, and with this object mainly in view 
we consider it wise to let the two-year-old serve a few 
choice mares,—merely enough to show thecharacter of 
his get. We should, with the same object in view, permit 
him as a three-year-old, to serve a rather larger num¬ 
ber, which may thereafter be increased with each 
succeeding year, until he is fully matured, when if prop¬ 
erly taken care of with reference to food and exercise, 
one hundred mares may be safely served during the 
season. With the young stallion that is to serve but a 
few mares, we should perfer that these should all be 
served within the space of a few weeks—say two or 
three a week until his limit for the season has been 
reached—and then let him be withdrawn entirely 
from the breeding stud. He will soon forget all 
about it—will cease to fret after mares, and will have 
nothing to do but to grow until the next season. But 
when it comes to doing business with the stallion, he 
should rarely be permitted to serve more than twice 
a day; and even this should not be kept up for any 
great length of time. One a day during the season 
is better; but the groom cannot always do as his 
judgment dictates in this matter. If the horse has 
had a period of comparative abstinence, he may, if 
convenience demands it, serve three times in one day 
for a few days in succession; but this should not be 
kept up long, and a season of comparative rest for re¬ 
cuperation should follow this extraordinary demand. 
In the great breeding studs of Germany under govern¬ 
ment direction, it was long held that from 15 to 20 
mares was enough for a stallion during the season; 
but the number has gradually been increased without 
perceptible detriment, until now the number frequent¬ 
ly exceeds 100. 

The number of mares that a horse serves during a 
season appears to have but little effect upon the per¬ 
centage of foals begotten. We have no statistics 
bearing upon this subject in this country, but such as 
we have from the books of private keepers of stallions 
abundantly prove this position. The books of stal¬ 
lion service of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian show the 
remarkable result as given in the following table, 
which gives the extraordinary large showing of 1,331 
foals begotten by a single horse out of 1,930 mares 
served—an average of 69 per cent, of foals to mares 
served. His average of mares served from the time 
he was three years old up to the year of his death 


(not including 1868, when he did nothing) was about 
83 mares per year. 


Years. 

i8c I. 

1852 . 

1853 . 

1854 . 

1855 ... . 
1856. . . . , 

1857 . 

1858 . 

1859 . 

i860..... 

1861 . 

1862 . 

1863 . 

1864 . 

1865 . 

1866 . 

1867 . 

1868 . 

1869 . 

1870 . 

1871 . 

1872 . 

1873 . 

1874 . 

1875 . 


Age. No. of mares Per cent. 

covered. of foals. 


2 years. 

3 years. 

4 years. 

5 years. 

6 years 

7 years 

8 years 

9 years 

10 years 

11 years 

12 years 

13 years 

14 years 

15 years 

16 years 

17 years 

18 years 

19 years 

20 years 

21 years 

22 years 

23 years 

24 years 

25 years 

26 years, 


4 


17 • 

. 76 

roi . 

. 78 

88. 

. 70 

89. 

. 72 

87. 

. 73 

87. 

. 72 

72- 

. 75 

95 - 

. 70 

106. 

. 68 

98. 

. 69 

158. 

. 70 

150. 


217 . 

. 67 

193- 

. 67. 

105- 

. 71- 

72. 

. 58. 

lone 

(sick). 

22. 

. 81. 

22. 

. 72. 

30. 

. 80. 

30- 

. 80. 

31 • 

. 65. 

32. 

. 75 - 

24. 

. 8. 


No. foals 
dropped 


13 

78 

62 
64 
64 

63 

54 
66 
72 
68 
111 
92 
148 
128 

75 

42 

18 

16 

26 

24 

20 

24 


Total..1,930.1,331 

The statistics of horse-breeding in Saxony, from 
1856 to 1862, inclusive (seven years), also confirm 
the position above advanced. The returns for 1856 
show that the stallions that served 90 to 100 mares 
each, produced a greater percentage of live foals than 
those that served any other number, except those 
that served from 30 to 40. In 1857, those that 
served over no mares each produced 25 per cent, 
more foals than those that served a less number. In 
1858, those that served 60 to 70 mares got a larger 
percentage of foals than any other, except one that 
served less than 10. In 1859, the highest percentage 
belonged to those that served 50 to 60 mares. In 
i860, the highest belonged to those that served over 
90 mares; while those bred to 10 or less stood lowest. 
In 1861, those that served 80 to 90 mares lead, while 
those below 20 show the smallest percentage of foals. 
In 1862, 60 to 70 was the most productive, while 
those below 10 were the lowest in the percentage of 
foals produced. From this data, as well as from the 
general results in this country, so far as we can ap¬ 
proximate them, it is safe to conclude that the number 
of mares served has no influence on the percentage 
of foals got, and that a horse properly treated may 
serve from 80 to no mares in a season with as large 
an average percentage of foals as one limited to less 
than half that number. 

Effect of Age Upon the Fertility of a Stal¬ 
lion. Another point upon which there has been 
much discussion is, the effect which age has upon 















































































































STALLION. 


1177 


the fertility of a stallion; and here again we are left 
without any official statistics of horse-breeding in our 
own country, and will resort to those of Saxony. For 
the years above quoted, 185610 1862, inclusive, we 
find the returns disclosing the following state of facts; 
In 1856, the average get of the stallions aged 6, 19, 
12, 14 and 18 respectively, and in the order named, 
was the highest; while those aged 8, 9, 17, 16, 5 and 
7 were the lowest. In 1857, those aged 4, 20, 14, 7 
and 8 got the largest percentage, in the order named, 
while those aged 5, 9, 18, 17, and 6 were the lowest; 
and those aged 21, and 22, got more foals than those 
aged 5, 6,9, 10, 17, and 18. In 1858, the highest 
average was produced by stallions aged 9, 10, 5, 6, 8, 
14,16, 20, and 22 years, and the lowest by those aged 
18, 19, 4, 3, 13 and 7. In 1859, the percentage was 
nearly uniform for all ages. In i860, those aged 17, 
18 and 19, led the columns; while those aged 4, 12 
and 9 were last. In ig6i,the percentage was quite 
uniform. In i860, a stallion aged 20 begot twice as 
large a percentage as one aged four; one, aged ten, 
stood the highest, while 16, 6 and 4 stood at the bot¬ 
tom of the list. The table above given of the get of 
Rysdyk’s Hambletonian also shows that in his case 
age appearently had nothing to do with his fertility. 
Hence we conclude that, as in the number of mares 
served, so in the matter of age, the reproductive pow¬ 
ers of the stallion appear to be almost entirely a mat¬ 
ter of condition, and that age has no effect whatever 
u[x>n the percentage of foals from a given number of 
services. 

Effect of Age Upon the Quality of the Get 
OF THE Stallion. There has also been much spec¬ 
ulation as to the comparative value of the foals got 
by a given stallion at different periods of life. The 
statistics of European horse-breeding throw but little 
light upon this subject, but our own turf and trotting 
statistics furnish us with abundant evidence to prove 
that here also the age of the sire has no effect. 

To illustrate this ]X)int we give the following list of 
celebrated running horses, among the most distin¬ 
guished, either as sires or performers, that have ever 
been produced in America, with the age of the sire 
and dam. The age of sire is given at the time of 
copulation, and that of the dam at birth of foal. The 
list is taken at random, from names that suggested 
themselves to us on account of their reputation either 
as sires or performers, and without reference to what 
the figures might show: 


Name of Horse. 

Sire 

Aoe. 

Dam 

Age. 

Name of Horse. 

Sire 

Age. 

Dam 

Age. 

Sir Archy. 


9 

Olitipa. 

.. ..:8 

10 

American Eclipse.. 

.9 

12 

Spendthrift. 

....17 

IS 

Lexington . 


14 

Duke of Magenta. 

.. ..24 

8 

Boston. 

....18 

19 

Parole. 

.. ..18 

11 

Fashion. 


10 

Harry Bassett. 

....17 

8 

Duroc. 

.28 

6 

Longfellow. 

....13 

12 

Wagner.... . 

.17 

7 

Preakness. 


14 

Grey Eagle. 


or 12 

McWhirter . 

.... 6 

9 

Tom Bowling. 

.19 

13 

Bramble. 


« 

Ten Broeck. 

. 6 

10 

Fellowcraft. 


9 

Aristides. 

.18 

5 

Sensation. 


9 

Foxhall. 


7 

Iroquois. 


II 


And the following with reference to celebrated 
trotters and trotting sires: 


Name of Horse. 

Sire 

Dam 

Name of Horse. 

Sire 

Dam 


•Age. 

Age. 


Age. 

Age. 

Rarus. 

. ..13 

10 

Smuggler. 

... 8 

.... 

St. Julien. 

...14 

8 

Lucille Golddust. 

... 10 


Goldsmith Maid. 

... 4 

8 or 9 

Huntress. 


12 

Alexander Abdallah 

... 2 

.... 

Voltaire. 


12 

Volunteer. 

... 4 

4 

Prospero. 

••• 3 

7 

Hopeful. 

... g 


Dame Trot. 

... 4 

8 

Dexter. 

... 8 

10 

Elaine. 

... 8 

12 

Lady Thorne. 

... II 


Walkill Chief. 

. . .15 

7 

Lucy. 



Orange Gill. 


13 

Nutwood. 


5 

Abbottsford. 


12 

Maud S. 

... 9 

9 

Indianapolis. 


12 

Hannis. 



Woodford Mambrino. 

. .18 

8 


... 6 





Scotland. 

. ..15 

10 

Rysdyk’s Hambl’tn. 

...23 


Trinket. 

... 4 

10 

Mambrino Chief. 

...18 

.... 

Lula. 

...14 

9 

Darby. 


6 

Clingstone. 

... 9 

6 

Piedmont. 

... 6 

II 

Daniel Lambert. 

... 9 

II 

tdwin I’horne. 

... 7 

II 


Of the foregoing, Prospero, Dame Trot and Elaine 
have the same sire and dam; Nutwood and Maud 
S. are full brother and sister; Mambrino Gift and 
Scotland are both out of Waterwitch—the former by 
a six-year-old trotting sire and the latter by a 15- 
year-old Thoroughbred. Woodbine at eight years 
old produced Woodford Mambrino by a horse of 18, 
and when herself 16 she produced Wedgewood by a 
five-year-old stallion. Hambletonian got Dexter, his 
best son, at eight years old; Nettie, his next fastest 
by the record, when he was 16; and Orange Girl, 
who comes next, when he was 21. Volunteer got St. 
Julien (2; ii)<() at 12 years, Gloster (2: 17) at nine, 
and Huntress (2 : 20%^) at seven. 

Percentage of Foals to Mares Served. Still 
another question of great interest to horse-breeders is 
this : What is the actual average percentage of live 
foals that a given stallion will get under average cir¬ 
cumstances? In other words: What percentage of 
foals must a stallion get to entitle him to be classed 
as a reasonably sure foal-getter? And iqxin this there 
is often much loose assertion without any real array 
of facts to back it up. It is to the interest of stallion- 
keepers to make the largest {XDssible showing in this 
respect, hence they often talk at random, and not un- 
frequently misstate facts. Perhaps in most cases 
actual falsehoods are not stated, but the parties do 
not care to know the exact truth, lest they may be 
compelled by self-interest to state an untruth. Hence 
they find it convenient never to make an exact 
estimate, and content themselves by saying, “Oh, he 
got nearly everything with foal.” Now, from a very 
extensive correspondence with reliable breeders who 
keep accurate accounts of results, as well as from our 
own observation, based ujxm an experience of thirty 
years with many different horses, we are decidedly of 
opinion that the average indicated in the table of the 
get of Rysdyk’s Hambletonian is considerably above 
the general average of stallions in this country. 

But this question is removed beyond the realms of 
conjecture by the recorded results in the government 
breeding studs of Germany. There, the highest per¬ 
centage of mares in foal was at the great Trakehnen 
establishment, in i860, when the average was 80.2, 
and this is also the highest average throughout 
the entire series of years. But the average runs as 
low as 40 per cent., in 1874, at Wickrath, withonly33.3 
per cent, of live foals, while several localities report 










































































1178 


STAMEiYS. 


as high as 62.6 of live foals. The average re¬ 
sult obtained from this great number of stallions 
and mares for so long a period, may safely be accept¬ 
ed as establishing a general law or rule that can be 
depended upon under like circumstances. 

raking the entire career of all the establishments 
reported from 1859 down to 1874, with an average of 
over 1,000 stallions and 42,000 mares per year, as 
above stated, we find the results as follows: 


Average percentage of mares in foal. 67.7 

Average percentage of live foals dropped. 53.3 

Average percentage of mares aborted or miscar¬ 
ried . 4.8 

Average percentage of mares dying or not ac¬ 
counted for. ^.6 


[In this connection the table showing the number 
of stallions and the number of mares served at each 
of these German establishments, with the average 
percentage of mares in foal, and average percentage 
of live foals, is given in the Gazette.'] 

If the foregoing statements may be accepted as the 
general rule, we may state that the average stallion 
will make as much money for his owner by standing 
at |io the season, as he will at $14.75 to insure a 
mare with foal, or $18.75 to insure a living foal; and 
that a horse that can show 53 living foals to 100 
mares served, is an average foal-getter. Whether 
these figures will apply exactly to horse breeding as 
managed in this country or not is of course not defin¬ 
itely known ; but they are so nearly in accord with the 
results of our own experience and observation that we 
have no hesitation in accepting them as substantially 
correct. 

Management of the Stallion after the Sea¬ 
son Closes. The condition of the stallion for the 
next season s business will depend largely upon the 
manner in which he is kept from the close of the 
present one until the next season commences. In 
most cases the period from the first of October to the 
first of March is one which the stallion is not called 
upon to do duty in the stud, and usually but little is 
done after July i. It is a period of rest; of recupera¬ 
tion from the drain upon the functions of the sexual 
organs wliich service in the stud has recjuired ; but it 
should not be a season of pampered and overfed indo¬ 
lence, as is too often the case. When it is conven¬ 
ient to do so, the very best possible treatment that can 
be resorted to during this period is to put the stallion 
at light work. If a draft horse that has been—as they 
all ought to be—broken to work, let him be driven 
moderately alongside of a quiet mare or gelding, and 
worked regularly up to the first of February, and fed 
enough grain to keep him strong and healthy, but not 
fat. Oats will be much better food for him than 
corn ; but if it is found that he is becoming too thin, 
or if the work is relatively heavy, corn may be used 
part of the time with good* results. If the stallion is a 
trotter or a roadster, by all means drive him on the road. 
If you can use him regularly as a business horse, so 
much the better; and, as in the case of the draft stal¬ 


lion, feed him enough to keep him strong and hearty, 
and work him right along, as though you intended 
that he should earn his living. This we are satisfied 
from experience is the best treatment for stallions of 
any breed, and will result not only in bringing the 
horses to the beginning of the next season in better 
condition than any other, but the probabilities are that 
a horse so treated will get more and better foals than 
one that is not worked during this period. 

But in very many cases, and especially in large 
breeding establishments, and with thoroughbred stal¬ 
lions, the course recommended above is practically 
out of the question. The next best thing, then, if the 
horse must perforce remain in comparative idleness 
during the period mentioned, is to provide him with 
a large paddock—the larger the better always—and 
let him have the run of it at all times during pleasant 
weather, stabling him only at nights and during storms; 
and, when kept under these conditions, it will be best 
to dispense almost entirely with grain food of all kinds. 
A run to grass during the late fall, if it can possibly 
be provided, will be one of the best things that can be 
had; but this will rarely be the case. The main reli¬ 
ance in most cases must be good hay; but when it 
can be had, we very greatly prefer corn fodder, as it 
furnishes a complete change of diet from what the 
horse has been accustomed to, a change that will 
prove highly beneficial to the general health of the 
horse. It reconstructs him, as it were, and makes a 
new horse of him, after a few months of such treat¬ 
ment; and is certainly the next best thing to the run at 
grass, before recommended. But while he is kept on 
this food, due attention must be paid to his bowels, 
lest he should become constipated, a condition that 
can usually be preyented, or remedied, should it occur, 
by the use of an occasional bran mash. 

The necessity for this change in diet from grain to 
coarse and bulky food, like hay or corn fodder, is in¬ 
creased in proportion to the degree of confinement to 
which the horse must be subjected. There is nothing 
that will so soon destroy the health and vigor of the 
horse, and especially of his genital organs, as close 
confinement and high feeding; and the man who ex¬ 
pects to keep his horse in show condition the year 
around will find that he has undertaken a difficult 
job. It will work in some cases fora year or two; 
but, like constant indulgence in intoxicating liquors in 
man, it will, in the end, sap the strongest constitution. 

A strong, vigorous animal may be able to withstand the 
deleterous treatment for a few years but it is only a 
question of time with the best. 

Stamens, the male organs of a flower. There are 
generally a number of them, growing in a circle around 
the pistil or ovary and just within the corolla, or circle 
of petals. They consist of cells of a fertilizing pow¬ 
der, called “ pollen,” which matures in time to fructify 
the pistil when the latter has arrived at the proper 
stage. These cells, with their contents, are called 
“ anthers,” and they are nearly always elevated upon 
stems, called “filaments.” Some flowers have no sta¬ 
mens, some have no pistil, and some have neither. The 




















STARCH-STOCK. 


1179 


number and character of the stamens are imix)rtant 
marks in the study of botany. 

Starch, a proximate vegetable principle contained 
in most plants, and especially abundant in the various 
grains, such as wheat, rye, barley, oat;, rice, maize, 
etc.in other seeds, as peas, beans, chestnuts, etc.; 
and in numerous tuberous roots, as those of the ix)- 
tato, the sweet potato, etc. The common starch is 
procured from wheat; when pure is very insipid, or 
without taste, and of a brilliant snow white. It will 
not dissolve in cold water, or when below 160®, but 
in water between that |X)int and 180®, it thickens into 
a semi-transparent paste, which is the state in which 
it is employed in stiffening linen. The method of 
preparing it for this purixDse is described on page 929. 

Starch constitutes one of the principal nutritious 
constituents of all the farinaceous vegetables used as 
food. Under the name of corn starch a variety of 
starch obtained from the meal of corn is much used 
for nutritive purposes. Potato starch is prepared in 
various forms, generally, however, to imitate more 
costly substances, such as those made from arrow- 
root and sago. 

Steam, the hot, elastic vapor of water. A notice of 
its many economical uses, and of the mighty achieve¬ 
ments which have been effected by it in modern 
times as a motive power, and of the vast accessions 
of convenience and produce, and wealth which it now 
brings to man in traffic and manufacture, would ix)s- 
sess sur])assing interest, but does not belong to the 
design of our work. 

Steel is an artificial combination of iron with car¬ 
bon, though somewhat different from that which com¬ 
poses cast iron. When steel is made red-hot it is 
soft, and can be hammered and rasped into any 
shape; but if suddenly plunged, in its heated state, 
into cold water, it instantly becomes extremely hard. 
Files are made in this way. Steel is likewise brittle, 
but elastic; is susceptible of a better polish than iron, 
and is then less liable to rust than iron. To make it 
fit for edged or cutting iiistruments, it is “tempered.” 
Great skill is required in these processes, by which 
different kinds and grades of steel are made, for var¬ 
ious purposes. Thus, we have “ cast,” “ shear,” “sil¬ 
ver,” “ blistered ” and “ Bessemer” steel and “ wootz.” 

Steer, a young bullock or ox. 

Stem, the part of a plant which rises from the root, 
and sustains the foliage, flowers and fruit. In some 
plants it is wanting; in others it is identical with the 
mere flower stalk; and in the others, it bears only 
]jart of the foliage, the rest being radical; but in all the 
more perfect ones, or indeed in the great majority of all 
sorts of phaenogams, it comprises a great mass of im¬ 
portant organism intermediate between the root and 
the inflorescence. 

Stencil, a thin plate of metal, leather, or other 
material, or card-board, or even paper, with letters, 
patterns or figure work cut through them, for painting 
the same upon the flat surface to be marked. On the 


farm the principal use of the stencil is in the branding 
of sacks, barrels, boxes, etc., containing products for 
shipment. 

Step-ladder, a ladder with steps instead of rounds, 
or a portable stairs. They aie generally made self- 
supporting by a pair of standards hinged upon the 
upper end and extending to the ground. 

Stew, to boil slowly. The word, however, is often 
applied to .certain ardcles, cooked even with rapid 
boiling; as “ stewed oysters,” “stewed apples,” etc. 

Stifle Joint, the lower joint of the hind leg of a 
horse. It comprises the tibia, or lower bone of the 
thigh, and the patella or knee-pan; and it is much 
strengthened by some of the tendons of the strongest 
muscles of the upper part of the thigh passing into 
and over it, and co-operating with its own proper 
ligaments to give it force and tension. 

Still: see Distilling, page 304. 

Stings: see Bites and Stings, and Insect Bites; and 
for sting on the horse see page 831. 

St. John’s-wort, a persistent, half-shrubby weed, 
which is common in some sections of the older North¬ 
ern States. There are several species, all of which 
have willow-like leaves and clusters of yellow flowers. 

Stock. The live-stock interests of the agricultural 
industry of our countiy has developed into immense 
proportions, and is constantly enlarging. The intro¬ 
duction of improved breeds of cattle, shCep and swine 
has made the business profitable, and our large area 
of cheap land, by enabling us to produce meats at 
comparatively small cost, has made us formidable 
competitors of European stock-raisers in their own 
markets. The breeding, raising and fattening of live 
stock, especially in the West, have been reduced to 
scientific exactness, and’are in the hands of men who 
are more than ordinarily intelligent and enterprising. 
No industry pertaining to the farm is at this time 
upon a more solid basis, or more carefully prosecuted. 
The speculative spirit which at one time controlled 
the business, so far as improved breeds were concerned, 
has given way to sound commercial principles, and the 
animal sells for what it is worth, and not for what 
fashionable, not to say foolish, caprice asks for it. The 
result is that our fine imported cattle, hogs and sheep, 
or their descendants, instead of being confined to 
those farms whose owners have more money than 
judgment, are very generally scattered over the coun¬ 
try, and are within the reach of the'humblest farmer 
in the land. It is not the lack of money but the want 
of enterprise that in these days shuts the gate of any 
stock yard against the entrance of the best breeds. 
The markets of the world are open to and eager for 
American meats, and ordinary wisdom suggests to us 
that our interests lie in the direction of furnishing 
what the markets call for. Farmers can not sell scrub 
stock to advantage, even at home, and it is thoroughly 
unmerchantable in Europe. To compete with the fine 
meats of England, we must produce the very best and 













I i8o 


STOCK FA RMER—S TO V£. 


produce it at a less cost than they can do it there; 
and this farmers of this country can do. English 
stock-raisers are jealous of the American product, 
simply for the reason that it is as good as theirs and 
can be sold cheaper. I'hey do not hesitate to say 
that our cattle kill as well as theirs, and their only 
hoix; of saving themselves from ruin is to induce their 
government to place such restrictions upon the sale of 
American meats as to seriously embarrass our shippers. 

'I'here were reported to be in the United States Jan¬ 
uary I, 1882, thirty-three million, two hundred and 
thirty-four thousand, five hundred cattle, thirty-eight 
million, one hundred and twenty-six thousand swine, 
and thirty-four million, seven hundred and sixty thou¬ 
sand, one hundred sheep,—figures of such dimensions 
as to create profound astonishment, and yet they are 
small as compared to what the future will produce. 
Our country is a new country, and but very partially 
settled. Millions of acres are yet untouched by an 
implement, and even unpressed by a human foot. 
From ocean to ocean and from Canada to the Gulf of 
Mexico, every foot of farming land will some time be 
occupied, while in the older sections of the country, 
the population will double, treble, and perhaps quad¬ 
ruple. There is no doubt whatever that this country 
will yet contain a population equal to the present entire 
jxjpulation of the globe. The world is pouring its intel¬ 
lect and its muscle into the Republic of the West, and 
it will continue to do as long as it remains “ the land 
of the free and the home of the brave,” and as long 
as America furnishes better inducements for labor 
than is furnished in the crowded, and in some cases, 
exhausted communities of the Old World. We have 
most thoroughly treated of all the different kinds of 
stock under their respective heads, and under those 
of Breeding and Feeding Animals, to which we refer 
the reader. 

Stock Farmer, a farmer whose business mainly 
consists in rearing live stock. 

Stomach, one of the principal organs of digestion. 
It is a musculo-membranous reservoir, continuous 
on the one side with the oesophagus, and on the other 
with the duodenum. It owes its digestive powers to 
an acid liquid, the gastric juice, which is secreted by 
innumerable follicles in its internal coat, and the 
action of which upon the various elements afforded is 
similar to prolonged boiling in water. Such is the 
power of this fluid that it is capable, even out of the 
body, of converting food into chyme; and if the stomach 
be deprived of the vital principles which enal)les it to 
resist its action, it will eat away the stomach itself. 

Stook, a small stack of grain as first set up in the 
field, commonly called “shock”in the West and South. 
Both these words are also used to denote the action, 
as, “to stook,” “to shock.” 

Stool, in an agricultural and horticultural sense, 
signifies the collection of stems springing up from one 
root or seed, as wheat, raspberry, etc.; also, the root or 
stem of a tree or plant cut off near the ground, from 
which shoots spring up. 


Storm: see Weather. 

Stove. This form of furnace, as we may term it, 
has within the last half century come into almost 
universal use throughout Christendom; and, as it has 
become almost a necessity in housekeeping, we call 
attention here to the most important practical points 
concerning it. Whether for cooking or for heating a 
room, most persons have stoves with which they find 
some fault, and in which they could make some im¬ 
provements. Probably the chief reason is, they buy 
stoves which are cheap—cheap l^ecause they are 
faulty. Many stoves are purchased at “second-hand,” 
or at least as “ second-hand,” so classed on account 
of their defects. These stoves often appear as good 
as new; but, although some of them are worth as 
much or more than their purchase money, theirowners 
or the other members of the household often wish the 
stoves had not been bought. It is almost impossible 
for one to so inform himself in “ stove science ” as to 
be able to select infallibly a good stove by mere ocular 
inspection. 

The Draft. A good draft is secured more by a 
proper form of the chimney than of the stove. I'he 
two essential principles for insuring a good draft are: 
first, that no part of the flue, or smoke channel, should 
be any smaller than any point below it; and, secondly, 
that there should be no lateral apertures to the flue. 
Have the whole length of the smoke channel as large 
as the throat at the stove, or slightly larger as it 
ascends, and have no leaks into it from the external 
air, and you have a good draft. The rear part of any 
stove, as well as the pipe and chimney, should be as 
nearly air-tight as practicable. 

Damper. No damper should be so arranged or 
worked as to cut off the free upward flight of the 
smoke and heavy gases. Carbonic-acid gas, for ex¬ 
ample, is much heavier than smoke, and a damper in 
the stove-pipe even partially closed will press out such 
gas into the atmosphere of the room. Only three per 
cent, of carbonic-acid gas in the air we breathe is 
sufficient to destroy life in a few minutes. On§ can 
distinguish it by its heavy and oppressive odor. No 
damper should fie allowed in the stove-pijoe at all; it 
is not the place for it, nor indeed anywhere above the 
fire. All “damping” should be done by cutting off 
the draft in front, or by letting in air above. By the 
latter process one must be careful not to so weaken 
the draft that the deadly gases cannot be drawn up. 
Dampers are required for both cooking stoves and 
heaters, to turn the current of heated air through the 
base of the stove. 

_ Lining. The chief fault in “brick lining,” espe¬ 
cially in a second-hand stove, is its liability to fall in 
or tumble down. It is difficult, if not impossible, to 
so adjust the pieces that they will stand much hard 
usage. Some stoves, as the self-feeding base-burners, 
have not the disadvantage of wanting brick lining. 
When one wishes to renew the lining of a stove, he 
can get the proper material at the hardware stores and 
apply it himself The process is very simple, and 
directions accompany each package. 









STO VEI^—STRA I V. 


I iSr 


Heat-Fender. Working much over a heated cook¬ 
ing-stove is both disagreeable and unhealthful. The 
best method of guarding against this exixisure is to 
have a ventilating shaft over the stove and extending 
like a chimney up through the roof. What is called 
the “ Hite Heat Fender ” is a large shaft which comes 
down to the floor all around the stove, made neat and 
ornamental like a piece of furniture, and with a door 
on one side, which is opened only when it is necessary 
to attend to something on the stove. Inside of this 
shaft-base pegs are put up all around, containing all 
the utensils, cloths, etc., necessary to be used about 
the stove,—an arrangement far more convenient than 
the ordinary system. ; 

To Mend Cracked Stoves. Mix equal parts of 
wood ashes and salt into a paste with water and fill 
in the cracks; it will soon get hard and close the 
crack with what is known as a rust .joint. For cast 
iron that is not heated, a cement is made of fine 
filings of cast iron wetted with a solution of sal am¬ 
moniac and made into a paste with flower of sulphur. 

Oil-Cloth for Stoves is better than zinc. While 
it is fully as effectual in protecting the carpet or floor 
underneath against heat, it is much easier to keep 
bright and clean. Wash it with warm suds, then with 
warm milk and water, wiping with a soft cloth. 

Stove Polish. To ^xilish a stove, mix the carburet 
or polish with water to the consistence of thick mortar, 
put it on the stove when the latter is cold, with a i 
woolen cloth or brush, and while it is drying brush it j 
rapidly with an old broom. This is hard work, but it 
produces the most satisfactory results. Peddlers some¬ 
times bring to the house an apparently new sort of 
ix)lish which is easy to apply and requires no rubbing; 
but after he is gone the polish seems to work no better 
than other kinds. There are at least three causes of 
this, two of which may be considered “tricks of the 
trade,” namely; i. The peddler makes his exhibit by 
applying his polish only to those exposed parts of the 
stove legs, hearth, etc., which have been worn smooth 
and bright by shoes rested on them, while on the , 
rougher ^xirtions the new comixisition does not apply 
any better than other kinds, if so well. 2. The ped¬ 
dler may have his packages different from one an¬ 
other, or the tops only of all of them finished off with 
good ix)lish, or at least with that kind of substance 
which is good for effecting a sale. 3. Most kinds of 
stove polish lose their quality with age. 

Some housekeepers succeed in keeping their cook- 
stoves a shiny black all over by rubbing them with 
grease and never allowing them to become hotter than 
is necessary for good cookery; and the best cooking, 
in fact, is done by a moderate fire. 

When a stove is set away in the spring, to remain 
unused until frdl, it should be rubbed all over with 
kerosene, to keep it from rusting. 

In Starting a Coal Fire be sure to clean all the 
ashes out of the grate. If you have hard wood with 
a little soft wood to start it, you had better use no 
paper, for it chokes the draft. Light your wood and 


when it is well going put on the coal. Be sure your 
coal is clean, and put on only a little; when that is 
quite red add more. But the secret of keeping jour 
fire good all day is not to overload it. As soon as the 
fire is started in the kitchen, empty what water may 
have been left in the kettle from the day before and 
fill with fresh water, place it over the warmest part of 
the stove until it boils, and then remove it further 
back. Shut up the front and back drafts so as to get 
the good of it. Watch your fire from time to time: it 
will no more take care of itself than a baby will. 
Before adding more coal clear away the ashes from 
the grate. In self-feeding hall stoves be very particu¬ 
lar not to have any paper or chips of wood mixed 
with the coal, for they heat without burning and gen¬ 
erate carbonic acid gas, which is neither pleasant nor 
wholesome. 

Oil and Gasoline Stoves. -These are great con¬ 
veniences where but little cooking is required, espec¬ 
ially in hot weather. Considerable care is required to 
prevent filling the room with kerosene vajx)r and a 
sooty odor from the oil (or kerosene) stoves. Good 
fresh oil should be used, the wicks kept evenly 
trimmed, and the whole stove, inside and out, kept 
clean. By this means, most of the foul odor will be 
prevented. Gasoline stoves are much neater, but they 
yield an odor,—not, however, quite so disagreeable 
as that from kerosene. But gasoline is much more 
dangerous to handle. All such volatile oils are safe 
enough in the hands of those who fully understand 
their nature, but the latter is especially hazardous to 
the unskilled, and it is from the use of it that most of 
the dreadful accidents occur. See Kerosene. 

Stover, fodder, and all kinds of provisions for cattle. 

Strainer, see page 974. 

Strangles, an eruptive contagious fever of the horse> 
characterized by swelling in and about the bones of 
the lower jaw, and known as distemper. See Distem¬ 
per, page 775. 

Straw, the stalk or stem of certain species of grain, 
pulse, etc., chiefly of wheat, rye, oats and barley. 
The word also means the stalks of these and certain 
other species of grain after they are cut and threshed. 
It is in the latter sense that we treat the word in this 
article. 

The value of straw to the farmer is governed by a 
variety of circumstances. He may realize consider¬ 
able from the sale of it if he be near a city where it is 
used for bedding, packing, filling mattresses, etc. 
Comparatively few farmers, however, are thus located, 
and therefore must dispose of the straw in some other 
way; but it never should be burned. It certainly may 
be disposed of to a far greater advantage, even in a 
new country. Remember that the virgin soil will not 
always retain its strength and vigor under any usage, 
and the wise farmer would guard against its exhaustion, 
by constantly supplying the plant food consumed by 
each crop. 

Where straw is cut before it is too ripe it is of value 
as food, especially for store cattle. In Germany it is. 














I i 82 


STJ^A IVL^EHJ^Y. 


valued at more than half the price of the best hay. 
But to secure the best results in feeding straw some 
material rich in albuminoids must be fed with the 
straw, such as oil-cake, shorts, middlings or clover hay. 
The straw alone does not contain enough of the albu¬ 
minoids to secure the complete digestion of the car¬ 
bohydrates which it contains. If the straw is fed with 
substances rich in albuminoids, the manure will be as 
rich as that made from hay. 

As a fertilizer straw has a manurial value in itself. 
If we compare moderately rotted stable manure and 
wheat straw in regard to their contents of the three 
most valuable manurial elements, nitrogen, potash and 
phosphoric acid, we find that, weight for weight, the 
manure and the straw have nearly the same value; 
the manure contains more water and the straw more 
vegetable matter, but in other respects their value is 
nearly equal. I'lie straw is more bulky and difficult 
to cover, but once placed beneath the soil and decom¬ 
posed there is a positive addition to the available 
plant-food in the soil. Whether it would pay, how¬ 
ever, to handle it for this manurial value or not must 
be determined by the surrounding circumstances and 
conditions. Wherever the soil is deficient in vegeta¬ 
ble matter, the straw may be of great value when 
plowed under, by the large increase of vegetable 
mold formed by the decay of the straw. In sandy 
and gravelly soils the organic matter of the soil is 
soon exhausted, unless renewed by jfiowing up green 
sward or turning under long manure, straw, corn-stalks, 
etc. By the decay of such materials under the soil 
we promote the decomposition of mineral substances 
in the soil, as well as increase the vegetable mold. 

Strawberry. The name of this favorite fruit is said 
to be derived from an ancient custom of putting straw 
beneath’the fruit when it began to ripen, to prevent it 
from being polluted with the soil, and its botanical 
name Fragaria alludes to the delicious fragrance of 

the fruit. Strawberry 
plants are great favor¬ 
ites in many parts of 
the world. Their sto- 
loniferoLis habit is so 
curious, their green, 
low-spreading foliage 
so beautiful and re¬ 
freshing to the eye, 
their elegant and 
charmingly scented 
blossoms so grateful 
to the smell, and their 
handsome and brilliant 
fruit, so luscious, that 
they are only to be 
known to be admired. 
See page 546. 

Propagation and cultivation. A warm sandy 
loam, or new land, moist and exposed to the sun, but 
well drained, is the best situation for this plant. It 
may be either a hill sloping to the south, or bottom 
land near a deep channel of running water. A close 


protection by a board fence on the north side hastens 
the development and maturity of the fruit. A piece 
of land facing the north will produce late crops. 
When wild berries do better in the shade it is not so 
much on account of the shade as of the moisture, mel¬ 
lowness of the soil, and retreat from the tread of rov¬ 
ing animals. Ashes, lime and salt are good fertilizers, 
but leat-mold or bog earth constitutes the best manure. 
Plaster and animal manures produce large plants and 
strong runners, but little fruit. To produce the very 
highest results Mr. Pardee recommends sprinkling the 
ground two or three times each spring with a solution, 
in six gallons water to each bed, of a quarter of a 
pound each of sulphate of soda and potash, and nitrate 
of soda, with one and a half ounces of sulphate of 
ammonia. 

Late in the fall or very early in the spring is the 
best time for transplanting; late summer and early 
fall are just as good when the weather is cool and 
wet. Watch the plants that ihey do not dry out. 
The strawberry must always have moist ground. 

Select the most vigorous runners and take the 
earth up with them if ix)ssible unbroken. If the 
plants have 
come from a 
distance, as is 
generally the 
case, or if by 
other means the 
roots have been 
freed from earth 
dip them in mud 
just before set¬ 
ting them in the 
ground. In 
planting them 
press the mellow 
earth around 
them, leaving 
the plant the 
same depth in 
the ground as 
it originally 

grew. For gar- Sharpless Seedling. 

den cultivation they are generally set eight to ten inches 
apart in the rows for small varieties, and twelve to 
eighteen inches for the larger kinds; the rows about 
eighteen inches apart. For field culture the rows, of 
course, must be about three feet apart, for the purpose 
of horse cultivation. Where frequent renewal is 
practiced, however, cultivation with a horse is not 
necessary. Strawberries need constant mulching from 
the very start. In setting out the plants, water them 
thoroughly and cover the whole ground with straw, 
tan-bark shavings, wild grass in which there are no 
ripened seeds, green rowen or other material equiva¬ 
lent, to the depth of two to four inches between the 
rows and hills, and an inch or two on the hills. 
Corn-stalks, especially if cut up with a machine, make 
first-class mulching. Saw-dust, or other material 
which packs closely, is not good, as it sours the ground. 

















STRA 


1183 


Young plants should be freed from all the old or de¬ 
cayed portions before they are set in the ground, 
some varieties doing better set in hills or sharp 
ridges, but most doing better when set in the general 
level. What is called the “ matted row ” is more con¬ 
venient than the “ single hill,” some varieties, however, 
yielding so much more by the latter plan as to render 
it remunerative. Raising the new sets in pots before 
transplanting is growing into favor, for, although 
somewhat troublesome, a full crop is realized the first 
year after planting. 

In watering plants of any species during a dry 
season, never follow the practice of “little and often,” 
but give them a thorough soaking about every week or 
ten days when the sun is not hot upon them. In 
cultivating with the hoe do not break the ground 
within six or eight inches of the plant, as that breaks 
their most valuable roots. But if all of the previous 
conditions are attended to, very little cultivation will 
be necessary further than to keep down the weeds, 
and when fruit is required, the runners cut off. A 
band of iron about ten inches in diameter, sharpened on 
one edge and fixed on the end of a stick is the best in¬ 
strument for the rapid cutting of runners; but if only 
the light manures mentioned are used, the runners also 
will be very light. The best time for forking or spad¬ 
ing between the rows is immediately after the season 
of bearing; but during the season the plants are set 
the ground can be carefully hoed and raked close to 
the plant, as there are no surface roots to be injured. 

In general strawberry plants should be renewed 
every three or four years, varying from three to six or 
eight years according to the nature of the variety, as 
described below. It is best also to take new ground 
for new plantations; old beds should be planted to 
corn or ix)tatoes a year or two, and supplied with lime, 
ashes and salt. The most convenient system of con¬ 
stant renewal is that of encouraging the setting of the 
best runners as they grow in the bed, and of digging 
up the old plants. 

Strawberry plants cannot be multiplied from the 
seed, as there is nothing certain about it. Acres 
might be sowed with the seed and not a berry obtained 
worth cultivating, but in good rich soil a plant will put 
out runners so that fifty good, thrifty plants may be 
obtained the first season after planting, and twenty- 
five hundred the second year. 

It is always remunerative to give winter protection, 
which is done by covering the bed, after the ground 
is frozen, with two or three inches of fine mulching or 
five or six inches of heavy. This, of course, should 
be mostly removed in the spring, enough only being 
left on the ground to keep it moist and prevent weeds 
from growing. Fresh straw, or any other light 
material which will not pack close to the ground is 
best for winter protection. 

“Forcing ” strawberry plants is sometimes practiced 
in the older countries, but as no one in this section of 
the world cares to practice the art, we omit the direc¬ 
tions for the process here. 

Insects and Disease. Fortunately the strawberry 


is not subject to any disease except the apparent one 
of a microscopic parasitic fungus, by which the fibers 
of the roots are affected and the plant becomes brown 
and the berries are stunted, deformed and pallid. 
Remedy: uproot the plant and burn it. 

The greatest mischief-makers among strawberry 
plants are the leaf-roller, the crown-borer, white-grub 
and the strawberry slug. The leaf-rollers are the larvae 
of the moths which stitch the leaves up into rolls by a 
fine web and also eat them. They pupate (go in¬ 
to the chrysalid state) in the same leaf and appear 
as a reddish-brown moth in July. A second brood 
comes in September. The crown-borers work in the 
crown of the plant, and a brown, meal-like saw-dust 
is the sign of their presence. For the last two men¬ 
tioned pests no reliable remedy is proposed. The 
white grub is the larva of a saw-fly. To kill him the 
earth may be worked up in the latter part of the sea¬ 
son and hogs, chickens or birds allowed access. A 
thin layer of ashes on the ground is also recommend¬ 
ed. The strawberry slugs perforate the leaves with 
minute holes, and when not feeding they are rolled 
up underneath the leaves in the form of a ring. There 
are two broods of them in a season. Remedy same 
as the last, or shake the larve to the ground and kill 
it. A sprinkling of powdered white hellebore over 
the plants is a sure remedy. 

Varieties. For many years the Wilson s Albany 
was the king of strawberries in the West; but it was 
always marketed before it was fully ripe and while it 
was quite sour, the question of introducing a sweeter 
and better flavored variety for the market was brought 
up, and recentefforts have resulted in bringing into 
public notice many new and promising candidates. 
The leading berry for the West now seems to be the 
Charles Downing; but for special purposes there are 
many other new varieties found to be worthy of cultiva¬ 
tion, and we now proceed to enumerate them, with a 
brief description of each, omitting some varieties which 
do well in some places in the East, but not regarded 
by horticulturists as general standard varieties. 

Agriculturist. Large but variable in size, oval 
conical, dark crimson, the sweetest of all strawberries > 
flesh dark red and firm, ripening about June 10 in the 
latitude of Iowa, very good as dessert but not for ship¬ 
ping ; plant requires a loamy or light soil, and is 
rather too tender for the climate of the Northwest; not 
self-fertilizing. 

America. Large, round conical, purple crimson 
but lacks color, medium texture, ripens the first week 
in June, productiveness variable, very good for dessert, 
rather poor for market; not self-fertilizing. 

Bidivell. Very large, long conical, necked, bright 
scarlet, medium texture, ripens the second week in 
June, but not well at the tips ; very good for dessert, 
fair for shipping; self-fertilizing; a promising new va¬ 
riety. 

Black Defiance. Very large, oblong conical, perfect 
in form and holds its size well, firm, dark crimson, 
best as dessert, good for market, early, but is a shy 
bearer; ripens the second week in June; requires a 


7 S 














1184 


STJ^A I VBEJiR Y. 


loamy or heavy soil; this variety is self-fertilizing. 

Boston Pine. Large, round conical, dark crimson, 
medium texture, ripens the second week in June, very 
good as dessert, ix)or for market, self-fertilizer, and 
one of the best for fertilizing other varieties. 

Boyden's No. jo. See Seth Boyden. 

Burrs New Pine. Medium size, round conical, 
bright crimson, ripens the second week of June, soft, 
best as dessert, poor for market; plant hardy; not self¬ 
fertilizing. 

Captain Jack. Uniformly medium size, round con¬ 
ical, bright crimson, firm, next to the best for dessert 
and market, ripening the second week of June and 
holding on until late; requires light or loamy soil; 
foliage splendid; self-fertilizing. 

Centennial Favorite. Very large, highest flavor, 
with pleasant aroma; plant a good grower, healthy, 
immensely productive and self-fertilizing. 

Champion. Large, round conical, dark crimson, 
firm, very good for dessert and market, ripening the 
second week in June; not self-fertilizing. 

Charles Doivning; Uniformly large, round conical 
dark scarlet, medium texture, delicious flavor, good as 
dessert and best for market, but scarcely firm enough 
for distant markets; ripens the second week in June, 
adapted to all kinds of soil, does better in matted 
rows or beds and is not infested by the borer. Com¬ 
pared with the Wilson’s Albany it is more productive, 
stands the hot sun better, does not heave so much by 
freezing and is therefore easier to mulch. 

Cinderella. Good grower, very productive, berries 
good size and quality. 

Col. Cheney. Large, round conical and coxcomb in 
form, bright crimson, medium texture, needs a little 
more firmness for distant markets, ripens the second 
week in June, good dessert and best market; late; 
best on loamy or heavy soil; not self-fertilizing. 

Colfax. Small, uniform size, covered with a thick 
purplish bloom, sour, and of little value on some 
soils. 

Continental. Large but not of uniform size, firmest 
texture of the strawberries, sweet, late; could be 
shipped a thousand miles. 

Cozving's Seedling. Very large,round, oblongconical, 
bright crimson, medium texture, first quality as des¬ 
sert, very good for market, ripens in the second week 
of June, requires a very light soil; self-fertilizing. 

Crescent ox Crescent Seedling. Uniformly large, coni¬ 
cal, dark scarlet, fair dessert, very good market, soft, 
delicate flavor, looks polished and waxy; lasts longer 
than any other variety; any kind of rich moist soil; 
not sufficiently self-fertilizing; does better in matted 
beds and rows. 

Crystal City. Very early, medium size, fair in qual¬ 
ity but not rich in flavor, moderately firm. 

Cumberland Triumph. Very large, round, oblong 
conical, bright crimson, very good dessert and mar¬ 
ket, of medium texture, ripens the second week in 
June; self-fertilizing. 

Doxuner's Prolific. Medium size, average shape. 


bright scarlet, firm, early, very good dessert and mar¬ 
ket ; vigorous; selLfertilizing. 

Duchesse. Large, round, oblong conical, bright 
crimson, firm, very early, very good dessert and mar¬ 
ket; prefers heavy or loamy soil. 

Duncan. Large dark red, firm, earliest of all, very 
good dessert and market; self-fertilizing; plant vigor¬ 
ous. 

Early Scarlet, Large Early Scarlet, Berry small, 
round oval, soft, ripens at the average time, very 
good dessert and fair market > self-fertilizing; matted 
bed or row; nearly superseded in Michigan by newer 
and larger varieties. 

Edwards No. 14. One of the best flavored ber¬ 
ries raised. 

Endicott's Seedling. Originated by Geo. W. Endi- 
cott. Villa Ridge, Ill., and is worthy of further trial. 

Essex, Durand's Beauty. Very large, conical, 
brilliant dark crimson, very good dessert and market; 
firm, not productive; self-fertilizing; produces scarce¬ 
ly any runners; requires hill culture. 

Forest Pose. Very large, common form, bright 
crimson, very good dessert and market, firm, early; 
self-fertilizing; a very promising*new variety; should 
have a heavy, moist soil. 

French, or French's Seedling. Large, long, cox¬ 
comb-form, bright scarlet;-soft but very good for both 
dessert and market, excellent flavor, medium vigor, 
very productive; second week of June; self-fertilizing. 

Glendale. Very large, long, bright scarlet, firm, 
good dessert and market, late, very promising, self- 
fertilizing. 

Great American. Very large, round conical, dark 
crimson, fair dessert and very good market, soft, 
variable, ripens about June 10, requires extra culture 
and then commands extra prices in the market; self¬ 
fertilizing. 

Green Prolific. Large, oblong, bright scarlet, soft, 
very good dessert, fair market, ripens about June 10, 
but holds on well, berries often imperfect, plant 
hardy, vigorous and productive; not self-fertilizing; 
surpasses all in maintaining itself against the weeds; 
a very popular Western berry; cultivated on the 
matted row or bed system. 

Hoveys Seedling. Very large, oblong, bright scar¬ 
let, fair dessert and market, firm, late; generally 
vigorous and productive; not self-fertilizing; requires 
cultivation in hills; an old standard variety, but going 
out of use. 

fucunda. Very large, oblong, bright scarlet, firm, 
fair dessert, very good market, late; plant vigorous; 
more profitable when grown in hills and in a strong' 
stiff soil; at the North it succeeds in sandy soil; in 
most places it is superseded by hardier and more 
productive varieties; self-fertilizing. 

Kentucky. Very large, oblong, bright scarlet, firm, 
sweet, very good dessert and market, plant vigorous, 
prefers light soil; best late berry; not self-fertilizing. 

Lenning s IVhite. Large, oblong, whitish red, juicy, 
soft, best dessert, poor shipping; flavor of pine-apple 














STRINGHAL T—§TUMP. 1185 


and buttery; seeds reddish, not deep; ripens about 
June 12; unproductive; self-fertilizing. 

Maj. McMahan. Uniforndy large, dark crimson, 
firm, beautiful, very good dessert and market; rather 
late; stems short; self-fertilizing. 

Marvin. Very large, long, bright crimson, firm, 
very good dessert, best shipping, late, self-fertilizing. 

McAvoys Superior. An old standard berry for 
many years but now superseded. 

Michigan. Uniformly large, pale crimson, very 
good dessert, too soft for shipping, rather late; plant 
vigorous, productive, in extremely large stools with 
heavy, dark green, healthy foliage; self-fertilizing. 

Miner or Miner’s Prolific. Large, crimson, good, 
rich, soft, firm (as the Downing), plant vigorous and 
productive; self-fertilizing. 

Monarch of the West. Long, very large, dark 
crimson, firm, very good dessert, good market, June 
10, ripening slowly at the tips, very productive; self- 
fertilizing; either a loam or a heavy soil. 

Necked Pine. Medium size, long neck, light scar¬ 
let, tender, sprightly, highly-flavored; self-fertilizing. 

Pioneer. Medium firmness, good, rich, sweet 
flavor, large, holding out well in the latter part of 
the season; plant a medium grower, foliage a delicate 
light green. 

President Lincoln. Somewhat irregular in shape, 
good, rich, sweet flavor, stems long and the fruit is 
held well up from the ground; vines medium growers 
and bearers; most of the fruit is of immense size. 

President Wilder. Large, oblong, bright scarlet, 
firm, late, best dessert, poor market; selLfertilizing; 
heavy soil. 

Prouty's Seedling. Cultivated in hills; this is a 
promising variety. 

Russell's Prolific. Very large, coxcomb-form, scar¬ 
let crimson, soft, good dessert, too soft for remote 
market; ripens about June 12; not self-fertilizing; 
now nearly abandoned. 

Seneca Chief. Very large, coxcoml^ed, dark crim¬ 
son, firm, very good dessert and market, late, very 
productive and vigorous; self-fertilizing; strong soil. 

Sharpless. Very large, oval, coxcombed, bright 
red, firm, rich juicy, very good dessert and market, 
middle of June; vigorous, hardy, productive; self¬ 
fertilizing. 

Shirts. Very large, long, bright crimson, very rich 
in color, very good dessert, best market, firm; self¬ 
fertilizer. 

Spring Dale. Very large, dark scarlet, medium 
texture, best dessert, poor market, not firm, of 
superior flavor, late, not self-fertilizing, a promising 
variety in the West. 

Seth Boy den; Boy dens No. jo. Large, oblong, 
bright crimson, firm, very good dessert and market, 
middle of June and late; vigorous, productive, ^elf- 
fertilizing, but rusts badly in the West; prefers very 
moist soil and cultivation in hills. 

Star of the West. Large, sub-acid, soft, but can be 
shipped from 100 to 200 miles, oblong, dark crimson, 
productive, rather late; more reliable than Monarch 


of the West; a luxuriant grower; quality good; self¬ 
fertilizing. 

Triomphe dc Gand. Large, oblong, bright red, 
firm, average time too late, best dessert and market, 
rich and excellent flavor; self-fertilizing; hills in 
heavy soil; an old standard variety, now being 
neglected. 

Wilson’s Albany. The most common berry of 
former years; should be cultivated in matted beds 
and rows, in light soil, and the fruit should not be 
picked until it is soft, if for home use. 

IVindsor Chief. Large, bright crimson, fair dessert 
and market, firm, but not sufficiently so for distant 
market; one of the most profitable varieties for home 
market; June 10; rapid grower and profuse bearer; 
not fully self-fertilizing. 

Wizard of the North. A new and promising 
variety. 

Stringhalt. An affection of the hind leg of the 
horse. _ See page 832. 

Stubble, the stalks of corn or grain left by the 
reaper. As to the best methods of disposing of the 
surplus straw and stubble of the farm is a vexed ques¬ 
tion with many farmers. Some burn it, and others 
feed it, thereby obtaining manure with which to en¬ 
rich the ground. The nutrition extracted from the 
soil by the constant gathering and reaping of crops 
must be replaced, and a question open for debate, is, 
whether the heading of wheat, oats, rye, etc., thereby 
leaving a stubble in the field consisting of the entire 
stalk, minus the head, and the leaving of the entire 
corn-stalk, and plowing them under, is not better than 
gathering them and burning or feeding. After the 
grain and ear are gathered, the stock can be turned 
upon the fields, and all animal manure, together with 
the manure afforded by the decay of the remaining 
stubble or stalk, will be thoroughly utilized. 

Stud, a small piece of timber or joist inserted in 
the sills and beams, between the posts, to support the 
beams or other main timbers; often called “studding.” 
A stud is also a kind of nail with a large head, in¬ 
serted in work chiefly for ornament; an ornamental 
knob; an ornamental button or catch for a shirt 
bosom, not held in its place by being sewed; in ma¬ 
chinery, a short rod fixed in and projecting from some¬ 
thing, sometimes forming a journal; a stud-bolt. The 
last mentioned has threads on both ends, to be screwed 
into a fixed part at one end and receive a nut upon 
the other; called also “standing bolt.” For stud¬ 
horse, see Stallion. 

Stump, the stool of a felled tree, or the standing 
part of a fractured or fallen tree; or any clubbish, 
lumpish, or basal remnant of a fractured, cylindrical, 
organic body. 

To the farmers of wooded countries, the stump, 
although an “eye-sore,” should not prove a formidable 
barrier to the clearing and cultivation of the soil. 
The manner of grubbing the stump out with the ax, 
as practiced by the early settlers of most new coun- 













1186 


ST. VITUS' DANCE—SUET. 


tries, has been superseded by inventions and dis¬ 
coveries, until at the present time it may be made a 
comparatively easy task. The stump puller, a modern 
invention, is now used for this purpose. We give an 
illustration of one made by E. Over, Indianapolis, Ind. 

It is simple 
in construc¬ 
tion, strong 
an d durable 
and has im¬ 
mense power. 
Twelve pounds 
at the end of a 
nine-foot lever 
will raise 2,000 
pounds. 

The tripod 
consists of three 
, 4 - inch 
square oak,each 
ten feet long, and the lever is nine feet long and ta¬ 
pers towards the end. The chains used are made of 
7 /q and ‘i/i round iron. Pins are made of steel. To 
raise a stump easily, the main roots should be cut and 
the chain applied to one of them, thus making a lever 
out of the root and greatly assisting in the work. 

In addition to the stump puller, there are other 
methods of extracting stumps with different chemi¬ 
cals. One of the most successful methods is as fol¬ 
lows : 

In the autumn bore a hole one or two inches in di¬ 
ameter, according to the girth of the latter, and about 
eighteen inches deep. Put into it two or three ounces 
of saltpeter, fill the hole with water and plug it up 
close._ In the ensuing spring take out the plug and 
pour in about a half gill of kerosene oil and ignite it. 
The stump will smoulder away without blazing, to the 
very extremity of the roots, leaving nothing but the 
ashes. 

St. Vitus’ Dance, called chorea (pronounced co-re'a) 
by the profession, consists of irregular and involun¬ 
tary motions of one or more limbs and of the face and 
trunk. It is a nervous disease, generally brought on 
before the age of puberty,—often by too close confine¬ 
ment at school. When it affects the muscles of the 
face it gives rise to quite a variety of most strange 
grimaces and contortions. When any motion is at¬ 
tempted to be made, various fibers of other muscles 
act which ought not; and thus an effect contrary to 
that intended is produced. It is not a dangerous 
malady, although it may run into epilepsy and then 
prove fatal. 

Treatment. In connection with a nervine tonic 
give the following preparation; black cohosh 2 ounces, 
skullcap I ounce, assafetida ounce. Pulverize and 
digest in a pint of alcohol for six days and then pour 
off the tincture carefully. Dose. The dose is a tea¬ 
spoonful every three hours. The tincture maybe ob¬ 
tained at the drug store, which should be fresh. Of 
this, give i to 20 drops. The tonic above referred to 


is either lady’s slipper, valerian or nux vomica. 
The dose ot the extract of the two former is from 3 to 
5 grains. The tincture nux vomica should be taken 
as follows for a considerable time: Put 4 to 6 drops 
in a glass of water and take a teaspoonful every hour. 
In the treatment of this disease the bowels should be 
kept open. 

Styptic (stip'tic), an astringent drug 'which has a 
tendency to stop the flow of blood from a wound or 
bleeding sore. 

Sub-soil, the earth immediately beneath the upper, 
or richest soil; it is generally of a lighter color. Sub¬ 
soiling is the process of loosening the sub-soil by a 
plow without any mold-board to turn it. See Fig. 14 
of the article on Plow. Trench plowing (see Fig. 13 
of same article) is sometimes called sub-soiling, but 
wrongfully so. In this the sub-soil is thrown up and 
mixed with the surface, while the sub-soil plow only 
loosens it without inverting it. 

The value of land greatly depends upon the sub-soil, 
in fact, almost as much as it does upon the upper soil. 
If it be wet and full of stagnant water the land is of 
but little value, until it is under-drained; if it be hard 
and rocky, the surface soil dries too quickly, and if it 
be too light, water and fluid manure may drain away. 

Succotash, green corn and beans boiled together, 
sometimes with meat. Shave the green corn from the 
cob, cut an equal quantity of beans into inch lengths, 
stew them together half an hour, pour off most of the 
water and put in cold milk; when hot, add butter, 
rolled in flour, season with salt and pepper, and sim¬ 
mer five minutes. 

Succulent (suk'u-lent), juicy. Herbs are succu¬ 
lent plants, and very juicy or watery kinds are more 
succulent than the others. 

Suckers, the shoots from the roots of plants and 
trees near the stem. 

Sudorific (su-dor-if'ic), a medicine producing 
sweat. It enters the circulation, acts on the subcu¬ 
taneous vessels, and augments the energy of the cutic- 
ular glands which secrete the sweat. No known sub¬ 
stance acts safely as a sudorific in the horse; but 
either a mixture of ipecacuanha and opium, or a mix¬ 
ture of emetic tartar, opium, and ginger, beneficially 
increases his insensible perspiration. See the article 
Perspiration. 

Suet. The fat situated about the loins and kid¬ 
neys of sheep, oxen and some other animals. It is 
harder and less fusible than the fat of other parts of 
the same animals, or tlpn that of the same parts of 
other animals; but it differs from these fats, and even 
ffom the softest hogs lard, chiefly in consistency, and, 
like them, is composed almost entirely of stearine and 
elaine, or ultimately of carbon, hydrogen and oxy¬ 
gen. See the articles Oil and Fat. The suet of 
sheep and oxen when melted out of the membranes 
which envelope it, forms tallow, and is largely used in 
the manufacture of soap and candles; and when 























SUGAR. 


1187 


fused it concretes at a temperature of about 100° Fahr. 

Sugar, and a class of substances nearly allied to it 
by chemical combinations, constitute the chief mass 
of the vegetable kingdom, existing more or less in 
almost all vegetables, but abundantly in ripe fruits, 
and in the roots of the beet, carrot, etc. It is procured 
most plentifully, as is well known, from the juice of 
sugar cane. These allied substances above refer¬ 
red to are chiefly starch, woody fiber and gum, 
which in one sense are different forms of sugar. 
Starch and gum are convertible into sugar, and the 
latter is convertible into alcohol. They are all com¬ 
posed of carbon, 72 parts by weight, hydrogen 8 to 14 
parts and oxygen 6410 <12. They are often termed 
the non-nitrogenous elements of food, and said to 
serve for the generation of heat in the animal body, 
and not for the formation of muscle. 

There are several species of sugar, which agree in 
having a sweet taste, but which differ in other re¬ 
spects. Cane sugar, or common sugar, which is seen 
in its purest state when crystallized in white sugar 
candy, and in refined sugar, sugar from the beet root 
and the maple tree, is the same as that from the cane. 
Sugar from grapes contain less carbon than cane sugar, 
and is not so sweet. It requires two and one-halftimes 
as much of this sugar to sweeten to the same degree 
as cane sugar. It cannot be made to crystallize dis¬ 
tinctly, but solidifies in grains. It dissolves less rapid¬ 
ly than cane sugar and gives a more fluid sirup. 
Sugar of malt agrees with this, and also the sugar- 
of honey, of raisins, figs, and many other sweet fruits. 

Sugar of Milk has the same constituents as grape 
sugar and in the same proportion, and passes into the 
latter when in contact with acid, and then it ferments. 
It is much used by homoeopathists, both domestic and 
veterinary, in the form of powder, but oftener in the 
form of globules or small pellets for holding medi¬ 
cines in convenient shape for administration. Molas¬ 
ses is the best form in which to give sugar to animals, 
and it is useful in cases of sick cows, mixed in a drench. 

Cane Sugar. The manufacture of sugar from the 
Southern cane is a complicated process we need not 
describe here, as it is the business only of skilled 
workmen in the South, * 

Maple Sugar constitutes the "pleasantest and 
probably the purest sweet which we can obtain for the 
table. The season for drawing and crystallizing the 
sap is in early spring, when the bright sunny days and 
clear frosty nights give it a full and rapid circulation. 
The larger trees should be selected, and tapped by an 
inch auger to the depth of an inch or more, but not 
through the alburnum, the hole inclining downward 
externally, into which should be driven a wooden 
spout to carry off the sap into vessels. The latter 
should be stoneware, gourds or some such material 
as will not give a foreign color or flavor to the sap ; 
for when perfect cleanliness is observed, and no 
oxides are allowed to enter the sap, the sugar will be 
of ft light brown or cream color. Some think it is a 
better way to “box ” the trees by cutting with a gouge 


a narrow channel slanting upward three or four inches 
long, an inch or so into the wood of the tree, and in¬ 
serting a galvanized iron spout below, as in the auger 
method, as it will draw an equal or greater amount of 
sap and sooner heal over. When the sugar season is 
over, if holes are bored, they should be closely 
plugged, and the head cut off evenly with the bark, 
which will soon grow over the wound. If carefully 
managed, several borings or small cuts may be made 
in a large and thrifty tree the same season without 
any apparent injury to it. 

The sap may be boiled in a potash kettle, set in an 
arch in such a manner that the edge of the kettle is 
defended all around from the fire. Of later years, 
eva^xirators of lighter metals have come into use, some¬ 
what like the sorghum evaporators, which indeed do 
better work and in connection with large groves are 
cheaper than kettles.' During the process of boiling, 
keep the surface well skimmed. At night leave fire 
enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly or quite 
to sirup by the next morning; then strain through a 
flannel cloth, if sweet enough; if not, boil again until 
it becomes sirupy, and then strain it into the tub and 
let it stand until the next morning when it should be 
“ sugared off. ” It may be clarified by the whites of 
eggs well beaten, in the proportion of five ot six 
eggs, one quart of new milk and a spoonful of saler- 
atusto 100 pounds of sugar, all well mixed with the 
sirup before it is scalding hot. Keep a moderate 
fire direct under the caldron until tlie scum is all 
raised ; then skim it off clean, taking care not to let it 
boil so as to rise in the kettle. In sugaring off, leave 
it so damp that it will drain a little, and then let it re¬ 
main in the kettle until it is well granulated. It may 
then be put into boxes, made smaller at the bottom, 
that will hold 50 to 70 ]X)unds, having thin pieces of 
boards fitted in, two or three inches above the bottom, 
which is bored full of small holes, to let the molasses 
drain through; this should be kept drawn off by a tap 
through the bottom. Upon the upper surface of the 
sugar in the box, place two or three thicknesses of 
damp cloth, and over that a board well fitted in so as 
to exclude the air. After it has done, or nearly done 
draining, dissolve it and sugar it off again, going 
through the same process in clarifying and draining 
as before. 

Care should be taken not to let the sap remain in 
tanks until fermentation commences before boiling. 
During the warmer days, therefore, when the sap flows 
more freely, the work of evaporation must be corre¬ 
spondingly increased. 

Sorghum Sugar. In making sirup, the juice should 
be filtered carefully through reeds or straw, and the 
sirup) reduced to about 225” to 228° Fahr. or until the 
steam escapes in labored puffs. For sugar, the sirup 
should be reduced until it looks “short and crisply,” 
and free from all appoarance of viscidity or “ ropiness,” 
and being held up, with spoon or ladle, breaks, leav¬ 
ing a thin thread, which draws up)ward in the form of 
a cork-screw. To secure crystallization, pour the sir¬ 
up, after it has been piropoerly run from the evapora- 










ii88 


SUGAR OF LEAB—SUAIAC. 


tor, into sugar coolers (boxes made of wood, 24 by 48 
inches, and six in depth, will answer), placed in a 
warm room, filling the first to the depth of one and a 
half inches, then the second and third. Continue 
pouring into diem by turn until all are filled. Stirring 
occasionally is found to favor a more thorough granu¬ 
lation. The temperature of the room should be kept 
regularly at 90° day and night; on no account should 
it be allowed below 75 °- There is no patent way of 
making sugar; it is a product of nature, which we can 
but assist at best. Good sirup reduced to a right 
consistency will generally grain. 

Some years ago a gentleman in Wisconsin “ had al¬ 
most whole barrels of sugar’’from Amber cane with¬ 
out his making any effort to granulate. It was from 
a variety called at that time “Black Empire.” It ap¬ 
pears that, to produce the surest and most satisfactory 
results, certain varieties should be selected and culti¬ 
vated in a certain way. It is certain also that some 
localities and some kinds of weather are more favor¬ 
able to the sugar-producing capacities of cane. 

Corn Sugar. Sugar can be made from the juice 
of the stalks of common field corn, and even at a fair 
profit; but the term “corn sugar” has been lately ap¬ 
plied to “glucose,” which is now so extensively manu¬ 
factured. See Glucose. 

Beet Sugar. Good sugar is made from certain 
varieties of beet, as Lane’s Imperial, Vilmorin’s Im¬ 
proved trench White and the White. Immense 
quantities are made in Europe and shipped to this 
country. I'he beets can be raised just as well in this 
country, and were it not for the late rush of the glu¬ 
cose enterprise beet-sugar making would be a large 
interest herein a few years. After the juice is ex¬ 
pressed, the residue constitutes good food for live stock. 
Beets can be preserved in pits for many months, so 
that one can take his leisure for the manufacture of 
their juice into sugar. 

Adulteration. The adulteration of sugar of the 
lower grades has been practiced in almost all coun¬ 
tries, and the adulterants used have been numerous ; 
and it is probably as extensive to-day as ever. Most 
sugars are adulterated, mostly with flour or glucose. 
But even those brands that are considered pure, be¬ 
cause “ refined,” are often more deleterious to health 
than glucose, on account of the metallic oxides and 
salts which necessarily become diffused through the 
sugar in the various processes of the refinery. 

Sugar of Lead, acetate of lead; see page 933. 

Sulky, a two-wheeled carriage for a single person. 

It was originally constructed somewhat different from 
what it is at present. It was a light, two-wheeled 
carriage, with one seat, in the form of a chariot, but 
the seat so contracted tliat one person only could 
sit on it. It received its name from the proprietors’ 
desire of riding alone. Sulkies are now only in 
general use on tlie race course, the farmers in no 
sections having any practical use for such vehicles. 
Sulky plows and cultivators are those furnished 


with a seat so that the operator can ride. See page 
1026. 

Sulphur, called also brimstone, is an extremely 
inflammable substance, dug out of the earth in various 
countries, especially in Italy and Sicily, and consider¬ 
ed as a volcanic production. It occurs also in com¬ 
bination, as a constituent of both binary and ternary 
compounds. The sulphides of iron, copper, lead, 
zinc, antimony, arsenic and mercury are well-known 
minerals. Sulphur is one of the simple bodies or 
elements, and is therefore incapable of analysis, al¬ 
though, as above stated, it combines with other 
bodies and thus forms new compounds. Sulphur 
forms an essential part of animal tissues, and exists 
^to a considerable extent in those of vegetables, even 
uncombined. 

Sulphur is kept in the drug stores in three forms, 
flowers of sulphur, milk of sulphur and sulphur vivum. 
In veterinary practice it is chiefly used for skin dis¬ 
eases, in the form of an ointment. It is believed by 
many persons to be a great preventive for diseases 
and distempers in all animals, and is one of the in¬ 
gredients of an incongruous mass often recommended 
as a preventive for cattle diseases. Whatever may beits 
medicinal virtues, it certainly has no prophylactic 
effects mixed with tar, etc. The simple ointment of 
sulphur is made as follows: One' part of the flowers, 
or sulphur vivum, mixed with four parts of the lard. 
In winter, when lard is hard, oil should be used in¬ 
stead, thus forming a liniment of sulphur more easy 
of application. 

Dose. Sulphur, as a laxative for horses and cattle, 
should be given in doses from one to three ounces, 
and administered in gruel, in the form of a drench. 
For dogs, the dose is one to two drams. 

Sumac. The common smooth sumac is consider¬ 
ably used by dyers, and by tanners of light leather. 

It is, however, much inferior to the Sicdian. It is 
not cultivated in this country. The Venetian sumac 
is the fringe tree or burning-bush, an ornamental 
tree. In England it is called “young fustic,” and is 
much used in the arts. The sumac is an astringent, 
in its physiological effects, and can be made to take 
the place of galls. The harvesting consists simply in 
cutting off the young branches with the leaves and 
seed cones attached, in clear weather, drying them 
thoroughly without exposure to either sun or dew, and 
packing them in bales of about 160 pounds for 
market. 

The season for picking sumac commences with the 
first of July and ends the last of September, or with 
the first frost, for this turns the leaf‘red, and then it 
is worthless. The stems, except the leaf stems, have 
no strength, and should not be gathered. They are 
full of pith, and if ground they only absorb the 
strength of the leaf and depreciate the value of the 
article. Sumac should be gathered in this way, viz.: 
Break off the parts of the bush containing the leaves, 
but do not gather the blossoms or berries. Cure it 
under shelter to preserve its color and strength; when 


















SUMMER FALLO W—SIVA Y-BACK. 


it is dry put it in bulk, and when dry and windy days 
set in spread it out in beds as you would wheat or 
oats, on a clean plank floor. Then thresh it with a 
flail, when the leaves and stems will break up fine, 
and rake out the large stems and throw them away. 
In drying, before threshing, it should be frequently 
thrown over with a pitchfork to let the air get to every 
part of it. Remember to take out all the sticks, 
stems and berries. Care must be taken to have it 
thoroughly dry before packing, to avoid spontaneous 
combustion. Good ventilation should always be 
secured after it is packed. 

Medical Properties and Uses. The bark, leaves 
and powder which cover the berries, possess valuable 
astringent, tonic, detergent and diuretic properties. 
The decoction forms an excellent wash for ulcers and 
old sores; it also forms a valuable gargle in mercurial 
sore mouth, sore throat, etc., and may be used with 
great advantage as an application in tetter and many 
cutaneous diseases. Taken internally it produces a 
tonic effect upon the skin, and may be employed 
with advantage when that organ is in a relaxed and 
debilitated condition. It may also be used with ad¬ 
vantage in strangury and in bowel complaints. The 
bark of the root is esteemed of value as an antiseptic; 
and, made into a poultice, is almost unequaled as a 
remedy for old ulcers. 

Poison Sumac ; see Poison Ivy and Sumac. 

Summer Fallow, a fallow made during summer, 
or the warm months, to kill weeds. 

Summer Savory: see Savory. 

Sunburn, a discoloration or blistering of the skin 
caused by exposure to the sun. The usual means 
for whitening the skin is to keep it covered closely 
for a few days, or, more specifically, to bathe it. in 
sour buttermilk (sometimes mixed with corn-meal) 
before retiring at night, permitting the milk or dough 
to remain on during the night. Hygienically, no per¬ 
son should be ashamed of a skin merely made tawny 
by the sun. 

To Remove Sunburn. Take 2 drams of borax, i 
dram of alum, i dram of camphor, an ounce of 
sugar candy and a pound of ox gall. Mix and stir 
well for ten minutes, and stir it three or four times a 
day for a fortnight. When clear and transparent, 
strain through blotting paper and bottle for use. 

Sun-Dial, an instrument to show the time of day 
by means of a shadow in the sunlight. A straight 
rod fixed perfectly erect can be used for casting the 
shadow, but the respective hour and quarter-hour 
points must be ascertained and marked by a time¬ 
piece. To indicate the early and late hours of the 
day, the plate upon which the marks are made should 
be deeply concave, and the top of the rod made the 
guide. Or, if this rod be inclined to the north so as 
be at right angles to the rays of the sun at noon, the 
whole shadow on the concave plate can be made a 
perfect guide to local sun time from sunrise to sunset. 
See Dial. 


1189 


Sunflower. The common garden sunflower is 
sometimes cultivated as a field crop,—the leaves for 
stock, the seeds for ^xiultry and the stalks for fire 
kindling. Planted in swamps, it is imagined by some 
to absorb the miasma and render the air healthier. 
Medicinally, the seeds of the sunflower are diuretic 
and expectorant, used in decoction or sirup, either 
alone or with other agents, in ordinary doses. The 
large yellow flowers growing wild on tall weeds so 
abundantly in August and September are of several 
species of wild sunflower. 

Sunstroke, a sudden prostration caused by heat 
and intemperance, the symptoms resembling those of 
apoplexy. Take the patient at once to a cool place 
nearest at hand, loosen the clothes about the neck 
and waist, laying him down with his head a little 
raised, and apply the coldest water or pounded ice to 
the head for an hour or more, or until relief is obtain¬ 
ed. Apply mustard or turpentine to the feet and 
legs. Meanwhile send for the doctor, as you cannot 
safely do more without his advice. When a person 
sinks down on a hot day, the true way to ascertain 
whether he has sunstroke is to feel of his breust; if it 
is hot he has sunstroke; otherwise, not. 

Suppuration, collection and discharge of pus 
(“matter”) in a diseased part. See Pus. 

Surcingle, a belt, band or girth which passes over a 
saddle, or is fastened to it, to bind it fast to a horse’s 
back. In horseback riding it is important to have a 
girth of strong material, convenient and safe fasten¬ 
ings, and to always see that it is properly adjusted. 

Surfeit, a skin disease of the horse; see page 832. 

Swamp, moist and soft land akin in character to 
a marsh or bog, but differing from both in producing 
shrubs and trees. ' 

Swan. This elegant and graceful bird has long 
been partly domesticated, and is generally found in 
all the parks of cities. They are of no great practical 
value to the farmer, but their snow-white color and 
easy grace in the water makes them favorites wherever 
introduced. They are long-lived, sometimes even 
attaining the age of one hundred years. They lay 
from seven to eight eggs, and the young may be easily 
raised. When incubating they are sometimes dan¬ 
gerous to approach, since they fight desperately, and 
are very powerful; a blow from their wings has been 
known to fracture the leg of a man. 

To Clean Swan’s Down, immerse the fur in a pan 
of white flour, and, after shaking it around in the 
flour, take it out and shake out the flour or hang it in 
the wind. Or, sprinkle flour through it, or rub in flour; 
then shake off; repeat until clean. 

Sward, the grassy surface of land; that part of 
the soil which is filled with roots of grass, forming a 
kind of mat; turf. 

Sway-back, having the back hollow or fallen in, 
whether naturally or the result of injury or weakness; 
said of horses and other animals. 










1190 


^ wj^:a t—s wee t po ta to. 


Sweat: see Perspiration. 

Swedish Movements, the practice of medical 
treatment which consists of rubbing, kneading, spat¬ 
ting, pinching, shaking, rotating, etc., in various de¬ 
grees, and in various ways, according to the indica¬ 
tions of the case. Some physicians give scarely any 
other treatment in most chronic complaints, claiming 
that it assists cure, while medicines always hinder it. 
A few, however, add a little drug medication, or at 
least appear to, to their movement processes. 

Sweeny, atrophy of the muscles of the shoulder 
of the horse. See page 833. 

Sweep, to brush over a surface with a broom; also, 
a pole pivoted on a high post for drawing water from 
a well. To sweep well with a broom is an art to be 
learned by practice, in conjunction with a natural 
sense of mechanical fitness or adjustment. The best 
way to sweep a bare floor is, not to sprinkle it, but to 
wet the broom in water, shake off the surplus water, 
and sweep with it thus prepared, renewing the wetting 
every three or four strokes of the broom over the 
floor. By this method not only is the dust more 
eifectually prevented from rising, but is far more thor¬ 
oughly cleaned from the floor, always leaving the latter 
as neat as if scrubbed with a mop, but not wet, as no 
water should be allowed to run off the broom upon 
the floor. Sprinkling a dusty floor always fastens 
down more or less of the dirt to the floor, in spots and 
streaks. This is a valuable hint to those who have 
the care of churches, school-houses, etc. 

To sweep a carpet with a broom, make very short 
motions, with a slight upward direction, as if to pitch 
the dirt along instead of dragging it; and do not dig 
away at every splinter or bit of paper until you remove 
it, but stoop down and pick it out with the fingers. 
Often a person can go over a carpet without a broom, 
picking up the visible objects here and there, the time 
requiring but a minute or two, and by this means 
alone make the carpet appear as if well swept. This 
method, indeed, is always to be preferred, unless there 
is dust or much fine stuff to be removed. 

In sweeping with a broom, always take advantage 
of the wind, or out-door current of air, by opening 
windows and doors on opposite sides of the room, so 
that as much dust as possible will be carried out of 
doors. Most women neglect this very important pre¬ 
caution. 

Carpet-sweepers are now to be had at the stores. 
In using one, always bear down upon it gently. They 
do not wear out a carpet like broom-sweeping. 

Sweep Power, a horse-power operated by the 
horses walking in a circle, as opposed to the tread 
power. 

Sweet Basil, a highly aromatic sweet herb, the 
flavor of which resembles that of cloves. It is a low, 
hardy annual from India. The two principal varieties 
are the Larger and the Bush. It is used chiefly by 
French cooks in soups and a few other dishes. 

Sweet Bay, or Small Magnolia, is a shrub or small 


tree growing wild in the Atlantic States. In the far 
South it is evergreen. The flowers are globular in 
form and white and the leaves are white beneath. 

Sweet Bread, the pancreas of an animal used for 
food. The following are directions for cooking: 

Stewed. Wash, remove all the bits of skin, soak 
in salt and water an hour, then parboil; when half 
cooked take from the fire, cut in small pieces, stew in 
a little water till tender; add a piece of butter, a tea¬ 
spoonful of salt, a teaspoonful of flour, and boil up 
once; serve on toast very hot. 

Fried. After laying in salt and water, put them in 
cold water a few minutes, then dry in a cloth thoroughly, 
fry them with little strips of salt pork; or dip in beaten 
egg, and roll in bread crumbs, and fry in hot lard; or 
draw little strips of salt pork through the sweetbreads 
with a larding-needle, fry till the pork is crisp, then 
dip in beaten egg and roll in bread crumbs and fry 
them; ix)ur over a half a cup of rich cream, stir in 
one teaspoonful of flour and let it boil up for a few 
minutes and serve hot. 

Broiled. Parboil after soaking in salt and water 
then rub well with butter and broil; turn often, and 
dip in melted butter to prevent them from becoming 
hard and dry. 

Sweet Brier, a ix)pular and well-known variety of 
rose. 

Sweet Cicely (sis'e-ly), a common plant in the 
woods of this country, the roots of which are sweet- 
aromatic. Children sometimes dig and eat the root, 
but sometimes mistake some other plant for it and 
become poisoned. There are two species, the 
Hairy and the Smoother. 

Sweet Clover, or Melilot, is a well-known bee plant. 
See page 252. 

Sweet Fennel, is cultivated in kitchen gardens 
for its sweet-aromatic foliage and for its seeds, which 
afford a delightful flavoring for many culinary prep¬ 
arations. The leaves, being of a beautiful form, are 
much used in garnishing. In a warm climate the leaf- 
stems can be blanched like celery, and eaten as a 
salad. 

Sweet Gum, a large, beautiful tree in low grounds, 
more common South, with fine-grained wood, gray bark,’ 
forming corky ridges on the branches, and smooth and 
glossy, star-shaped leaves, which are fragrant when 
bruised and turn to a deep crimson in autumn. A 
fragrant, turpentine-like juice or balsam exudes from 
the trunk when wounded. 

Sweet Marjoram (mar'jo-ram),. cultivated in some 
kitchen gardens as a flavoring herb. The leaves are 
dried, and pulverized when wanted for use. In many 
of the culinary^ recipes in this work this herb is 
mentioned. There are several other species of marjo¬ 
ram, but they are of no consequence, especially in this 
country. 

Sweet Potato. This nutiitious vegetable belongs 

















SWRET POTATO, 


1191 


to the South as much as the Irish potato belongs to 
the North. It is propagated universally from sets. 
These are either small potatoes raised for this pur¬ 
pose from summer cuttings of the vines in the pre¬ 
vious year, or the cullings of the general crop care¬ 
fully wintered in dry sand, etc., or the young shoots 
of large or small wintered tubers, started at the open¬ 
ing of spring in a hot-bed or box to furnish sets for 
the season. When four or five inches long the shoots 
are ready for planting, and should be carefully taken 
off and set out as they successively attain this size. 
Rich, warm, and if possible sandy soil mu.st be 
chosen, and at the time of corn-planting the hills 
should be carefully prepared, at four feet apart each 
way, or ridges, raising them as high as convenient 
and mixing in plenty of rich compost, unless the 
whole has been well manured. It is absolutely 
necessary that the ground be well drained, for of all 
vegetables this is the most intolerant of standing water. 

About the time of the first corn-hoeing, and after 
the ridges are well made up, and the top leveled off 
with a rake, set the plants. To tho^e who know 
nothing whatever about cultivating the sweet potato, 
we may say, that the sets when they arrive will be 
tender-looking shoots, six inches or more in length; 
they should have a good cluster of fibrous roots at 
the bottom, and each have several leaves, those at 
the top being young and tender as in any other grow¬ 
ing shoot. As soon as the sets or plants are received, 
mix the moist loamy soil at hand with water, to form 
a thin mud, about like cream; then put in the roots 
of each plant—one at a time, and gently work it 
about until every fiber of the root is covered. As 
each plant is dipped, or “grouted,” as it is called, lay 
its roots against that of the preceding, until the roots 
make a mass as large as the double fist; press the 
roots together; dip the whole mass in the mud again, 
and then with ordinary soil put upon the mass, as 
long as it will stick, make a compact ball of earth 
that completely covers the roots. In this condition, 
the plants will keep until the ground is ready for 
planting. If the tender tops of the sets are bruised 
or injured, carefully pinch off whatever will not re¬ 
cover, but no more. In planting, if the earth around 
the roots has so dried that the plants cannot be sep¬ 
arated without breaking the fibers, wet the ball of 
earth until they will separate readily. The plants are 
to be set upon the top of the ridge, 15 inches apart. 

If there are several hands to do the work, let one 
with a dibble—a stick somewhat larger than a broom- 
handle, blunt-nointed—make the holes, about six 
inches deep. It is well to have the dibble 15 inches 
long, to serve as a, measure between the holes. An¬ 
other hand should place the plants in the holes, 
while a third, with a watering-pot without the rose, 
or a bucket of water and a dipper, holds the plant 
erect with one hand and fills the hole with water 
with the other. If the soil is light and sandy, the 
water will carry it to the roots, and no other filling in 
is needed; but it is well to go over the rows the same 
day, and where necessar}”^ draw more earth to the 


plant. In planting, observe one thing; Always 
make sure that the first joint, that is, where the lowest 
leaf joins the stem, is always placed well below the 
surface, as this will often insure the success of a very 
un])romising set. It is well to keep a few sets in re¬ 
serve, to replace any that may die. If the plants 
look sorry for a few days after planting, do not be 
discouraged; so long as any part of the stem remains 
green, the set is safe. 

The sweet potato is not subject to diseases and in¬ 
sects to any serious 
extent. The adjoin¬ 
ing cut figures the 
stages of a beetle 
which sometimes in¬ 
fests the vines. The 
true size of the insect 
is indicated by hair 

lines in the figure. T'tio-Striped Tortoise Beetle. (Casssi- 
° da bivittata.) 

Keeping Sweet '^rva; 3, pupa; 4, beetle. 

Potatoes. Sweet potatoes, to keep well, should be 
selected ones that have been raised in a light soil. 
They should be dug and put away before the ground 
is saturated with water from heavy, cold autumnal 
storms. A heavy rain of short duration need not be 
regarded as a sufficient reason for concluding that 
the potatoes, in such case, will not keep. A light 
soil dries very soon when the rain is past and sun¬ 
shine succeeds. Potatoes, to keep well, should be 
dug before frost kills the vines. A light frost, how¬ 
ever, that merely kills or blackens the leaves, will 
not prevent the potatoes from keeping. It is better 
to pick up the potatoes as dug than to have them ex- 
{XDsed to a mid-day sun on a warm day. One hour, 
or just long enough for the dirt to dry so that it will 
not stick to the potatoes, is sufficient. After care¬ 
fully selecting such as have not been cut or bruised, 
put them in barrels or boxes soon after being dug, 
without anything among them—no cut straw, no 
paper, no shavings, no dry leaves, no sand, wet or 
dry, except the little that may stick to them in pick¬ 
ing them up. The barrels or boxes containing the 
potatoes may be placed in any room in the house, for 
they will keep within a few feet of the fire, or in a 
room where there is no fire if the temperature is 50® 
to 60° Fahr. Fire in the room where the ix)ta- 
toes are placed is considered essential, even in mod¬ 
erate weather, so as to dry up “the sweat," as it is 
called, produced from the potatoes heating, which 
they will undergo in a few days after being stored. The 
most critical time, however, is in severe cold weather, 
especially when the fire goes out, which is sometimes 
the case. In the time of such weather it would be 
well to put some fabric around, under and also over 
the top of the barrels, etc. Sweet potatoes should 
never be allowed to become cold (below 40^ or 45®), 
even for an instant. In ordinary times it is not at all 
important that the potatoes be covered with anything. 

In keeping large quantities, so much care can not 
be taken; but such undertakings are not expected ex¬ 
cept in warm latitudes. 















1 19 - * 


SWINDLE. 


Sweet-scented Shrub, or California allspice, grows 
wild in the South, where there are several species. 
One IS cultivated for its fragrant, strawberry-scented 
blossoms. One species, not fragrant, grows in Cali¬ 
fornia, and has red flowers three inches wide. 

Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, a species of peren¬ 
nial grass abounding in the older States and giving to 
new-mown hay that delicious fragrance which is so 
celebrated. 

Sweet Sultana, a composite yellow flower from 
Asia, cultivated for ornament and for its fragrance. 

Sweet Verbena, a shrub from Chili with lemon- 
scented leaves. 

Sweet William, or Bunch Pink, is a true pink, 
with a flat-topped cluster of variously colored flowers, 
and is a hardy perennial. Raised in some gardens. 
Wild Sweet William is a species of phlox, more com¬ 
mon East, with purple flowers—sometimes white. 
Another species of fragrant-flowered phlox, similar to 
to the last, abounds in the West, and is sometimes 
called “Sweet William.” 

The petals of all these flowers have a delicately 
flavored, sweetish taste, and are often eaten by chil¬ 
dren. 

Swindle or Humbug. The meaning of these 
words is so well understood that they need no defini¬ 
tion here; besides, the latter has been defined under 
its proper heading. We suppose that from the earliest 
times, and among almost all nations, swindles and 
humbugs have been known; that one set of men have 
swindled and humbugged another. But in no nation 
has the art of humbugging been carried to such per¬ 
fection and so extensively practiced as in our own. 
Indeed, to such an extent has this been the case that 
among all nations the Americans are known as the 
greatest of swindlers. In this connection we wish to 
make another statement, equally true, and that is, 
that no class of people have been so extensively and 
outrageously humbugged and swindled as the farmers. 
There are, of course, reasons for this, which we need 
not discuss here; but it is the object of this article to 
“ show up” many of the swindles and humbugs prac¬ 
ticed upon the farming community by skillful but 
unprincipled men, in such a way that the farmer may 
be able to protect himself. The farmers who are 
almost daily beset by sharpers should be posted in all 
their arts and modes of working their swindling 
games, so that he may shield himself and family from 
them. While, of course, we cannot even speak of all 
the innumerable humbugs met with on every hand, 
yet we believe any intelligent farmer who will care¬ 
fully read the following expose of some of the lead¬ 
ing ones will be able to protect himself from all. In 
the article on Doctoring, we very thoroughly ventilated 
some of the patent medicines and quack doctors, 
which are the greatest of humbugs. In that of Hy¬ 
giene, under the head of Electricity, page 856, we 
expose the innumerable electrical and galvanic hum¬ 


bugs now having such a run. In the article on 
Lightning-Rods we speak of the worthless and ex¬ 
pensive rods sold through the country; but in this 
article we “ show up ” the mode generally adopted in 
selling them. 

We do not wish to condemn or speak disparagingly 
of all men or agents who travel through the country; 
for, like everything else in business, there are the good 
and the bad. It therefore stands every farmer in 
hand to qualify himself for distinguishing one class 
from the other; for, while many itinerant salesmen and 
agents are real swindlers, others bring to the farmer’s 
home treasures which he can obtain in no other way. 
Everything should stand upon its own merits. 

The general plan of operations in all the schemes 
practiced upon the farmers is the same; the agents, 
however, resort to an occasional change of tactics to 
suit the emergencies of particular cases. They really 
discern every peculiarity of their intended victims, 
and take advantage of them so dextrously that it is 
almost impossible to ward them off. It is the idea 
of this article to give the farmer such insight into their 
mode of working as to enable him to shield himself 
from their ingenious tricks. We will first speak of 
one familiar to most farmers. 

Lightning-Rod Swindle. Of all the humbugs 
under the sun none has so completely swept the 
board and demonstrated the gullibility of Americans 
as those which may be classed under this heading. 
Newspapers have written them up, courts of justice 
have exposed them in all their trickery, and victimized 
farmers have cried aloud with mortification and anger, 
but all in vain. Year after year the lightning-rod 
men go swarming over the country, gathering in the 
farmers like shocks of wheat that are ready for the 
thresher, extracting from them the kernels of value, 
and leaving nothing behind but straws of lightning- 
rods and chaff of villainous contracts. 

We have discussed the value of lightning-rods and 
the proper modes of constructing them, in the article 
on Lightning-Rods, and for the real merits of a good 
rod will refer the reader to it. 

The usual prices of lightning-rods as sold by these 
men range from 45 to 75 cents per foot, the cost of 
which is four to nine cents per foot. The trimmings 
cost $3 each for points and balls, $6 for vanes, $5 for 
arrows and the price of each brace is equal to four 
feet of rod. There are many different plans adopted 
to sell these rods, but in all is some hidden scheme 
or “twist ” which is not discernible until too late to 
avert trouble. 

It naturally requires a peculiar class of men to place 
the business properly before the farmers, and the firms 
choose canvassers who have plenty of nerve, an end¬ 
less amount of cheek, and are glib of tongue. These 
fellows are good judges of human nature and are well 
posted in current matters. The canvassing party 
consists, generally, of two men, one of whom is the 
aeent and the other an assistant, in case of need. 
They go about in a fine turn-out, and make a pleas¬ 
ant impression on first sight. No suggestion of their 













SWINDLE. 


1193 


business is in their rig, equipment or manner. 

The organization, whe-n ready for business, consists 
of five buggies, with a canvasser in each, and nearly 
always a driver (fighting man); one wagon loaded 
with rods, and two or three men to follow a few days 
behind and put on the rods. Some firms have their 
“ settler ” (who is usually the foreman) go with this 
wagon, and they help him to fight it out. Others 
have their settler follow a few days after. 

The Canvasser s Piece. When a farmer is found 
who has a nice place and unrodded buildings, the 
agent stops and makes himself agreeable. He tells 
the farmer about the latest news, speaks advisedly 
of crops and takes great delight in fine stock. He is 
glad to see such improvements on the place, and be¬ 
lieves that the farmer thoroughly understands the 
business of farming. After paving the way by such 
means, the agent remarks that he used to live in an 
adjoining county, and owned a farm there until the 
spring before, when he had a good offer and sold out; 
since that time, he has been looking about him for a 
farm that suited him, with the intention of buying. 
This farmer’s place is the nicest one he has encoun¬ 
tered for many a day. So he leads the game on, 
until he finally says that he has been out of employ¬ 
ment so long that he was persuaded to accept a flat¬ 
tering offer from a lightning-rod firm—the same firm 
that rodded his own house last year—and is now en¬ 
gaged in working the trade up in that section. When 
he went into the business he had no idea that there 
was such a prejudice against it as he finds; and, 
really, he has nothing to say in extenuation of what 
he hears about the trickery of some agents. His 
house, however, allows nothing of the sort, and he 
proposes to do business on the square. He accepted 
the place more on account of the freedom it gave 
him to roam about and see the country previous to 
locating permanently. The idea he had was to make 
the business a respectable one by demonstrating the 
actual good derived from the rods as protectors of 
property. The farmer would admit that there was 
great danger from lightning. See the trees that had 
been shivered about the country, and look at the in¬ 
numerable newspaper accounts of fatal accidents by 
lightning. Farm buildings are great conductors of 
the dangerous fluid, and especially so are barns filled 
with hay. All these chances of injury could be ob¬ 
viated by the judicious erection of rods. Now, some 
agents were base enough to take advantage of their 
calling and place unnecessary rods about a house or 
barn merely to increase their bills. He didn’t pro¬ 
pose to do anything of the sort. He knew just how 
many were needed and just where they should go, 
and did not propose to make use of any but solid 
arguments to secure trade. It was a fact, the smooth¬ 
tongued agent asserted, that the best insurance com¬ 
panies would not take risks on buildings that were 
not protected by rods; and moneyed men would not 
make loans on property unless the buildings were 
provided with them, because the hazard of destruc¬ 
tion by lightning was so great the mortgages placed 


upon such securities were practically absorbed in the 
landed property itself. Then the agent ended with a 
peroration worthy of an Ingersoll, in which he de¬ 
picted the farmer’s family shivering with terror dur¬ 
ing a thunder-shower, while all that agony might be 
averted by a trifling investment in lightning-rods. It 
was every man's duty to protect his family as much 
from the elements as from the hand of the midnight 
assassin, etc. 

All this confidential talk ends in the agent being 
called iqx)n to make an estimate of the probable cost 
of rodding the farmer’s house. It is usually decided 
that from ^20 to $35 will do the work exactly as it 
should be done; and the agent, in a burst of sublime 
generosity toward a fellow farmer, remarks that if the 
bill exceeds $35 he will pay $5 toward it out of his 
own pocket, thereby leaving the farmer to infer that 
the work cannot possibly exceed $35. On the 
strength of this assurance, the farmer signs the follow¬ 
ing contract: 


THE CONTRACT. 


its 

la 

i 


1 ) 


•O o.*' 
2 at: 

S) 


-, 188 . 

Mr.-, please erect, at your earliest 

convenience, your lightning-rods on my - 

according to your rules, of which said- 

I am the owner, for which I agree to pay you 
67 ^ cents per foot, and $3 each' for points, $6 
each for vanes, $5 each for arrows, ^2 50 each 
for balls and ^2 each for braces, cash, when 

completed, or note due on the ist day of- 

next. 

If not paid according to this contract payable at-. 


Guarantee Against Fire. They generally give a 
guarantee that, if buildings are supplied according to 
rules of company and are destroyed by lightning' 
they will pay $1,000; but they always get out of this by 
contending that, through carelessness, rods were al¬ 
lowed to get off their fastenings or out of repair, and, 
of course, refuse to pay and contend that a building 
properly rodded cannot be struck by lightning. 

Where the Trouble Conies in. The trouble begins 
in a few days after the papers are signed, or as soon 
as the agents get through canvassing in that part of 
the country. 

Two or three men will ])ut in a sudden appearance 
with a wagon loaded with lightning-rods, and be so 
overwhelmingly full of business as to be unable to 
answer a single question. They cannot even look 
at anything except the house that has been placed at 
their mercy. If the farmer offers a word, he is coolly 
snubbed and treated as though he was an interloper, 
while the brazen fellows awe him into complete 
docility. Meanwhile the men produce ladders, tools 
and rods and proceed to literally cover all the build¬ 
ings on the place with a network of rods. To these 
are added points, balls, vanes and trimmings wher¬ 
ever they can be made to hang on. 

The JVay They Get so Many Rods on. The rods 
are run down the side of the buildings and deep into 
the ground, while some gangs have the boldness to 


















1 194 


SWINDLE. 


lay them in trenches through the yard and away out 
into an adjoining lot. Every possible means is re¬ 
sorted to to increase the number of feet of rod, be¬ 
cause the contract stipulates tlie payment at so much 
per foot. The farmer complacently looks on, when 
he finds that he cannot prevent the men doing as 
they please, and chuckles to himself over the thought 
that he is getting all that work for ^35. When he 
speaks to the men about it, they curtly tell him that 
they know nothing about the price and are simply 
working under orders. 

The ^'’Settler.” When the job is done and the men 
are away from the neighborhood, along comes the 
“lightning man ” of the party. He is called the fore¬ 
man, and his duty is to collect the bill. He has a 
fighting man with him, has a fine turn-out, and moves 
on the farmer as though there was no such a thing as 
escape from the consequences. He presents a bill 
like the following: 

The Bill. They put on an ordinary building from 
100 to 300 feet, running two ground-rods from 9 to 
15 feet into the ground; they put on from two to six 
points and balls, vanes, braces, etc., wherever they 
can and all they can. Then, of course, barns and 
other out-buildings make a bill never below $80, and 
often as high as $500. 

LIGHTNING-ROD NOTES. 

$- Post-office- Date-—188 

On the I St day of-after date, for value re¬ 

ceived, I, the undersigned, residing in the township 

of-, county of-, State of-, owning 

the buildings on which the lightning-rods were erect¬ 
ed, for which this note is given (said rods being for 

my individual benefit), promise to pay to -or 

bearer the sum of-dollars, with use, payable 

at-at-. 

If not paid when due, payable at Indianapolis, Ind. 


Location of residence. 

Street,-; road,-; distance from post- 

office, -miles ; direction-. 

Agents will re-write signature plain on line below. 

No.-- 


I certify that the within note was taken by me, and 
that it was signed in my presence by the person who 
owes this debt, and that no bill is unpaid or receipt 
given against this note, or any part thereof. 

- Salesman. 

Some States make it a criminal offense to take 
notes for patent rights or lightning-rods without 
specifying in the notes that they were given for that 
purpose. 

Hmo Lizhtninz-Bod Notes are Sold. Before the 

o ^ o 

business got in such bad repute, notes brought 75 to 
90 cents on the dollar; but now the average is 50 to 
60 cents. There are always men in every com¬ 
munity who almost eke out a living by buying these 
notes. When an advance agent strikes a section he 


almost always goes to one of these men and makes a 
bargain in advance for the notes he may take. This 
scalper (who is often a banker) points out the man 
for him to “go for,” and tells him just how to ap¬ 
proach and how to manipulate him. 

When the farmer looks at that document he real¬ 
izes what it is to be struck by lightning. The victim 
assures the collector that the work and rod were to 
be but $35, and tells how the agent promised he 
would pay $5 out of his own pocket in case the bill 
exceeded that sum. The foreman puts on a swagger 
and says that the canvasser is simply hired just as he 
himself is, and if he is willing to sacrifice his com¬ 
missions through friendly feeling there is no law to 
prevent him doing so. He thereupon credits the 
farmer $5 on the bill. He then assumes a still more 
domineering manner, and presents the original con¬ 
tract, which binds the farmer to pay so much per 
foot for rods, so much for each ball, point, vane and 
brace. The “rules of the company’’were observed, 
and the farmer is caught fast. If not paid according 
to contract, at a distant city, which is another kink 
he had not noticed, they make it payable at their 
headquarters, which is away off somewhere, and com¬ 
pels the maker of the contract to go there to fight 
them. There is no use of arguing or refusing to pay, 
since the clause making the bill payable at a distant 
point in case of refusal to settle at once only threat¬ 
ens to add costs of a suit in the United States Court 
to the face of the bill. The agent tells him that he 
has paid $5 (through the original agent’s guarantee), 
which is credited on the bill, thus binding the whole 
matter, and there is no possible escape. If the 
farmer threatens personal chastisement, the big fight¬ 
ing man ambles quickly to the front. There is no 
help now, and a note is accordingly given in settle¬ 
ment of the account. Rather than become the 
laughing-stock of his neighbors, the farmer closes the 
matter out by giving a note offered by the foreman, 
on the back of which is a property statement. The 
foreman usually coddles the farmer into making a 
statement that he is worth more property than he 
really owns, through some misconception of what he 
is doing, and thereby catches him a second time, as 
such a false statement makes the signer liable for 
fraud. 

On every hand the farmer is taken in, and becomes 
a thoroughly victimized man. The note, with inter¬ 
est, falls into the hands of some money shark, and is 
crowded to full payment 

The rods on his house usually blow off or become 
so disarranged as to be a source of constant danger, 
and the end of the matter generally is that the farmer 
tears them down in disgust, and denies his family 
promised luxuries or real necessities for months to 
come, in order to recuperate his weakened finances. 

The Cloth Swindle. There have been few 
swindles practiced upon farmers that have been more 
successful than that which is known as the cloth 
fraud. Hundreds, and even thousands, of those who 
flatter themselves that they are too worldly wise to be 































SWINDLE. * 


taken in by any new-fangled device for raking in the 
coveted dollar, have it to say that they were most 
completely fooled by the cheerful cloth agent, and 
that their notes, in the hands of neighboring bankers 
or private money-lenders, are the overwhelming evi- 
dencesof their gullibility, and neglect to keep pace with 
current events. The cloth swindle is nothing new. It 
has been long practiced and yet new victims are 
found. 

We must say at the beginning that the cloth agent 
is a fraud, and one, too, of the very worst description. 

The very first move he makes, when he strikes a 
section that is to be “ worked,” is to get acquainted 
with some banker or loan agent in the neighborhood, 
and from him ascertain who are the responsible farm¬ 
ers whose notes will be negotiable and who will be 
apt to buy goods of him. He is directed by the banker 
to this and that party, whose paper he will take, giving 
$ioo for any Si 50 note that may be presented to him. 
Having secured the co-operation o,f the banker, the cloth 
agent makes the acquaintance of some reputable man 
of the neighborhood, in whom the farmers have con¬ 
fidence, for the purpose of securing introductions to 
the farming community. This person is always assured 
of a certain percentage of the profits. In other words, 
he is paid, and well paid, by the agent for performing 
this piece of what we may term very dirty work. Now 
bear this fact in mind, reader; whenever your friend 
John Thompson drives up to your house with a cloth 
agent, and desires to make you acquainted with him, 
and assures you that the agent has some very good 
wares to sell—whenever he does this, John Thompson 
has been bought up, and is to put into his own pocket 
a portion of the money which the agent is to swindle 
out of you. When the pair have made their appear¬ 
ance at a farm-house, and the agent, by persuasive 
words and shrewd maneuvering, has gained access, 
the family is informed that he has a large quantity of 
dry goods which must be disposed of at ruinously low 
prices. He represents the well known firm of so-and-so 
(some leadingdry-goods house ofoneof the large cities). 
That firm for some reason has been obliged to econo¬ 
mize, and is on the very verge of bankruptcy; in fact, 
it was caught with an enormous stock of goods on hand, 
and has resorted to this {Xipular plan of disposing of 
them. There were in the concern perhaps three hun¬ 
dred salesmen, and these gentlemen have been sent 
out with goods, and instructed to dispose of them at 
the very bottom prices! 

He (the agent) is one of these salesmen; he has 
some goods he knows will please the farmer’s family. 
This is the manner in which he paves the way to a 
sale. 

With this he goes to his buggy, which is filled with 
dry goods, and brings in alarge bundle, being assisted, 
of course, iDy the farmer’s acquaintance, Mr. Thompson, 
whose mere acquiescence in what the agent has to 
offer goes farther than anything else in influencing 
the head of the household to give the stranger a 
favorable hearing. 

Now comes the nice part of the agent’s work. Cali¬ 


1195 


coes are displayed and offered for one half less than 
they can be purchased for at any store. Ginghams, 
delaines, muslins, sheetings, are thrown in at the same 
great sacrifice. The wife herself acknowledges that 
she cannot begin to purchase the goods for the figures 
the stranger offers them for. After the light goods 
the swindler produces a piece of broad-cloth. This 
he flaunts in the eyes of the farmer, assures him it is 
the finest article to be had for the money, and that his 
house made a special importation of several thousand 
yards. On this cloth he puts a certain figure, which 
eventually proves to be about three times its worth. 
Convinced that they have secured the first goods at a 
sacrifice (and they are sold for less than market 
prices), the farmer and his folks are disposed to pur¬ 
chase of the heavier articles, of which they know 
little, and of course are under the impression that they 
are securing at the same great discount on actual 
cost. 

Having, during the conversation, informed the 
farmer that he has deen instructed by the house to sell 
nothing less than a Si5° package of goods to any in¬ 
dividual, he further conveys the intelligence that pay¬ 
ment need not be made under twelve months. He 
will take the farmer’s note and wait on him a year. 

So it is that the victim of the sale becomes far 
more interested than he has hitherto been,and when,a 
few moments later, the shrewd agent whips out a high- 
colored shawl, calculated to take the female eye, the 
farmer is at last nearly convinced that it will be to his 
advantage to secure a lot of these goods. The women 
folks “ second the motion,” and insist upon it that the 
goods shall not go back with the agent. Seeing that 
the farmer himself wavers, and is not wholly won, the 
agent throws in another piece of light cloth, and per¬ 
haps a package of handkerchiefs or other small arti¬ 
cles, and these are the straws with which to break 
the bargain s back. 

This is too much, and the farmer consents. He 
signs the note, receives the goods, and the agent drives 
off with the mutual friend, Mr. Thompson, and the 
family is left to do what it pleases with the dry goods. 
It isn’t long before the farmer discovers that the broad¬ 
cloth is shoddy, the worst kind of shoddy. It is cloth 
pressed, not woven, and composed of the refuse of a 
woolen-mill, held together by horse-hairs. 

He finds that the “ India ” shawl which he suppos¬ 
ed was a bargain, is a damaged article, inferior in 
quality, no India characteristics about it, and was 
sold to him for ten times its value. 

He finds that his note is in the hand of his city or 
village banker, or that old Jones, the skin-flint, has it, 
and he must pay. He learns the agent sold it to the 
banker or to Jones the very day he sold the farmer the 
goods, and if he is sharp in inquiry, he will ascertain 
that the agent was so anxious to get rid of the note 
that he let it go for $100. 

He will find that he is no exception, but that every 
person in his neighborhood who has bought these 
goods has been dealt with in the same manner. And, 
too, he will find that the firm is a myth. The reputa- 






1196 


SWINDLE. 


ble house whose name the swindler gave never resorts 
to such ends in selling goods. 

Fruit-Tree Swindle. Every farmer, almost, can 
testify that one of the most successful swindles ever 
perpetrated on the rural districts is that of selling 
worthless fruit-trees. It is perfectly natural that the 
owner of a piece of land should feel a commendable 
pride in maintaining a fine orchard, and it is singular 
that with experience in everything pertaining to farm 
management some farmers get the idea into their 
heads that the cultivation of fruit is a thing requiring 
a little or no special preparation or study. If a tree 
is put into the ground and left there a few years the 
planter thinks it ought to produce a thrifty yield of 
just such fruit as the label it bears indicates. He is 
apt to find out how mistaken has been his confidence 
in the word of some peripatetic agent. There is no 
limit to the chance for fraud, and it is increased by 
the willingness of farmers to accept as Gospel truth 
whatever may be told by an unknown and unreliable 
tree-vender. 

The canvasser puts in his appearance and repre- ' 
sents himself as an agent of some well-advertised 
house. He warrants the stock he has to dispose of to 
grow and bear fruit in a very short time. He knows, 
and so expresses himself, that farmers have been fre¬ 
quently deceived by unscrupulous men and that the 
climate is not adapted to the propagation of all vari- 
etiesoffruit; but he proposes,vauntingly, to secure pat¬ 
ronage by honest dealing and offering trees specially 
adapted to meet the requirements of the peculiarities 
of the section he may be operating in. By these loud 
and specious protestations he soon secures a favor¬ 
able hearing, and it is not long before he sells to the 
very man who was outrageously swindled by a similar 
dodge, a bill from ^25 to $200 worth of scions or 
trees. Having worked his territory exhaustively and 
secured every order he possibly can, the agent begins 
to deliver his wares, which prove to be nothing but 
common cidlings or the cheapest kind of trees pur¬ 
chased wherever he can get them at the lowest fig¬ 
ures. Of course the fraud cannot be detected until 
sufficient time has elapsed to develop the nature of 
the trees, and long before that time arrives the agent 
is in some other business, or* the Lord only knows 
where. He can’t be reached, and the purchaser of 
the worthless trees must twirl his fingers and rest 
content with simply pondering over the general cuss¬ 
edness of mankind. The trees were paid for and 
delivered; they are good for nothing, as time proves, 
and the victim is out his money and has no redress. 
The pecuniary loss is not the most serious one. The 
farmer has wasted several years endeavoring to cul¬ 
tivate an orchard that is simply worthless. 

Some of the agents carry with them specimens of 
the alleged product of their favorite trees. These 
fruits are first selected with great care and then placed 
in small boxes or cases having magnifying glass tops, 
through which the fruit looks larger and nicer than it 
really is. Of course the trees sold by means of such 
exhibits are not of the variety represented, and prove ■ 


\ a burden to a man instead of a blessing or a profit. 

Whether it be the oily-tongued fellow with florid 
I prints of impossible fruits faithfully depicted between 
i richly-bound lids, or the more humble chap who car¬ 
ries cheap pictures in a portfolio, or the scamp with 
his Jars of.preserved specimens—whatever means re¬ 
sorted to by the traveling fruit and ornamental tree 
peddler, the purchaser is almost sure to be swindled. 
They carefully steer clear of such families as are well 
supplied with agricultural and other journals and 
books. They find few sales among members of hor¬ 
ticultural societies. 

P atent Medicines. A most important duty of life is 
to take care of the health. This fact is so well known 
that it would appear to be a piece of supereroga¬ 
tion on our part to dwell at any length on the neces¬ 
sity of doing what nature so distinctly teaches us. 
What we desire is to impress upon the minds of our 
readers the importance of giving themselves proper 
treatment, should they be so unfortunate as to fall vic¬ 
tims to this or that disease, and not jeopardize their 
existence by seeking the advice of quacks or partak¬ 
ing of the nostrums which flood the market and are 
“gpranteed” to be specifics for every ill that flesh is 
heir to. With Shakspeare we can heartily exclaim, 
“Lord, how the world is given to lying!’’ and the bold 
truth of the sweeping assertion stands out in every¬ 
thing which originates with these men who turn a 
“nimble sixpence” into an “accelerated” half-dollar, 
and by their wits gain a competence at the expense 
of the gullible and too reliant world. 

We have shown up these spurious medicines in the 
article on Doctoring. 

Patent Rights.' The very name of patent rights 
is suggestive of pecuniary losses to the ordinary 
reader, and awakens a desire to know more of the 
inner workings of the business, to the end that the 
insidious assaults of the venders may be warded off. 

The same cause which leads to a thousand other 
troubles influences the purchaser of a patent right, 
and that is the desire to make money easily and rap¬ 
idly. There are plenty of men in all walks of life 
who seek this golden secret, but the broadest field for 
speculators is among the farmers. The laborious, 
plodding life led by most of them, aids to enliven the 
pictures of wealth and ease so graphically drawn by 
the wily salesmen, and hundreds of farmers have in¬ 
vested their little hoard in some privilege to manu¬ 
facture a gate or a windmill, or an implement that 
proved a sorry load. 

One reason why so many patent rights fail utterly 
is because it is the farmer’s disposition to give up the 
moment he encounters difficulty, and wring his hand 
and weep. The “sell” he so often loudly denounces 
may be a valuable article in itself, worthy of manu¬ 
facture, and sure of sale if rightly put before the pub¬ 
lic. But amanentirelyuntrainedtomercantilelife,and 
above all to the life of a canvasser, cannot sell a pat¬ 
ented machine to his neighbors. He has not the gift 
■ of tongue which captured himself when the pleasant 














SJVIJVnLE. 


IT97 


agent sold liim the right, nor has he a thorough mas¬ 
tery of the art of putting a case to a desired pur¬ 
chaser. The agent assured him that the article 
would sell on its own merits; and so it would if its 
merits were but made known. He cannot tell a 
neighbor, with whom he has associated for years, and 
who has heard him stammer and sputter in prayer¬ 
meeting or some political convention, what the ma¬ 
chine really is. 

When the farmer contemplates his failure, his mor¬ 
bid mind grows more and more diseased, and he con¬ 
cludes that the article is a swindle at best. So he 
places the sample as far out of sight as ix)ssible, in 
the barn or garret, and nurses his wrath against 
patent-right men by being cross to his patient, hard¬ 
working wife, and byrefusing the children some little 
pleasure on the ground of his poverty in these hard 
times. The business failed because the wrong man 
had hold of it. In some inen’s hands the investment 
would have paid well; but the farmer imagined that 
he could do as the agent did, and was deceived in 
his calculations. The farmer was, probably, as in¬ 
telligent a man as the canvasser, but he had not 
studied for the business. His own forte was to raise 
cattle, and good ones, too, probably; and were the 
agent to venture in such a speculation he would igno- 
miniously fail. 

F armers are frequently approached by men who 
have a remarkable gate patent, or some new plan for 
fencing. There is an infinite variety of articles of¬ 
fered, but the principle is always the same: the purpose 
of the agents is to make money out of their patrons. 
After a farmer has purchased his right to sell or man¬ 
ufacture, the matter is never prosecuted to a profit¬ 
able issue. But the greatest danger lies in the signing 
of notes, through some misapprehension of their mean¬ 
ing, or because of promises of agents that no advan¬ 
tage will ever be taken of the act. Advantage is 
always taken of every ix>ssibleweakness, and that fact 
may be counted on with absolute certainty. 

Patent Rights of Value are Never for Sale. The 
reader will bear in mind that a patent with merits 
will never be for sale except to the most intimate 
friends of the patentee. He may not be able to man¬ 
ufacture his patented article, and takes in friends to 
furnish the necessary funds. No man ever came 
around to you to sell an article that a manufacturer 
thought there was merit enough in to manufacture 
and put on the market. The things for sale^ are 
those that look big; but there is a missing link some¬ 
where. 

Fradulent Notes. We present a facsimile 
of a contract made by swindlers with farmers, for the 
sale of various kinds of agricultural machinery. The 
fraud has been perpetrated on a great number of 
worthy people, who certainly ought to have known 
better than to attach their name to any document of 
such character. A man whom we will call B. Johnson 
' calls upon a farmer, named John Smith. Johnson in¬ 
troduces himself as the general agent of a first-class 
seeding machine. He talks Smith into agreeing to 


act as a sub-agent for his section of the country, under 
the impression that he will reap a rich financial har¬ 
vest from the sale of the machine. Johnson says he 
only asks $io for establishing the agency, the same 
to be paid only after he (Smith) has sold $275 worth 
of the seeders. Smith feels that this is a splendid 
opportunity, and he signs the “contract,” which is as 
follows: 




This is apparently innocent enough: a contract 
simply to pay ^10 when machines to a certain value 
have been sold. .Surely there is no great risk in an ar¬ 
rangement of that kind. 

Now, this contract is nothing less than a note of 
hand that binds the maker to pay $275 with 10 per 
cent, interest on the order ofB. Johnson, one year from 
date. That is what it is; and when Smith signed it 
he placed himself under obligation to pay that 
amount. The contract is so worded that when cut in 
two where dots are it is divested of the nature of a 
contract and is made a pure note of hand. 1 ry the 
experiment. Place a sheet of paper over the right- 
hand end, where dots are, and then see if you could 
consent to sign such a contract. 












1198 


SWINDLE. 


Advertising Dodges. Certain papers contain num¬ 
erous small advertisements calling for small sums of 
money or stamps in exchange for information that 
will lead to the rapid accumulation of wealth. All 
imaginable devices are resorted to to catch the eye of 
the public. Every illustrated newspaper, story paper, 
magazine and even many reHgious papers contain 
advertisements of this character: 

BIG PAY.—Send stamp for a sure-selling article. 

Agents wanted. Address, etc. 

Of late it has been found that the demand for a 
stamp proves injurious to the advertiser, and so one 
sees numerous announcements: 

FREE.—Send name and address for our quick¬ 
selling articles. Fortunes made in the work. 

Address, etc. 

When the correspondent replies, it is found that the 
house will furnish circulars, instructions and samples 
of “quick-selling goods” for a few dollars. These 
articles are generally of the most simple kind, and no 
person would think of traveling about the country and 
offering them for sale. 

The fact is that the average man or woman cannot 
transform himself or herself into a peddler and resort 
to such means of gaining a living. A few of the large 
number sending for “samples” no doubt do make 
money, but that is no evidence that every one can; 
and the upshot of the matter is that the money in¬ 
vested is thrown away. A dollar or two is not missed 
by each victim, but the aggregate is simply enormous, 
when the total number of curious or over-anxious cor¬ 
respondents is remembered. 

Another class of advertisements calls for a trifling 
investment for some little article of household use, 
like a carpet-tacker, a dish-washer, a knife-sharpener 
or a multiform instrument in one. The advertiser 
sends the article agreed upon, but when the buyer 
receives it, he uses it for a day or two and then throws 
it aside. Thousands of dollars are annually spent in 
this foolish way. Sometimes, however, the class of 
goods proffered are palpable frauds, but the char¬ 
acter of the newspapers in which the advertisement 
appears, makes the affair seem all right. 

Ready-Made Love-Leiters. There’s another class of 
advertisers who take advantage of susceptible natures 
in advertising their wares. They know very well that 
the tender passion finds its victims in the rural re¬ 
gions, and they know, too, that human nature is the 
same the world over. There are hundreds of young 
men who, having fallen in love, foolishly imagine that 
their success in winning their suit depends upon ad¬ 
dressing the object of their affections in stilted phrase, 
and so they cast about to find some form by which to 
perfect themselves in the composition of letters to 
their “adorable.” They see an advertisement like 
this, for instance: 

LOVE-LETTERS. 40 models free. Address 
-Pub. Co.,- 

And then they send for the pamphlet in question. 
The publishing company which promises to furnish 


the book, or “samples,” of course forward the same, 
and follow it up with seductive inducements relating 
to certain “ guides,” which we will not mention here, 
and which they feel assured the young man will need 
as soon as he is married. 

In the first place, every young man who is in love 
should bear in mind this fact: He can express the 
peculiar sentiment of his heart much better by relying 
upon himself in matters of this kind, no matter how 
simple it may be; and, furthermore, few young ladies 
have an exalted idea of a young man who will resort 
to the labor of some one else’s brain to speak his sen¬ 
timents, Girls are quick to detect an imixisition of 
this kind. Don’t do it. 

Then, again, you can get along after marriage much 
better by letting the pernicious literature of the day 
alone and relying for advice upon home physicians 
and experienced friends. Save your money, and don’t 
squander it on trash of this description. 

Other Advertising “ Catches.'* Then we find young 
men advertised for to learn telegraphy; others to 
learn the detective business; others to act as sales¬ 
men for a big-paying business, and so on. The place 
to learn telegraphy, if one intends to follow the busi¬ 
ness, is in a telegraph company’s office; and they 
never advertise. If you want to be a detective, get 
into some reputable agency; they never have to ad¬ 
vertise for men. If you desire to learn commercial 
business, get into a store and learn the trade from the 
bottom up; these are the only men who ever succeed. 

Above all, don’t answer advertisements offering 
these inducements, for they are but baits to catch the 
anxious and unsophisticated. 

Besides all these there are the false claims for pat¬ 
ents on some little contrivance, generally a gate, which 
a farmer may have constructed himself Many a 
farmer has paid a stranger, who claimed to be the 
patentee, $5 or $10 for the use of such a gate. The 
only steps to take when accused of infringing upon 
any patent is to “ do nothing.” Do not be frightened 
into doing anything. Remember the case must be 
brought in the United States Circuit Court, and ninety 
times out of a hundred the man who blusters around 
making all kind of threats of how much it will cost 
you etc., would never think of bringing the case to 
trial. That is not their object. Their aim is to get 
your money without the aid of courts. 

Then there are the grain and provision speculation, 
the ,.countpfeit money dodge, lotteries, cheap guns, 
patent recipes, etc., etc., all of which are out and out 
humbugs. Never think of getting something for noth¬ 
ing in any kind of trade, for you will find when the 
money has been passed from your hands the article 
is absolutely worthless,or comparatively so. Be cau¬ 
tious, but not afraid of everybody who may call upon 
you, believing all men rogues, for in that way you will 
also be the loser. Post yourselves and then use 
judgment. If an article is of real merit and you need 
it, and it is cheap, buy it; but a swindle or humbug of 
any nature, or anything that savors of such,—have 
nothing to do with it. 










SWINE. 


1199 


Innocent Purchasers. There is a doctrine laid 
down and enforced by the courts under the general 
head of “innocent purchasers,” which is not alto¬ 
gether satisfactor}'. As has been very pertinently 
observed, it is an unjust and oppressive discrimina¬ 
tion in favor of one class of purchasers, to the exclu¬ 
sion of others equally legal. 

Any lawyer or judge might be challenged to give 
good reasons why the innocent purchaser of a drive 
well, or barbed wire, is not entitled to the equal im¬ 
munity or rights as a banker who purchases a raised 
note. The whole history of court decisions appears 
to be a combination with swindlers, so that the 
farmer is to be eternally the victim; and his labor is 
forever to be used to fatten the whole horde of 
swindling cormorants who flourish on his simplicity 
and artlessness. Courts can always find a precedent 
rendered away back in feudal times, reeking with 
hoary error, and enriched in antiquity by the groans 
and oppressions of the people. Green, the drive-well 
man, has been, and is, robbing farmers throughout the 
country in recovering damages for infringments of the 
drive-well royalty. 

The lawyer will say, “this is all right. The man 
who buys a piece of machinery ought to have known 
it was all right before he buys.” Yes, but the courts 
protect the innocent swindler who buys the raised or 
forged note of the farmer; and if the courts intend to 
render justice or entitle themselves to the respect of 
the world, why not protect the innocent purchaser of 
machinery, bought in the public markets, hundreds 
and probably thousands of miles away from him who 
holds a patent? When, oh, when will Justice, with 
her ever-poised wings, protect all alike—the farmer 
in his rural home as well as the banker in the city? 

Swine, a well known pachydermatous (thick- 
skinned) animal, constituting the genus Sus, in the 
Suidoe., or swine family. The wild boar, the stock 
from which all our domestic breeds have sprung, is 
a native of Europe, Asia and Africa. 

This animal is active and powerful, and as he 
grows older is fierce and dangerous. He is usually of 
a dirty brown or iron-gray color, with occasional black 
spots or streaks. The body is covered with long, 
coarse hair, intermixed with short, woolly down. The 
hair becomes bristles as it approaches the shoulders, 
and forms a sort of mane, which stands erect when 
the animal is irrrtated. The head is large, bony, and 
very strong, carrying a huge jaw, armed with sharp, 
crooked tusks, capable of inflicting fearful wounds. 
The eye full, neck thick and muscular, loins broad and 
legs strong, and in height from 28 to 40 inches. 

The wild hogs, in a state of nature, are usually 
found in moist, sandy and well wooded situations, 
close to streams of water. They feed by choice ujx)!! 
plants, fruits and roots, but when' pressed by hunger 
will eat worms, snakes, small game and carrion. Twi¬ 
light and night are the only times when they volunta¬ 
rily leave their coverts, and their acute sense of smell 
enables them to detect the presence of food, even 
76 


though it be some distance below the surface. Hence, 
they often do considerable damage in open and culti¬ 
vated fields. For the first year or two the whole herd 
follow the sow, and all unite in common defense 
against any and all enemies, forming a regular line 
of battle, the weaker occupying the rear. But when 
of full age, each animal wanders alone, as if conscious 
of his strength, and neither seeking nor avoiding dan¬ 
ger. They are supposed to live to about 30 years of 
age. As they grow old the tusks drop out, and their 
hair turns quite gray. Old boars are rarely found 
with the herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest 
and from each other. The sow produces but one lit¬ 
ter in the year, and then but few in number, and car¬ 
ries her young about sixteen weeks; and is rarely 
seen in company with the male except in the rutting 
season. She suckles her young from four to six 
months, and continues to protect them for some time 
afterward. When attacked, she defends herself and 
family with great courage and fierceness. Often sev¬ 
eral sows and their litters herd together, and in such 
herds they are exceedingly formidable and dangerous; 
but it is only when disturbed or provoked that they 
attack man or beast. Occasionally in the rutting sea¬ 
son, when the passions are inflamed, the males en¬ 
counter each other; then it becomes a struggle for 
life, and not unfrequently both combatants die on the 
field of battle. When attacked or alarmed by dogs, 
the wild boar first suddenly retreats, turning occasion¬ 
ally to menace them with his tusks; but in a short 
time, if closely pursued, he stands at bay and fights 
desperately for life, rushing upon and tearing his tor¬ 
mentors with great strength and fury. From the 
earliest ages, hunting the wild boar has been a favor¬ 
ite sport with all classes and conditions of society, and 
particularly with the nobility of most European coun¬ 
tries. 

The pace and endurance of the wild boar are not 
to be learned by comparison with the domestic ones, 
as the*vigor and speed of the former require the hun¬ 
ters to be well mounted on the fleetest and most pow¬ 
erful horses, and even then they are often left far be¬ 
hind in the chase. 

All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed 
with the wild boar; the period of gestation is the 
same in the wild and the tame sow; their anatomical 
structure is identical; their general form bears the 
same characters; and their habits, so far as they are 
not changed by domestication, remain the same. 
Where individuals of the pure wild race have been 
caught young and subjected to the same treatment as 
a domestic pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they 
have become more social and less nocturnal in their 
habits, lost their activity, and lived more to eat. In 
the course of one or two generations, even the form 
undergoes certain modifications; the body becomes 
larger and heavier ; the legs shorter, and less adapted 
for exercise; the formidable tusks of the boar, being 
no longer needed as weapons of defense, disappear; 
the shape of the head and neck alters; and in char¬ 
acter as well as in form, the animal adapts itself to" 









1200 


SIVINE. 


its situation. Nor does it appear that a return to their 
native wilds restores to them their original appearance; 
for, in whatever country pigs have escaped from the 
control of man, and bred in the wilderness and woods, 
irot a single instance is on record in which they have 
resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They, 
indeed, become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and 
live upon roots and fruits; but they are, notwithstand¬ 
ing, merely degenerated swine, and they still associate 
togetlrer in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, 
like their grim ancestors. 

The first mention that has been found of the swine 
family in ancient writings is in the Bible (Leviticus, 
nth chapter, 7th verse). In all probabilities, how¬ 
ever, the hog had a cotemporaneous existence with 
other animals at a far earlier period, for, if pork had 
not been the prevailing food of that people, then 
such stringent commandments and prohibitions 
would never have been necessary. The hog was highly 
esteemed by some of the ancients, and was the ani¬ 
mal sacrificed by the Greeks to Ceres, the goddess of 
the harve.st. In America swine were unknown until 
their introduction after its discovery by the Europeans. 
They were probably introduced into 'Hayti from 
Spain by Columbus in 1493, into Florida by De 
Soto in 1538, and into Virginia in 1609. In the latter 
settlement it is said they multiplied so rapidly that 
within 18 years the people were obliged to palisade 
Jamestown to keep them out. 

Since their introduction into this country they have 
been an object of special attention and a source of 
great revenue and profit to the Nation. Many differ¬ 
ent breeds have been introduced from time to time, 
and from almost all countries, and some of the best 
breeds ever produced have originated in our own 
country. Different breeds are prized in different sec¬ 
tions, according to the fancy of their producers, the 
facility of raising them and the particular object of 
the farmers. We give the history of each of the 
breeds of any note, either of the present or of the 
past, in this country, together with a description of 
their chief characteristics. 

BREEDS OF SWINE. 

Bedford or Woburn, 'bhis breed was originated 
by the Duke of Bedford on his estate at Woburn, and 
was produced by a cross of a Chinese boar and a 
large English hog. A pair was sent by the duke to 
General Washington as a present, but they never 
reached him. .They were dishonestly sold by the 
messenger in Maryland, in which State, as well as in 
Pennsylvania, they were productive of much good by 
being disseminated through the country. When pure, 
they are white, with dark ash-colored spots. They 
are of large size, with deep round bodies, short legs 
and thin hair, easily kept and mature early. 

Berkshire. Tradition, and the earliest published 
accounts of what has long been particularly dis¬ 
tinguished by the name of “ Berkshire ” swine, repre¬ 
sent them, down to about a century since, as among 
the largest breeds of England, weighing when full 


grown 700 to 1,000 pounds, or more. In 1842 they 
were represented in an English encyclopedia as 
weighing ^00 to 800 pounds. These were doubtless 
of the improved breed. Originally they were repre¬ 
sented as being generally of a buff, sandy, or reddish- 
brown color, spotted with black, occasionally tawny 
or white spotted in the same manner. 'Phey were 
coarse in the bone; head rather large, with heavy 
flop ears; broad on the back; deep in the chest; flat¬ 
sided and long in the body; thick and heavy in both 
shoulders and hams; well let down in the twist; 
bristles and long curly hair, with rather short, strong 
legs. Their meat was better marbled than that of 
any other breed of swine in Great Britain—that is, 
had a greater proportion of lean freely intermixed 
with fine streaks of fat, which .made it much more 
tender and juicy than it would otherwise be. 'Phey 
were consequently, from time immemorial, preferred 
to all other swine there, for choice hams, shoulders 
and bacon. They w'ere slow feeders, and did not 
ordinarily mature till two and a half to three years old. 

In a subsequent edition of that encyclopedia they 
were represented as of rounder body and somewhat 
finer in all their points, with ears like most of those of 
modern breeding, medium in size, and erect instead 
of flopping. This portrait is of a sandy or reddish 
brown color, spotted with black; the feet and legs for 
nearly their whole length white, slightly streaked on 
the sides and behind with reddish brown. 

It is also traditional that the improved breed was 
brought about by a cross with the black or deep 
plum-colored Siamese boar; or that even the pure 
white Chinese boar assisted for the purpose. The 
Siamese sow is a dark slate, varying to that of a rich 
plum color; the feet are all white; the face is dished; 
head fine, with short, erect ears; shoulders and hams 
extra large; back broad, slightly swaying; body 
round and long. The cross was made about the 
middle of the last century, and the result principally 
established in Berkshire, England: whence the name. 

In reference to their introduction into the United 
States, Mr. A. B. Allen, who is considered high 
authority on the early history of the breed, slates that 
the earliest importation of Berkshires into the United 
States was that by John Brentnall, of New Jersey, in 
the year 1823. 

The next importation was made in 1832, by a Mr. 
Hawes, an Englishman, who settled at Albany, N. Y.,. 
and afterward made further importations. It is 
thought some were brought to Canada in 1838, and, 
in 1839, Bagg & Wait, English farmers, who had 
settled in Orange county, N. Y., began importing 
largely, and followed it for several years, selling their 
stock in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and the South. 

In 1841, Mr. Allen himself selected in England 40 
head and brought them to New York. At this period, 
and for some years previous, a sort of Berkshire craze 
swept over the country; every means possible was 
used to “ boom ” the breed, and the stock was sold 
far and wide by speculators at enormous prices. They 
were at that time hogs of superior excellence, but 





SWJNE. 


12or 


under the neglectful system of stock-raising then pre¬ 
vailing in the new Southwest they could not do 
otherwise than deteriorate. As a consequence of this 
their popularity waned, prejudice and disgust ensued 
in lieu of extravagant admiration, and to that genera¬ 
tion of men in this country the Berkshires became 
objects of almost detestation. 

The farmers of England never lost faith in their 
value, and improvement was constantly going on. 
About 1865, enterprising Americans were again at¬ 
tracted by the good (qualities of the hogs their fathers j 
had aforetime admired and then hated, and began j 
making im^xDrtations of the best that money would i 
buy. Each year since has witnessed improvement j 
in form and quality, and the stock has been diffused ! 
through every State, Territory and the Canadian prov- ! 
inces, where it is esteemed second to none for either 
pork production,' pure, or for crossing on and improv¬ 
ing the general utility of the highly-bred as well as 
the most primitive sorts of swine, wherever found. 


bones fine and of an ivory-like grain and hardness ; 
offal very light in comparison with weight of carcass; 
hair fine, soft and silky; no bristles, even on the 
boar; quick and spirited in movement; stylish in car¬ 
riage, and, in the boar more especially, bold and 
imposing in presence. 

The meat of the improved Berkshire, like that of 
the \mimproved, abounds in a much greater propor¬ 
tion of sweet, tender, juicy lean, well marbled with 
very fine streaks of fat, than other breeds of swine; 
but the former was far more delicate, as now, than 
the latter ever was. This renders the whole carcass 
the most suitable of all for smoking. The hams and 
shoulders are almost entirely lean, a thin rim of fat 
covering only the outside. 

The fine specimen of the Berkshire breed present¬ 
ed on this page is a picture of Royal Prosperity, a 
fine boar owned by Alex. M. Fulford, of Bel-air, Md. 

Byfield. At one time this breed was held in great 
repute in the Eastern States. They did much good in 



The present standard of good points are; Snout 
and head fine and rather short, but larger in propor¬ 
tion to the body in the male than in the female, and 
with a bolder and more determined expression ; face 
dished and broad between the eyes; jowls full or 
thinner, according to the fancy of the breeder; eyes 
bright and expressive; ears small, thin and upright, 
or inclining their points a little forward; neck short, 
rather full in the throat, and harmoniously swelling 
to the shoulders; chest broad and deep; back broad 
and moderately arched; rump nearly level with it; 
shoulders, above all in the boar, extra thick, yet slop¬ 
ing smoothly to the body; hams broad, rourid, deep, 
and so thick through from side to side, particularly in 
the sow and barrow, that, standing directly behind, 
except when pretty fat, the sides of the body are 
scarcely seen between them and the shoulders ; legs 
fine, strong, of moderate length, and set rather wide 
apart; feet small, with clear, tough hoofs; tail slender 
and well set, with a handsome curl near the rump; 


crossing with other breeds. They are white, com¬ 
pact and well made, in size and length moderate and 
with backs broad, have fine, curly hair, and reach the 
weight of from 300 to 350 net. This breed origina¬ 
ted in Massachusetts about 1800. The first that is 
known of it is that a fine, white boar was purchased 
at a market stall by a man living in Byfield. Proving 
an excellent breeder its progeny was widely scattered 
over the New England and Middle States. 

Cheshires. This is comparatively a modern breed, 
and but little known throughout the United States. 
In writing the history and description of this breed 
Mr. F. D. Coburn says: “I have been unable to se¬ 
cure any reliable evidence of the bringing to this coun¬ 
try of any of the swine of that breed or name; but there 
is a legend that between 1850 and 1855, one or more 
of the old-time Cheshires were imported to the vicin¬ 
ity of Albany, N. Y , and a sow, at least, taken to Jef¬ 
ferson county in that State, where crosses were made 
to some extent, not only with the stock common to 














1202 


SIVINK. 


the region, but with valuable hogs obtained from 
Canada, and also largely with the Yorkshires. At all 
events, between i860 and 1870, in Jefferson and some 
other counties, the favorite swine were of a large, 
white sort, known as the Jefferson County, or 
Cheshire, breed, or sometimes, ‘ Improved Cheshire,’ 
and less frequently ‘Cheshire and Yorkshire;’ and 
again in some instances as ‘Improved Yorkshires.’ 
Harris, writing in 1870, says; ‘Fora dozen years or 
more they have been exhibited at the fairs of the 
New York State Agricultural Society, and for the last 
six or seven years have carried off nearly all the prizes 
offered for pigs of the large breed.’ 

“ At that time the leading breeders admitted very 
freely that they were of mixed origin, but claimed 
that they had been kept pure sufficiently long to 
thoroughly establish them as a breed.” 

The Cheshires are pure white, with very thin skin 
of pink color, with little hair; are not uniform in this 
respect, as pigs in the same litter differ widely in the 
amount of hair; the snout is often long, but very slen¬ 
der and fine; the jowls are plump and the ears erect, 
fine and thin ; the shoulders are wide and the hams 
full; their flesh is fine-grained and they are com¬ 
mended on account of the extra amount of mess 
pork in proportion to the offal. 

Mr. J. H. Sanders, who successfully bred Cheshires 
prior to 1875, speaks of them as follows; “ In my opin¬ 
ion the Cheshire is simply a derivative of the York¬ 
shire, as are also the Suffolk, Lancashire Short-face 
Middle York, York-Cumberland and all the other 
English breeds of white hogs. I bred the so-called 
Cheshires for six or seven years, and took a deep in¬ 
terest in noticing the variations and changes that 
were produced in that time by selection, in breeding 
and crossing. Within the space of seven years, with¬ 
out intoducing any blood but what was supposed to 
be pure, I produced all the different types of the 
Yorkshire from the large York down to the Lancashire 
Short-Face. The white color was firmly fixed, and I 
never knew one of my Cheshire boars to get a pig 
that had a black hair on it, although they were bred to 
sows of all breeds, including the purest Essex. An¬ 
other peculiarity that I watched with interest was 
the frequent appearance of blue spots in the skin of 
the purest and best-bred specimens. This peculiarity 
would sometimes disappear for one or two generations, 
and would again crop out stronger than ever. 

“The type which I finally succeeded in fixing up¬ 
on the Cheshires as bred by me was almost identical 
in size, form and quality with the most approved mod¬ 
ern Berkshire. Indeed, so marked was this resem¬ 
blance in everything but color that they were often 
facetiously called ‘White Berkshires.' As bred by 
me I regarded them as among the very best of white 
hogs. They were well haired, had a very delicate 
pink skin, and their meat was most excellent, tender 
and juicy.” 

For breeders who desire white hogs, and to whom 
the Suffolks appear too small and the Chesters too large, 
we know of nothing better than the best of some of these 


Cheshires, as they present, in some respects, a sort of 
compromise or happy medium between the two. The 
strong admixture of Yorkshire in their make-up would 
be more than likely to assert itself in their progeny, 
either when bred together or on any other swine not 
thoroughly established in character. 

Chester Whites. This breed originated in Ches¬ 
ter county, Pennsylvania, and was produced by a 
cross of the Bedford upon the common stock of the 
countiy. The first pair of the former were just im¬ 
ported in 1818 from Bedfordshire, England, by Cap¬ 
tain James Jeffries. 

The better class of farmers in the vicinity of Mr. 
Jeffries, desiring something better in the way of swine 
than they were then raising, secured crosses of the Jef- 
frios stock on their own. The former seems to have 
increased and multiplied to some extent, and the prog¬ 
eny continued to be bred on and with the original 
stock of the county until, in the course of years, its 
hogs had much more than a local reputation for both 
size and quality, and wherever mentioned were spoken 
of as the Chester county stock. They are among the 
most docile of swine, and belong to the largest breeds 
known, individuals having attained the enormous 
weight of 1,300 lbs. 

The swine Breeders’ Convention agreed upon the 
following as a description of characteristics of the 
Chester Whites: 

“ Head short, and broad between the eyes; ears 
thin, projecting forward and lap at the ^xiint; neck 
short and thick; jowl large; body lengthy and deep, 
broad on the back; hams full and deep; legs short 
and well set under for bearing the weight; coating 
thinnish, white, straight, and if a little wavy not objec¬ 
tionable ; small tail and no bristles. ” 

Since the foregoing was adopted, the tendency has 
steadily been towards reducing, somewhat, the coarse¬ 
ness of their bone, and sliortening their heads and ears; 
and the improvement has been so marked that fair 
specimens of the breed are nearly models in form. 
The large, lopped ears, coarse heads, long, coarse tails 
and hair, and coarse, spongy bones are not, as in time 
past, characteristics of the breed; and the enormous 
weights to which they were formerly fed, are now not 
considered most desirable or profitable. If smaller 
hogs are desired, the Chester sows are excellent to use 
boars of some of the smaller or more compact breeds 
on; and it is claimed by those who raise Suffolks, that 
the Suffolk boar bred to Chester sows produces “ the 
best Chester Whites possible.” 

Chinese. This hog has been a main source of the 
variations and improvements in the modern breeds of 
British swine, and from there introduced into the 
United States, and to these are due the American 
breeds that now have a reputation unexcelled by any 
other. The type of the Chinese hog occurs in Siam, 
and in the regions immediately adjacent to that coun¬ 
try; and though generally called Chinese by English 
and Americans, is more properly called Siamese by 
the French. Its length of body is three and one-half 






BERKSHIRE HOGS. 












































































































































































































^ JF/JVE. 


1205 


feet; its length of tail is nine and a half inches; and 
its height at shoulder is 20 inches. Its eyes are sur¬ 
rounded by a slight tinge of flame color; its ears are 
short, straight and flexible; its skin, except on the 
belly, is black; and its hair is soft and somewhat 
silky on the body, stiff and thick on the head and 
under jaw, thin on the other parts, and generally hard 
and black. 

The typical or strictly pure Chinese or Siamese hog 
is too delicate in structure and tender in constitution 
to be adapted to countries very different in climate 
from Siam; but sub-varieties of it, and crosses from it, 
are distributed throughout the Indian Archipelago, 
some of the islands of Polynesia, many of the eastern 
and central parts of Asia, and even far distant parts of 
Africa; and several or even many of these have been 
introduced to Australia, to America and to Europe, 
and have very powerfully corrected the bad properties 
and improved the good ones of the aboriginal hogs of 
England and of other domesticated descendants of 
the wild boar of Europe, from which all our breeds 
have come. The best cross is between the Berkshire 
ana Chinese, 

The varieties of this widely extended race with 
which we are chiefly conversant in this country, are 
derived from China, being brought to England as sea 
stock, by vessels employed in the trade which En¬ 
gland has so long carried on with the Chinese Empire. 
They have usually the dark-colored characteristics of 
the race, but they are often also white, and of a size 
exceeding the medium; for in China there are varie¬ 
ties of breeds, just as in other countries. Some of 
them kept in the temples attain, in consequence of age 
and long fattening, to enormous magnitude; but it 
does not appear that these sacred pigs are any other¬ 
wise distinguished from the common breeds. 

The Chinese hog with which we are chiefly familiar, 
is derived from the vicinity of Canton. Those of the 
interior are little known to us. It is well known that 
the Chinese feed more largely on pork than on any 
other animal food. The hog is the principal animal, 
except the dog, which is cultivated by the Chinese for 
human subsistence. 

The Chinese pay great attention and care to the 
rearing and feeding of swine. Extreme attention is 
paid to cleanliness and regular feeding. 

Essex, This breed of swine is by no means widely 
disseminated over the United States, or popular with 
the masses ; yet it is a long established breed and has 
many excellent qualities. Loudon, in describing the 
old Essex, speaks of them as up-eared, with long, 
sharp heads; roached back; carcasses flat, long, and 
generally high upon the leg; bone not large; color 
white or black and white; bare of hair; quick-feeders, 
but great consumers, and of an unquiet disposition. 
Youatt’s work describes them as a parti-colored ani¬ 
mal,—black, with white shoulders, nose, and legs—in 
fact, a sort of sheeted pig; large, upright and coarse 
in bone. 

The first improvement is credited to the late Lord 
Western, who, while trav^eling in Italy, took a great 


fancy to some Neapolitan hogs, of which he secured 
a pair that were sent home to his estates. These 
were described by him as a breed of “very peculiar 
and valuable qualities, the flavor of the meat being 
excellent, and the disposition to fatten on the smallest 
quantity of food unrivaled.” This pair were bred to¬ 
gether and their offspring to such an extent that there 
was danger of their becoming extinct, and then 
crossed on the Essex with the effect of obliterat¬ 
ing the white and producing a progeny with the 
appearance and many characteristics of the pure 
Neapolitans. 

Having attained what he considered. perfection, 
Lord Western bred exclusively from his own stock, 
which resulted in their gradually losing size, constitu¬ 
tion and fecundity to such an extent that when he 
died, in 1844, his herd had become “more ornamental 
than useful,” though the swine of the surrounding 
country had been much benefited from the Western 
stock. “ In the meantime, the well-known Fisher 
Hobbs, then a tenant on the Western estate, had 
taken up, among other farm live-stock, the Essex pig, 
and made use of the privilege he enjoyed of using 
Ix)rd Western’s male animals to establish a breed on 
the strong, hardy, black Essex sows, even if somewhat 
coarse, crossed with the Neapolitan-Essex boars. On 
the carefully selected produce of these, divided and 
kept as pure, separate families, he established a 
breed that he first exhibited, and which has since 
become famous as the Improved Essex.” 

In the edition of Youatt’s book edited by Sidney 
in i860 (London), he says they probably date their 
national reputation from the second show of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, held at Cambridge in 1840, when 
a boar and sow, both bred by Mr. Hobbs, each ob¬ 
tained first prizes in their respective classes; and that 
“their defect is a certain delicacy, probably arising 
from their Southern descent, and an excessive aptitude 
to fatten, which, unless carefully counteracted by ex¬ 
ercise and diet, often diminishes the fertility of the 
sows and causes difficulty in rearing the young. 

They are classed with the small breeds, but are 
about the largest of that class, and frequently grow to 
weights that would entitle them to be considered 
among the larger breeds, often weighing 400 to 600 
lbs. at maturity, though usually most profitable when 
slaughtered young for fresh meat, breekfast-bacon or 
family use, for which they are highly esteemed, their 
meat being well-flavored and fine-gained, and their 
lard firm and white; when properly dressed they are 
but little or no darker than other hogs, even those 
with white hair. 

The standard agreed upon in the Swine Breeders 
Convention was as follows; Color black, face short 
and dishing; ears small, soft, and stand erect while 
young, but coming down somewhat as they get age; 
carcass long, broad, straight and deep, ham heavy 
and well let down; bone fine; carcass, wlien fat, com¬ 
posed mostly of lard; hair, ordinarily rather thin; 
fattening qualities very superior. As breeders they are 
prolific, and fair nurses. 












I 2 o 6 


SlVINti. 


They are good grazers and have the advantage, over 
some of the more tender-skinned white hogs, of being 
able to withstand (at any age, however young) tlie 
hottest sun of July or August without having their 
backs or skin in the least affected; and they are never 
known to scald or mange. The young pigs of the 
Hssex are usually more delicate than those of the 
coarser breeds, and will often appear quite inferior to 
the latter, at the same age, up to eight or ten weeks, 
when they will begin to shoot ahead. This is not 
always the case, but often is. This maybe attributed 
to the mothers not being such good milkers as'some 
other kinds. It seems to be their nature to run to 
fat rather than milk. Notwithstanding the good qual¬ 
ities of the breed it has not seemed to fill the pop¬ 
ular ideal, and there are many life-long swine-breeders 
who never saw an Essex, and would not know what 


this and various other names, as Red Berkshires, Sara¬ 
toga Reds and Jersey Reds, 'bhe breed was first 
brought to public notice in England. By some it is 
claimed they were taken there from Spain. The 
name by which they were distinguished from other 
breeds was that of Red Berkshire. Prof. David Low, 
in his work, “The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of 
the British Isles,” published in 1842, describes their 
color as reddish brown with brown or black spots. 
About the year 1850, Sir Robert Peel brought them 
before the public, and by some they were called the 
Sir Robert Peel hog. 

This breed has been bred in New Jersey for many 
years; hence the name. For quite a long time they 
have run wild in the timber and mountainous coun¬ 
try of Tennessee and Kentucky. 

In the opinion of some the red hogs in America are 




Fig. 3. — Chester IVkites* 


to call it if they did. Probably one cause of their 
lack of popularity or failure to be widely disseminated, 
is that they are a smaller, and perhaps more delicate 
swine than the farmers in general care to. raise, ac¬ 
counted for somewhat by the fact that it has net been 
many years since the largest animals possible were 
the ones most admired, most in demand, and bringing 
the highest prices. 

Persons breeding common stock or any swine that 
are somewhat too slow in maturing, would, as a general 
thing, be pleased with the results of using an Essex 
boar. It is the opinion of some very intelligent men 
that, under a certain age, the Essex will give as great, 
or a greater return of pork for food consumed than 
any other hogs we have. 

Jersey Red. It is quite uncertain as to when this 
breed was first imported into the United States. They 
were, however, bred in New York as early as 1823, 
and there called Duroc. These are also known by 


mostly from a stock known in England years ago as 
Tamworths, described as hardy and prolific, but slow 
in maturing. One recent writer in the West says; “It 
is admitted by those best informed that Jersey Red, 
Duroc, Saratoga Red, etc., are but local names for the 
ancient Berkshires of England, where they were called 
Tamworths.” 

The National Swine Breeders’ Convention, in 1872, 
reported that their definite origin was unknown, but 
agreed upon the following as the characteristics of 
good Jersey Reds; They should be red in color, with 
a snout of moderate length, large lop ears, and small 
head in proportion to size and length of body; they 
should be long in the body, standing high and rangy 
on thin legs; bone coarse; heavy tail and brush; hair 
coarse, including the bristles on the back. 

Col. F. D. Curtis, a breeder of red hogs, and a gen¬ 
tleman who has devoted much time to investigating 
their history, characteristics, etc., speaks of these red 






























































O WINE. 


1207 


hogs as follows: “ There are three families of red 
hogs in America, viz,: Jersey Red, Duroc, and Red 
Berkshires. Since the National Swine Breeders’Con¬ 
vention of 1872, I have not been able to get any addi¬ 
tional information regarding the origin of the Jersey 
Reds. Some breeders, latterly, make claims for purity 
of blood, and for special features for the hogs of their 
breeding, which do not correspond with the general 
characteristics of the red hogs of New Jersey. Pre¬ 
vious to the convention they were not advertised as a 
distinct breed. They had been crossed with Berk¬ 
shires, Chester Whites, and other breeds, which made 
them considerably mixed in color, ranging from red 
to red-and-white and sandy, with the variety in char¬ 
acteristics which such crosses would make. Here 
and there in the State, chiefly in Burlington County, 
farmers in a neighborhood and individuals had kept 
the hogs of their fathers as pure as they could, and so 
the blood had descended from one generation to an¬ 
other, with the characteristic of red color more marked 
than any other except size. 

“Previous to the convention I endeavored to find 
out from citizens of New Jersey the origin of their ^ed 
hogs, but was unable to do so. Mr. D. M, Brown, 
Windsor, N. J., said he had known of them as long as 
he could remember—nearly 50 years—but he could 
not find any one who could tell where they came from. 
David Pettitt, Salem, N. J., wrote me that he recol¬ 
lected the red hogs for 30 years, but had never 
heard of their origin. 

“ More than 20 years ago I saw in Virginia and 
Maryland hogs similar to those of New Jersey, and 
they had lieen for many years a common breed in 
that section of the country. I stated at this time 
that the reds are probably descended from the old 
importations of Berkshires, which has never been dis¬ 
puted ; and also that they are much coarser than the 
improved swine of this breed. 

“ Duroc. This is a fancy name given to red hogs 
bred in Saratoga county, N. Y., for 59 years. A Mr. 
Kelsey, of Florida, Montgomery county, N. Y., was 
the owner of the famous horse Duroc. In the year 
1823, Isaac Frink, Esq., a leading farmer in the town 
of Milton, Saratoga county, N. Y., went to Mr. Kel¬ 
sey’s to see this horse, and there saw a red sow with 
a litter of pigs, which Mr. Kelsey said he had im¬ 
ported from England. Mr. Frink purchased a boar 
pig and took it to his home and called it Duroc, in 
honor of the horse he had been to see. This hog 
was remarkable for his great length of body, and was 
extensively crossed upon the native hogs of Saratoga 
county, where the descendants are still bred. The 
crosses of these Duroc hogs have been almost innu¬ 
merable, but, nevertheless, like the kindred family, the 
Jersey Reds, they have wonderfully maintained the 
old Berkshire characteristics. About 52 years ago 
William Ensign, who lived 25 miles distant from Mr. 
Frink, obtained a pair of red hogs from Connecticut, 
where, I understand, they are still bred and known as 
Red Berkshires, which pair of pigs were also crossed 
upon the hogs of the vicinity. The offspring of these 


red hogs extended to the neighboring counties, and 
made for themselves a high reputation. There had 
been no fixed type for a Duroc other than red, as differ¬ 
ent breeders followed their own taste and convenience 
in crossing. As a result, some had lopped ears, an 
original mark, and kept up by crossing with Chester 
Whites, while perhaps the majority which have been 
crossed with the more modern Berkshires, have smaller 
ears, more or less erect, with rounder and more com¬ 
pact bodies, similar to the Black Berkshires. These 
hogs retain tiie capacity for rapid growth and superior 
quality of flesh and other excellencies which the orig¬ 
inal hogs possessed. 

'''‘Red Berkshire. A few years ago several gentle¬ 
men engaged in breeding these hogs agreed to accept 
the name of Red Berkshire as the exclusive name for 
their hogs, convinced this was the blood from which 
their stock had-descended and was the true name. 
They also fixed a standard of characteristics which 
coincided with the original form and peculiar features 
of the breed, which form and features were possessed 
by the best types of their hogs. This standard is 
now admitted to be a proof of purity of blood, and 
will be the means of establishing a uniformity in the 
breed which will be a guide not only to the public, 
but to breeders, and serve to weed out cross-bred hogs 
which may have but little similarity other than color. 

I am not aw'are that the breeders of Jersey Reds 
have established any standard of characteristics, but 
the sooner they do the sooner they will get rid of the 
pretensions of individuals that they possess the only 
pure-bred stock. The following is the standard al¬ 
luded to above for Red Berkshires: 

“The body should be long and deep—not round, 
but broad on the back and holding the width well out 
to the hips and hams. The head should be small 
compared with the body, with the cheek broad and 
full; neck short and thick ; face slightly curved, with 
the nose rather longer than in English breeds; ears 
lopped and rather large; medium in bone; legs me¬ 
dium in length, well set under the body and wide 
apart; cut up high in the flank; hams broad, full and 
well down to the hock; hair medium in fineness and 
thickness, usually straight, sometimes wavy and in¬ 
clining to bristles on the top of the shoulders; tail, 
hairy and heavy ; color red, ranging from dark glossy 
cherry to light yellowish red, with brownish hairs and 
occasionally flecks of black on the belly and legs. 

“The darker shades of red are most desirable. In 
disposition they are remarkably mild and gentle, and 
so docile they are easily confined. They are kind 
and careful mothers, and wonderfully prolific.” 

The Jersey Red of to-day has a small head, thick 
snout, rather small, drooping ears, short neck, straight 
back and underline, a thick full ham, body round, 
deep, with full flanks, short-legged and medium bone. 
Color, red to red dark. They are of quick growth, get 
large enough for all purposes, often averaging, by the 
car load, 300 pounds gross from ten to eleven months 
old. They are docile and very prolific, good mothers, 
careful with their young. They are a nice, compact 











I2o8 


SWINE. 


hog, and popular with packers, and it is claimed will 
outweigh any hog of their size in the world. 

The Jersey Red, as those in the State of New Jer¬ 
sey, are much larger than the Red Berkshire, and also 
much coarser in structure, are rapid growers, fre¬ 
quently dressing 600 pounds when eighteen to twenty 
months old. They have long bodies, short legs, large 
bone with rather large drooping ears, face wide, neck 
short, large through the heart, large hams, color dark 
to sandy red, and noted as a bacon hog. They are 
also very docile, prolific, attentive mothers, and great 
grazers. In fact, this is also a characteristic of the 
Red Berkshire—there is no better grazing hog in ex¬ 
istence. The great advantages of these swine are: 
I St. Their susceptibility of being fattened at any age. 
2d. Their capacity for growing very large if desirable. 
3d. They will produce as much pork for the same 
amount of feed as any other breed, if not more, and 
though not quite as handsome as some others, yet 
they are the hardiest breed known, the most prolific, 
and best hog in existence at the present time for the 
farmer, swine-breeder and stock-grower. 

Another great advantage of this breed of swine is 
to cross with other breeds. It is well known through¬ 
out the country that the hog that is generally kept 
by farmers is bred in and in, until their constitutions 
are gone, and that the first storm that comes makes 
sick hogs, and the cry is “ Hog cholera! ” Experience 
has proven that the Red Berkshire or the Jersey Red 
boar, with Poland, Berkshire or Chester White sows, 
makes the healthiest and best fatted hogs that are 
known to-day, and they are known as soon as seen in 
the stock-yards, and buyers are always anxious to 
purchase them. 

Lancashire and Yorkshire. These two breeds 
are very much alike, or are probably one and the same 
breed. They originated in Lancashire and Yorkshire, 
two adjoining counties, or shires, in the North of 
England, and were produced by a cross of the white 
Chinese upon the stock of that locality. There are 
breeds there in Lancashire that have attained celebiity. 
These are the Short-Faced, the Middle breed and the 
Large Lancashire White. 

The Short-Faced breed may be known by the fol¬ 
lowing characteristics: The shortness of the face 
from the eyes to the end of the snout; prick ears; 
small bones; a good coat of white hair; cubic in 
form with broad back and broad hams, well letdown. 
The skin, as well as the hair, is white, although an 
occasional one may be found with a few dark blue 
spots in the skin, but never dark or black hairs. The 
small breed hogs must have small bones; a short 
face; silky hair; fine, small upright ears; a compara¬ 
tively square form; must have good square hams, the 
most valuable part of the hog; must carry the meat 
near the ground; flat on the back; straight and cubic 
in form. 

Neapolitan. “It is most probable,” says Sidney, 
“ that the Neapolitans are the descendants of the dark 
Eastern swine imported by early Italian voyagers, and 


cultivated to perfection by the favorable climate and 
welcome food.” They were first brought to this 
country by James G. King, of Hudson county. New 
Jersey, from Naples, Italy, about the year 1840. 
About 1850 Mr. William Chamberlain imported some 
from Lorento, Italy, to Dutchess county. New York. 
These, as were their progeny, were of uniformly dark 
slate color. A few others were brought to this coun¬ 
try by other gentlemen, but they have never been 
widely distributed in the United States. From being 
natives of a warm climate, and with a very fine and 
almost hairless skin, it is probable they are too delicate 
for our American climate and methods. They are 
classed with the small breeds and their flesh described 
as like “young, tender, fat chicken.” 

The leading characteristics of the Neapolitans are 
described as follows by M. C. Weld, of New Jersey, a 
gentleman who has given considerable attention to 
their breeding: 

“Head small; forehead bony and flat; face slightly 
dishing; snout rather long and very slender; ears 
small, thin, standing forward nearly horizontally, and 
quite lively; jowls very full, neck short, broad and 
heavy above; trunk long, cylindrical, and well-ribbed 
back; back flat, and ribs arching, even in low flesh; 
belly horizontal on the lower line; hind-quarters higher 
than the fore, but not very much so; legs very fine, the 
bones and joints being smaller than those, of any 
other breed; hams and shoulders well developed and 
meaty; tail fine, curled, flat at the extremity, and 
fringed with hair on each side. General color slaty 
or bluish plum color, with a cast of coppery red. 
Skin, soft and fine, nearly free from hair, which, when 
found upon the sides of the head and behind the 
fore-legs, is black and soft, and rather long. Flesh 
firm and elastic to the touch. ” 

Poland-China. This has been one of the most 
popular breeds of hogs, especially in the Mississippi 
Valley, of all the improved breeds ever introduced 
into this country. They are claimed by their friends 
to stand' at the front of all other breeds for general 
utility. 

Over the history and characteristics of this breed 
there has been much controversy. Individual breed¬ 
ers have claimed the credit of establishing the breed. 
Mr. A. C. Moore, of Fulton county, Illinois, and Mr. 
D. M. Magil, of Butler county, Ohio, both prominent 
breeders of Poland-China swine, and others have 
thoroughly discussed the origin of this breed. There 
has also been much angry discussion as to a suitable 
and proper name for it. One of the chief points in 
the controversy in the latter was as to whether a Po¬ 
land or “ Polish ” breed constituted a prominent early 
cross. As no positive proof, however, seems to have 
been produced of the importation of a single Poland 
hog into the United States, the name finafly adopted 
by the National Convention of swine-breeders at In¬ 
dianapolis, in 1872, seems to be a misnomer. 

The history of the Poland-Chinas, as given by Mr. 
Coburn, is as follows : 








6 " WINE. 


1209 


“Early in the present century there existed in those 
fertile regions of Southwestern Ohio, watered by the 
Big and" Little Miami rivers—notably Warren and 
Butler counties—stocks or ‘ breeds ’ of coarse, slowly 
maturing hogs that in time grew to large size, but were 
difficult to make fat, and designated as ‘Russian,’ 
‘Bedfords ’ and ‘ Byfields.’ Some of the more saga¬ 
cious farmers there realized the desirability of a cross 
that should reduce the coarseness and at the same 
time increase the fattening qualities of their hogs. 
In 1816, John Wallace, one of the trustees of the 
Shakers’ society located at Union Village, Warren 
county, visited Philadelphia on business, and while 
there was shown some pigs called ‘ Big Chinas,’ with 
which he was so well pleased that he purchased a 
boar and three sows, and the same season took them 
with him to Warren county. 

“ They were understood to be either imported or 
the direct descendants of parents imported from China. 
Two of the sows and the boar were entirely white 
and the other sow was white with some sandy spots 
within which appeared smaller black spots. The 
striking characteristics of these Chinese hogs that 
specially commended them to the Ohioans, were com¬ 
pact forms, early maturity and the remarkable ease 
with which they were made fat. These were so appre¬ 
ciated that the Chinas and their progeny were crossed 
on the best stock of that region during the subsequent 
twenty years, the product being what was known, pop¬ 
ularly, as the Warren County hogs. About this time 
or in 1836, the Berkshires, that had been well known 
in New York for some years, were introduced into 
Warren county by Munson Beech. Between 1838 
and 1840, William Neff, a Cincinnati man, shipped 
into the same locality, from England, some hogs 
called “ Irish Graziers,” which were white with the ex¬ 
ception of an occasional sandy spot about the eyes. 
These two breeds were bred and intermixed extens¬ 
ively with the descendants and crosses of the Big 
Chinas on other breeds, and the stock thus produced 
constituted the basis of what is now known as the 
Poland-China. From the most authentic accounts 
obtainable it appears there has been no admixture of 
other blood with this breed since 1840, and from that 
time to the present, men with great experience, good 
taste and judgment have bred them with a view to 
correcting defective points and giving them the very 
highest quality. To the skill of those men and the 
wonderful success of their undertaking the omnipres¬ 
ent Poland-China is a most valuable testimonial.” 

Great improvement has been made within a few 
years past in the form and finish of these hogs, and 
while they were formerly mostly spotted, they are now 
bred more nearly black, and in many instances are 
marked very similar to the Berkshires. Though con¬ 
sidered by many as a comparatively new breed their 
characteristics are shown to be of sufficient fixedness 
to be transmitted with reasonable certainty to their 
offspring, even when crossed on breeds quite different. 

The best specimens are well haired, have good 
length, short legs, broad, straight backs, deep sides, 


flanked well down on the leg, broad, square hams and 
shoulders, deep chests, short legs, short, full, high- 
crested neck, heavy joints, short heads, fine muzzles, 
and moderately fine and drooping ears. They can be 
made to weigh as much as any hogs we have, if not 
more, and are properly designated as belonging to the 
large breeds. 

SuFFOLKS. This is one of the small, white breeds 
of swine, and originated in England, where pigs 
essentially the same are called Yorkshires, or Small 
Yorkshires, and York-Cumberlands. 

They have been known in America for 40 years or 
more, and were brought to notice by importations 
made into Massachusetts by Isaac and Josiah Stick- 
ney. Though known in all the States to some extent, 
at one time or another since, they have never become 
widely popular or extensively raised as farmer’s hogs, 
doubtless due to the fact that they were too small, not 
wholly satisfactory as breeders and nurses, had skins 
too tender to withstand the exposure they encoun¬ 
tered, and too nearly resembling some of their remote 
ancestors described as being “perfect bladders, filled 
with hog’s lard, and nearly of the same size and 
quality.” 

Many who attempted to raise Suffblks found that 
their tender, papery skins were too delicate to remain 
sound in the mud, wind and sun of the prairie re¬ 
gions, where mange seemed to be their natural accom¬ 
paniment. In other words, the change from the 
royal rosewood pens and plum-pudding, at Windsor 
Castle, to our boundless seas of mud and maize, was 
too great, and other breeds of less aristocratic origin 
have far surpassed them in the race for popular favor. 

The standard characteristics > and markings of the 
Suffblks, as agreed upon in the Swine Breeders’ Con¬ 
vention, is as follows: Head small, very short, cheeks 
prominent and full; face dished; snout small and 
very short; jowl fine; ears short, small, thin, upright, 
soft and silky; neck very short and thick, the head 
appearing almost as if set on front of shoulders; chest 
wide and deep, elbows standing out; brisket wide 
but not deep; shoulders thick, rather upright, round¬ 
ing outward from top to elbow ; crops wide and full; 
ribs well arched out from, back; good length between 
shoulders and hams; flank well filled 'out and com¬ 
ing well down at ham; back broad, level and straight 
from crest to tail, not falling off or down at tail; hams 
wide and full, well rounded out; twist very wide and 
full all the way down; legs small and very short, 
standing wide apart—in sows just keeping the belly 
from the ground; bone fine; feet small, hoofs rather 
spreading; tail small, long and tapering; skin thin, 
of a pinkish shade, free from color; hair fine and 
silky, not too thick; color of hair pale yellowish white, 
perfectly free from any spots or other color; size small 
to medium. 

It is highly probable the best of the Suffolks as they 
now exist are much superior, for the general farmer’s 
use, to those of 15 to 20 years ago, owing to increased 
size, hardiness and a less delicate skin, with more 
hair. While, as has been stated, they are not general 










1210 


sjvnvE 


favorites with those who produce the bulk of our pork, 
they are by no means without their enthusiastic ad¬ 
mirers, who prefer them to any others of the porcine ; 
tribe. I 

For those who want a few pigs of a satisfied dispo- i 
sition, that keej) easily, like to be petted, and are of 
no other color than white, the Suffolks will be found 
very desirable. For those who raise pork in large ! 
quantities by methods having but little painstaking 
and attention to details in them, some other breed or 
combination of breeds will be found to answer a 
better purpose, at least until certain characteristics of 
the Suffolks are modified, as they doubtless will be. 

Victorias. These hogs greatly resemble the 
Yorkshire in color, size and style. The breed was 
originated in Saratoga county. New York, by F. D. 
Curtis, about 1852. This gentleman began breeding 
with a view to supplying the demand for a medium¬ 
sized white hog that would be w'ell-haired and 
mature easily. They are a combination of the swine 
common to that locality with the “Crazier,” “By field,” 
and tlie Yorkshire or Suffolk. Their characteristics 
are a good coat of fine, soft hair; head fine and close¬ 
ly set on the shoulders; snout short and face slightly 
dished; ears erect, small and thin; shoulders bulging 
and deep; legs short and fine; back broad, straight 
and level, and the body long; hams round and sw'ell- 
ing, and high at base of tail, with plaits or folds 
between the thighs; tail fine; rosettes common on 
the back; skin thin, soft and elastic; the flesh fine¬ 
grained and firm, with thick side pork. They keep 
easily and can be made fit for slaughter at any age. 

The breeder’s description of them is: “They are 
white in color, have short legs, broad, straight backs 
and deep sides; a good coat of hair, very fine bone 
and (piality; stand very firm on their feet, and have 
an excellent constitution. They possess great pow'er 
of transmitting their color and quality when bred to 
other breeds, and the large amount of prime meat to 
weight of carcass makes them favorites of shippers 
and packers.” 

Yorkshire. The Yorkshires are among the best 
of the pure bred swine of England, and have stamp¬ 
ed their impress upon nearly all of the modern white 
breeds. Their good qualities are: They are of a 
size, shape and flesh that are desirable for the family 
or the packer’s use. They are hardy and vigorous in 
constitution, have a good coat of hair, protecting the 
skin so well either in extreme cold or heat that it 
rarely chills or blisters. They are very prolific and 
good mothers; the young do not vary in color, and so 
little in shape that their form when matured may be 
determined in advance by an inspection of the sire 
and dam. 

The Yorkshire, Medium or Middle-breed, says Mr. 
Sydney, is a modern invention of Yorkshire pig 
breeders, and perhaps the most useful and popular 
of the white breeds, as it unites, in a striking degree, 
the goxl qualities of the large and small. It has 
been produced by a cross of the T.arge and the Small 


\ork and Cumberland, which is larger than the Small 
York. Like the large whites, they often have a few 
pale blue spots on the skin, the hair on these spots 
being white. All white breeds have these spots more 
or less, and they often increase in number as the 
animal grows older. 

_ The Middle Yorkshire breed are about the same 
size as the Berkshire breed, but have smaller heads, 
and are much lighter in the bone. They are better 
feeders than the small whites, but not so good as the 
large whites; in fact, they occupy a position in every 
respect between these tw'o breeds. 

1 he Cumberland, a Middle-breed Yorkshire, are 
not distributed throughout the West, but when 
thoroughbred specimens have been introduced they 
are held in great esteem, as well for an animal for 
exhibition purposes as for family use. They are 
es[)ecial favorites wnth packers who buy their stock 
on foot, for the reason that they yield larger propor¬ 
tionate net weights than any other hogs which grow 
large enough for their use. They are small in bone 
but large in flesli, of the very best quality, evenly and 
proportionately distributed over the whole frame. 

The Comparative Value of the Different 
Breeds. A coarse coat and pendulous ears are re¬ 
garded by most experienced judges of hogs as indica¬ 
tions of thick skin and large size, and a fine coat and 
erect ears as indications of small or moderate size 
and of tendency to rapid growth and fattening. 

Good or essential points view-ed in the abstract, or 
regarded as a standard for testing any particular 
breed or specimen, are fineness of bone, thinness and 
fineness of skin, fullness of head and cheek, thickness 
and moderate shortness ot neck, voluininousness and 
compactness of body, depth and expansion of sides, 
breadth of breast and loin, fullness of quarters, 
moderate shortness of legs, hardiness of constitution 
and moderate or rapid tendency to fatten at an early 
age. 

But several of the different breeds of swine are 
essentially equal to another in value, some for one 
set of circumstances and purposes, and some for an¬ 
other; and while a few breeds are bad in any circum¬ 
stances, even the best breeds are not good in all. 
Hogs, like other kinds of farm stock, ought to be 
selected Avith direct reference to their special fitness 
for the climate in which they are to be kept, for the 
peculiar management which they are to experience, 
for the particular kinds of food which they are to re¬ 
ceive, and for the precise purposes to which they are 
ultimately destined. One breed may be best for the 
bleak exposure of a mountain farm and another for 
the \varin and sunny shelter of a farm on a-wooded 
plain, one for the heat of the South, and another 
for the cold of the North; one for roaming at will 
; through field or forest, and another for constant con- 
I finement in the sty; one for the harsh and stinted 
. food and another for an abundance of rich food; one 
I to supply pork and bacon for family use, another to 
I supply pork for the public market, and another to 
supply material for the commercial curer of hams 

















SWINE. 


I2II 


and bacon. The respective merits and qualities of 
the various breeds are quite fully detailed under the 
respective breeds. 

BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 

Breeding and Rearing Swine. There is no class 
of farm stock in which there is so wide a range be¬ 
tween the good and the poor, the profitable and the 
unprofitable, as that of swine. 

The boar and the sow ought to be selected with 
special reference either to the purity of the breed or 
to some special and well-designed purpose of cross¬ 
ing. The boar ought to be not less than twelve 
months old, and the sow not less than tea months; 
and both may be used for breeding from three to five 
years, and then fed for the market. Young sews dif¬ 
fer widely from one another in prolificness and in at¬ 
tention to their pigs; and any which prove on trial 
to be comparatively unprolific or to be careless nurses, 
ought not to be retained as breeders. Many breeding 
sows of more than four years of age, and almost all 
of more than five or six, become more or less careless 
about their brood, ^nd are therefore not fit to be con¬ 
tinued as breeder?; and they at the same time begin 
to suffer considerable deterioralion in the qualities of 
their flesh, so that they must be fattened and killed to 
prevent loss in their own carcass. 

Sows gestate during about 112 days, or 16 weeks; 
and may, therefore, have two litters in one year, or 
five litters in two years, or ten litters in four years. 
The most convenient practice, for the sake of adapt¬ 
ing the constitution of the pigs to the seasons of the 
year, and in consequence insuring to them a maximum 
of hardiness and health, is to secure two litters in 
each year, the one in March and the other in Septem¬ 
ber. When farrowing occurs in summer, or later in 
the spring than March, the pigs are too young to be 
fed off” next season; and when it takes place in win¬ 
ter, or later in the autumn than August, they are liable 
to be injured or even killed by the severe cold 
which follows, or may suffer serious detriment before 
spring from a deficiency of roots and of green food. 

A pregnant sow ought neither to be confined to a 
sty nor allowed to travel at will; but may be permit¬ 
ted the full range of a yard or of any similarly limited 
enclosure where she can do no damage; and, a con¬ 
siderable time before the calculated period of her far¬ 
rowing, she ought to be separated from the herd, and 
kept constantly and cleanly littered with a small 
quantity of short, dry straw. A few hours before her 
farrowing, she may be observed to carry straw in her 
mouth to make a bed with; and she must then be 
allowed only such a berth as is requisite for her com¬ 
fort, and denied all such rough or long straw as might 
afterwards, by any accident, cover any of her brood. 
She ought, when nursing, to be well fed; for if she 
then lose condition, her pigg will suffer, and she her¬ 
self will occasion double cost to regain her strength 
and flesh, and if the litter be numerous, they ought to 
be fed two or three times a day with a slightly tepid 
mixture of cow’s milk, water and wheat bran, and 


during one or two hours after each feed they may be 
kept separate from the dam. 

Some sows bring forth 10, 12 or even 15 pigs at a 
birth, but eight or nine is the usual number; and sows 
which produce fewer than this should be rejected. 
The sow should have at least 12 teats; for it is ob¬ 
served that each pig selects a teat for himself and 
keeps to it, so tliat a pig not having one belonging to 
him would suffer. A good sow should bring forth a 
large number of pigs of equal vigor. She should be 
very careful of them and not crush them by her 
weight. She should not be addicted to eating the 
afterbirth, and what may often follow, her own young. 
If a sow has this habit, or if she has difficult labors, 
or brings forth dead pigs, she should not be kept for 
breeding purposes. Sows will usually take the boar 
within three dajs after farrowing and sometimes get 
in pig. But after that period they rarely come in heat 
until three or four days after the pigs are weaned. 

The breeding sow should be, as everything else 
upon the farm, first-rate—broad, lengthy, deep, short¬ 
snouted, of fine bone, with tail well set on, a thin ear, 
and skin gathering in folds even to the hock, and of a 
breed that will fatten on clover and grass in summer, 
and on mangolds in winter, sliced and sprinkled with 
ground corn and oats. Various are the breeds now¬ 
adays possessing such characteristics. Grudge not a 
few extra dollars in the purchase of an exemplary sow 
to begin with. It is loss of time, besides disappoint¬ 
ment, to buy second-rate stock, however excellent 
your judgment may be, with the purpose of improv¬ 
ing it. Around the sty, in which the breeding sow is 
kept at the time of farrowing, there should be run a 
couple of rails, one above ^he other, a foot from the 



Fig. 4. —A Fender for Pig-pen. 

wall, the lowest being about three-quarters of a foot 
from the ground. The great risk at such time is of 
the little pigs being smothered by her lying helplessly 
upon them in her pain; whereas if there be a rail she 
is likely to bear against it, so that the little ones, if 
they have the bad luck to get underneath, will either 






















































12 12 


^ IV/JVE. 


work themselves out or escape the great burden of her 
direct weight. They soon learn worldly wisdom 
enough to take refuge behind, where you should have 
a little soft straw or hay for their especial use. 

Another way to protect the little ones is by the safe 
guard or fender as illustrated by Fig. 4. The fender 
or guard consists of a board or scantling fastened 
upon that side of the pen where the bed is located. 
It needs to be high enough above the floor for the pigs 
to pass under it^ and at the same time extend out far 
enough to prevent the sow from lying close to the 
wall of the pen. If the pigs are between the sow 
and the wall, the fender permits them to escape. It is 
well to make this fender when the pen is built; being 
permanent, it will be very much stronger than a tem- 
ix)rary one; it will then always be in place and not in 
the way. 

Indigestion. The perfection of the litter within 
the womb of the brood sow is one of the easiest things 
accomplished that can be conceived of, because so en¬ 
tirely a natural, unimpeded process. The provisions 
of Nature are wonderful in the direction of entire 
safety being thrown around the litter while so encased. 
Nature rarely makes any mistakes in her modes, and 
nothing short of utter starvation or downright abuse 
will interfere with the growth of the embryo, or expel 
it from its prison-house till the allotted sixteen weeks 
have expired. But during this period, the conditions 
are entirely natural, while after the birth of the pig 
they are largely artificial. 

Not giving due weight to the fact that the health of 
the sow, at time of farrowing, and before, very largely 
determines the fact as to whether the pigs will start 
and grow, under the new surroundings and conditions, 
without any hindrance, improper food, or too much 
of it, is often given. Indigestion in the sow at pig¬ 
ging time, from the high feeding, accompanied with 
too close confinement, is quite likely to engender a 
feverish state. The sow will be irritable, and the first 
danger that comes to the litter, under this condition of 
things, is, that the pigs will be eaten by the sow. The 
sow that suffers from indigestion gives this to the 
young pig from the very start. The pig having the 
best appetite, and hanging to the teat the longest, will 
be likely, as with gourmands under every circumstance, 
to succumb first. 

Indigestion coming on in this manner to the young 
pig is not infrequent in the case of sows confined in a 
close pen, debarred from access to the ground, and to 
green food. The pig, after having drawn vigorously 
from the unhealthy milk supply for a few days, sud¬ 
denly loses its appetite, seeking a corner away from the 
litter, has free, light-colored discharges, breathes rap¬ 
idly; and the morning after these symptoms are ob¬ 
served, it is very likely to be found dead. This 
speedily fatal result is likely to follow with greater 
certainty if the weather is cold, or the sow and litter 
have a wet nest. There is hardly anything more 
damaging than the latter, and how any portion of the 
litter can survive its influence is hard to conceive. 

It is well known, in the case of the human family. 


i how susceptible the infant is to derangement of di- 
! gestion, accompanied by diarrhoea, whenever the 
mother indulges in such articles of food as, if given 
to a child not suckling, would, if partaken freely of, 
produce internal disturbance and a loose condition 
of the bowels, the discharges being thin and light- 
colored. This result occurs in an astonishingly short 
period after the food is eaten in the case of the infant, 
showing how quickly absorption of any deleterious 
substance takes place, and also how promptly the 
mammary gland takes up the offending material, 
giving it off through the milk. This transfer occurs 
just as speedily in the system of the brood sow as in 
the system of the human mother, and the young high¬ 
bred pig, especially the Suffolk, is exceedingly impress¬ 
ible, and liable to disturbances similar to those that 
affect the infant. 

The prevailing notion that the hog has digestion 
equal to any undertaking in the way of converting 
crude or offensive food, leads many to give, in excess¬ 
ive quantities, whatever refuse happens to be on 
hand, whether spoiled grain, putrid meat, or other 
refuse. The result of such a mess, when given to a 
sow about to pig, or having a litter at her side, is inev¬ 
itably damaging to the pigs. The milk glands act in 
such a case as an outlet for offending substances that 
get into the system through the stomach, or that, 
through any species of disordered action, are engen¬ 
dered within the system. From this it will readily be 
seen that the milk of an animal not in a perfect state 
of health, must contain a considerable portion of the 
impurities that are, from hour to hour, given off. 

The fact that poison taken into the system of the 
young, either human or brute, through the milk, acts 
so promptly, generally producing disorder of the 
stomach and bowels within a very few hours, is suf¬ 
ficient proof of the virulence of the poison, as well 
as of the importance of guarding against such accu¬ 
mulations within the system of the brood sow while 
suckling her young. Dry corn gives a tendency to 
feverishness. Too much sour slops, if the sow be de¬ 
barred from access to the earth, ashes, charcoal and 
like substances, capable of neutralizing the excess of 
acid, will derange digestion; the blood becomes im¬ 
pure, and, as stated,these impurities escape,in part, into 
the milk. Now, when we have instituted the necessary 
measures to produce a choice stock of young pigs, it 
is a matter of no small importance that we take pains 
to secure the property thus produced. To do other¬ 
wise is like growing a crop of grain, and then, by neg¬ 
lecting the necessary precautions at harvest time, 
losing the crop. 

Under the sow at farrowing time, there should be 
little or no straw, as with the best disposition she is 
then more apt to annihilate some of the wee ones who 
may be lost to sight, having gone burrowing on their 
own behalf. The best practice, however, is to 
have her watched, and the little ones taken from 
her as they appear, and, if the weather is cold, 
kept near a fire in a hamper, in wool for a day or two, 
being carried to and fro for suckling. This entails a 












SWINE. 


1213 


little trouble, but is well repaid, as you may so save a 
whole litter, three-fourths of which, if left with her, 
the chances are you may find dead within 24 hours 
afterbirth. As soon as they are pretty strong upon 
their legs, and can expostulate lustily, you may leave 
them in the fenced sty with mamma altogether, hav¬ 
ing taken care first to initiate them into the secret of 
their harbor (the railing around the wall). All this a 
savage mother will not allow; nay, often she will de¬ 
vour her offspring if meddled with at all. As a pre¬ 
ventive against this awkward finale., a wash of aloes 
and water, into which the piglings are dipped,just newly 
farrowed, has been used. 

A parent of this sort, it will pay you best, how¬ 
ever, to fatten and consume in turn. Gentle sows are 
sufficiently attainable to permit the immediate sacri¬ 
fice of a savage. If the wee ones be ailing, a hot 
bath for them, and a dose of castor oil (say four 
ounces) to the mother, of which they will enjoy a re¬ 
version through her milk, is a safe and usually success¬ 
ful treatment. That the sow will require warm food, 
gruel, etc., after her labor, and must be carefully 
tended, and not highly fed for some days, it is almost 
superfluous to remark. Indeed, unless the tyro have 
servants about his stock who of themselves will exer¬ 
cise such ordinary thought, he will have a very moun¬ 
tain to surmount. We may notice only that boiled 
food promotes especially the flow of milk, and that for 
those sows which litter in autumn, lettuces are the 
most wholesome and juciest of food. 

'Fowards weaning time turn out the sow occasion¬ 
ally by herself, and accustom the nursery to take 
warm milk and slops on their private account. This 
will grease the slips for their final launch into life, 
which should take place as soon as they have shivered 
through the ninth week. Mind and do your little 
pigs well. The sow should be richly fed throughout 
the nursing, so that when you wean the litter, they 
shall be pretty stout to start on their own account. 
Still, at the best, it is a ticklish period when they are 
first put over the nest. Ruinous as cruel is the jxjlicy 
of stinting an infant. It is far better for you to keep 
half a dozen in good trim, ready ever for pork or win¬ 
ter baconers, than half a hundred trotting everlastingly, 
half-fed, about the yard—scabby, wizen-looking and 
pot-bellied—in anxious search for anything to pacify 
the pangs of their hunger. Starved in' infancy, young 
stock seems to lose not only size, but in a great de¬ 
gree its aptitude to fatten. 

Selection and Care of Boar. It is not alto¬ 
gether correct to say that success in swine-breeding 
depends entirely upon the proper selection of the 
male, but it very largely depends upon it. 

In all breeding it is the male that impresses itself 
upon the exterior of the offspring. The mule is often 
cited as an illustration of this fact. The mule is an 
ass with some modification. Take the best sows or 
the best mares in the world and breed them to inferior 
males and the offspring will be inferior, while the off¬ 
spring of inferior sows or mares can be greatly im¬ 


proved by the use of good males. Every one is fa¬ 
miliar with these truths. 

On this subject Goodale, in his Principles of Breed¬ 
ing Domestic Animals, says: 

“Practically, (all) the knowledge obtained dictates 
in a most emphatic manner that every stock-grower 
use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the 
best sires—that is, the best for the end and purposes 
in view; that he depend chiefly on the sire for out¬ 
ward form and symmetry." 

In discussing this subject, Mr. Coburn says: 
“ The foremost breeders have come to recognize the 
male as half the herd; and hence if he is to exert as 
much influence on the character of its offspring as is 
exerted by all the females in it, too much care and 
discrimination cannot be exercised in his selection 
and management, not only that he may be the best, 
but do the best.” 

The breeder and farmer will, therefore, see that it 
is of the utmost importance to start right by carefully 
selecting the boar. He should be an animal of fine 
external form, thick, short neck, broad face and heavy 
under jaw. All these indicate a strong vitality, and 
necessarily that must exist in every meat-producing 
animal. He should also have good width between 
the fore legs, large girth immediately behind them, 
long ribs, well spread out from the back, broad loin 
and well developed, have clean, elastic skin, soft hair, 
which should be free from bristles, clean limbs, small 
joints, and if possible a concave face and slightly 
drooping ears. Experience has demonstrated that 
these features are indications of the qualities required 
in a good breeder, and they have passed into rules 
which breeders have long since needed. 

Ribs that are long and well sprung at right angles 
from the back give room for a capacious stomach; 
the broad loin is suggestive of active kidneys, and a 
clean, fine, elastic skin, with soft, lively hair, devoid 
of bristles, denotes a freedom from anything like 
fever, and the possession of a healthy liver that trans¬ 
acts its current business with promptitude. A reason¬ 
ably fine muzzle and limbs clean, small joints, and 
standing square upon the feet denote solidity, strength, 
and firmness of framework. The dished or concave 
face and fine and somewhat drooping ear, are unerr¬ 
ing signs of an easy keeper and a quiet and con¬ 
tented disposition. 

In selecting a boar, however, the animal itself 
• should not be the only thing looked at. It is well to 
look at the whole herd from which he is to be selected, 
for the purpose of ascertaining if they have good 
forms and constitutions and even feeding qualities. 
If these are shown, it is safe to select a boar from the 
herd, but a breed of hogs in which there are no two 
alike ought never to be looked to for a boar. Nor 
must the sows upon which it is intended to cross him, 
be entirely lost sight of. Their defects especially 
need to be studied, in order that in the selection of 
the boar, such a one may be selected as will correct 
the defects of the sows in the offspring. For instance, 
if the sows should be light in the ham, the boar 












1214 


sivhvj^:. 


should be particularly strong there. If the sows 
hav'e sharp backs, breed only to a boar with a broad 
back, and so on. Sometimes the sow is too coarse in 
some particular part, and the remedy is to select a 
boar particularly fine in those parts. It is usually 
recommended to select a boar somewhat smaller and 
more compact than the sows iqx)!! which he is to be 
crossed. 

It is becoming quite common to see through the 
countr)’ many ot the best hogs of some of the im¬ 
proved breeds that even when quite young show 
signs of breaking down in the ankle-joints. As they 
grow older and heavier they become worse in this re¬ 
spect, until they are virtually cripples. This is the 
result of careless selection and continued corn diet, 
^\hichdoes not furnish the bone-making substance. 
Such boars should not be used, even if in eveiy other 
respect they are excellent. 

As to the breed, we have nothing to sav here, 
leaving the breeder or fanner to use his own taste 
and Judgment. He ought to be able to tell what he 
wants when the diflferent breeds are so easily seen. 
But having chosen the breed, the boar should be 
pure; for if not pure, there will be no certainty that 
he will be able to stamp his own qualities upon his 
offspring. It may also be wise in this connection to say 
a word upon the treatment of the boar after he is pro¬ 
cured. Many a farmer is disappointed in a boar for 
which he has paid a good price, when the fault is 
w holly his. Perhaps he shuts the animal up in a 
close pen—a very usual custom. The boar has, 
under such circumstances, no opportunity for exer¬ 
cise, and it is quite likely he is fed highly at the same 
time. Lack of activity is the almost certain result of 
such treatment. But even this treatment is no w'orse 
than turning the animal loose among an unlimited 
number of sows and among stock hogs. Under these 
circumstances he is soon worried and w^orked almost 
to death. There should be a medium treatment 
practiced. Do not confine the animal too closely 
and do not let him rove according to his own will. 
He should have a comfortable pen with a lot adjoin¬ 
ing; should have good, nutritious food, and kept in a 
condition of thrift, not too fat or too poor. 

The best way to keep a boar from becoming unruly 
and very troublesome is from the first to keep him in 
an enclosure that he cannot break out of, and then 
he w'ill not learn how^ It is much better if his quar¬ 
ters are isolated from those of other hogs, especially 
sows, except at coupling time, otherwise a good share 
of his days and nights will be spent in tiynng to get 
among them, w'hich he will likely succeed in doing 
just when he ought not to. A sow turned in with 
him and served once will have as many, and perhaps 
better pigs than if he worried and chased her for a 
week. hen his pigs come, and begin to verge along 
towards maturity, the owner can easily judge whether 
his boar is what he w'anted. If wholly satisfactorj'^ 
and there was not a strong probability, amounting 
almost to a certainty, of doing very much better, Mr. 
Cobum says he “ w'ould recommend breeding him to 


his own daughters; yet, at the same time, indiscrim¬ 
inate in-breeding is not to be thought of; this breeding 
together ot sire and daughter is recommended only 
when the individuals are both healthy, and it is de¬ 
sired to fix and retain in the offspring certain points 
of great value prominent in the parents.” 

Grade Boars. One of the great and costly mis¬ 
takes made by a large number of farmers who dis¬ 
play good judgment and liberality in other matters, 
is, in using grade or, too often, scrub boars, on the 
score of economy. The manner of its occurrence is 
something like this : The farmer has some common 
sows, or, perhaps, obtains one that looks well, and he 
thinks is a little extra, though nothing much is known 
of her stock or breeding; she maybe with pig by 
what he has been told was a good boar, or he breeds 
her to the most passable one convenient, and in 
course of time she farrows; if she has only a small 
number, or sa\ es but a few pigs, and is a good 
suckler, there will probably be a boar pig in the litter 
^hat makes a development surprising to the owner 
and is really handsome. This pig is kept for a boar’ 
first, because in appearance he is as good as the 
majority of thoroughbreds, and much better than the 
other hog stock on the place that has not had as good 
an opportunity for development; secondly, the man 
who has thoroughbreds asks from $io to $25 apiece 
for them; and as this home-made pig has not cost a 
fourth of that, the difference between his cost and 
that of the other is so much saved; and “a penny 
saved is as good as a penny earned.” He is used on 
the sows of the herd; but being a good animal indi¬ 
vidually, almost by accident, and not inheriting f is 
valuable qualities from a long line of ancestry equally 
good, it is not ^xissible to transmit them to his off¬ 
spring to any appreciable extent, and weedy, un¬ 
thrifty scrubs and dissatisfaction follow. After one, 
two, or three years of unavailing effort to make some¬ 
thing out of them, in many instances the same farmer 
without any apparent comprehension of the cause of 
his disapix)mtment, will repeat the foolish experiment 
with another pig of like character, or, rather, lack of 
character; and so, as the years go by, the best of 
them, perhaps, are frittered away practicing this sort 
of economy that “saves at the spigot and wastes at 
the bung-hole. Every sane man in anv way con¬ 
nected with the raising of live stock should under¬ 
stand that the greatest improvement, and consequent 
profit, can only come from using sires of high quality 
descended from generations of sires and dams like 
them, followed by good care and judicious weeding 
out every year. The man who keeps a half-dozen 
sows cannot afford to do without the use of a thor 
oughbred boar; and a pig of the right sort, at a cost 
ot S25, IS as cheap as dirt,—enough more economical 
and profitable as an investment, than it would be to 
have the sows served by a scrub or half-breed, even 
It $5 each was received for the privilege. The wise 
men who use good boars in the fall are the ones who 
wi 1 have good hogs to fatten and sell the following 
tall to prompt buyers, at outside figures. 
















SWINE. 


Castration, This operation is performed uix>n 
the pig chiefly with a view to more rapid fattening, 
and the result is doubtless attained, for at the same 
time that it increases the quiescent qualities of the 
animal, it diminishes also his courage, spirits and 
nobler attributes, and even affects his form. The 
tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the 
natural animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted 
appearance. The operation, if possible, should be 
performed in the spring or autumn, as the temperature 
is the more uniform, and care should be taken that 
the animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat 
and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling 
diet and quiet. Pigs are castrated at all ages, from a 
fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four 
months old. 

There are various modes of performing this opera¬ 
tion. If the pig is not more than six weeks old, an 
incision is made at the bottom of the scrotum, the 
testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any 
precautionary means whatever. When the animal is 
older, there is reason to fear that hemorrhage, to a 
greater or less extent, will supervene; consequently, it 
will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a 
little above the spot where the division is to take 
place. 

By another mode—to be practiced only on very 
young animals—a portion of the base of the scrotum 
is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the cord sawn 
through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instru¬ 
ment. If there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by 
putting ashes in the wound. The animal is then dis¬ 
missed and nothing further done with him. 

On animals two or three years old, the operation is 
sometimes performed in the following manner; An 
assistant holds the pig, pressing the back of the ani¬ 
mal against his chest and belly, keeping the head 
elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, 
which is the preferable way, one assistant holds the 
animal against his chest, while another kneels down 
and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps 
the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal 
incision across its base, opening both divisions of the 
bag at the same time. The testicles are then pressed 
out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a 
blunt knife, which lacerates the part without bruising 
it and rendering it painful. Laceration is requi¬ 
site only in order to prevent the subsequent hem¬ 
orrhage which would occur if the cord were simply 
severed by a sharp instrument. The wound is then 
closed by pushing the edges gently together with the 
fingers, and it speedily heals. Some break the sper¬ 
matic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then 
pull it gently and until it finally gives way. 

The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, 
or lockjaw, induced by the shock communicated to 
the nervous system by the torture of the operation. 

Spaying. This operation consists in removing the 
ovaries, and sometimes a portion of the uterus, more 
or less considerable, of the female. The animal is 

77 


1215 


laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two 
assistants, an incision is then made into the flank,the 
forefinger of the right hand introduced into it, and 
gently moved about until it encounters and hooks 
hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the 
opening; a ligature is then passed around this one, 
and the left ovary felt for in like manner. The opera¬ 
tor then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or 
tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances 
to their proper position. This being done, he closes 
the wound with two or three stitches, sometimes rubs 
a little oil over it, and releases the animal. All goes 
on well, for the healing power of the pig is very 
great. 

The after-treatment is very simple. The animals 
should be well littered with clean straw, in sties 
weadier-tight and thoroughly ventilated; their diet 
should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley 
meal, is an excellent article. It is well to confine them 
for a few days, as they should be prevented from get¬ 
ting into cold water or mud until the wound is per¬ 
fectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. 

The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; 
indeed, as a general rule, the younger the animal is 
when either operation is performed the quicker it re¬ 
covers. Some persons, however, have two or three 
litters from their sows'before they operate iqx)n them ; 
where this is the case, the result is more to be feared, 
as the parts have become more susceptible, and are, 
consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. 

Feeding. The elements of great importance in 
the rearing of swine, are to keep them comfortably 
warm, to afford them a constant supply of fresh air, 
and to keep them perfectly free from everj' kind of 
nastiness and vermin. The necessity of comfortable 
warmth at all seasons and the positive saving it effects 
in both food and strength are pointed out in the arti¬ 
cle Feeding of Animals. Pigs which have little or no 
protection from the cold winds, cold rains, sleet and 
snow, and which try to keep one another warm by 
cowering together in heaps, and which, in spite of 
every device they practice, often shiver with cold 
amid the severities of spring and winter, cannot pos¬ 
sibly thrive upon even the best and most abundant 
food which man can supply; and if, on the other 
hand, they enjoy no shade from the scorching and 
blistering play of sunshine in summer, they both will 
become somewhat unsightly in appearance, and may 
be occasionally made sick, and generally retarded in 
growth. A close, ill-ventilated sty has an absolutely 
pestilential atmosphere, and makes pigs look delicate 
and sickly, and undermines their very constitution, 
preventing them from ever attaining proper size 
and weight; while a sty with an open-barred door 
and a constant current of fresh air, maintains them 
in vigor, gives them the full advantage of their food, 
and affords full and facile scope for their rapid growth 
and ample maturation. Cleanliness, not only of the 
litter and the floor of the sty, but of the feet and all 
the skin of the animals themselves, is essential in the 
energetic performance of the organic functions, and 









I 2i6 


SWINti. 


even to the prevention of comparative dwarfishness 
and some measure of disease. The propensity of 
swine to roll themselves in mud in summer only 
proves that they require protection from the scorching 
heat of the sunshine, and from the attacks of flies, 
and affords not the remotest indication that any daub¬ 
ing of the pores with dirt can possibly be beneficial. 
A washed sow in the hot season of our temperate cli¬ 
mate, and in almost every season in such a climate as 
that of Palestine, “ returns to her wallowing in the 
mire ” simply because she feels scorched and blistered 
and sickened under the ardent sunshine; and hence 
when she receives from man the aid which is due to 
her as a domesticated animal, she demands, not dirt 
all the year through, or any day at all, but shade in 
summer, shelter in winter, and a clean, dry bed in 
every season. 

Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to 
nine months old; and for bacon, at from a year to 
two years. Eighteen months is generally considered 
the proper age for a good bacon hog. The feeding 
will always, in a great measure, depend upon the cir¬ 
cumstances of the owner—upon the kind of food 
which he has at his disposal, and can best spare—and 
the purpose for which the animal is intended. It will 
also, in some degree, be regulated by the season, it 
being possible to feed pigs very differently in the 
summer from what they are fed in winter. 

The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of 
breweries and distilleries, may be given to swine with 
advantage, and seem to induce a tendency to lay on 
flesh. They should not, however, be given in too 
large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more 
substantial food; since, although they give flesh rap¬ 
idly when fed on it, the meat is not firm, and never 
makes good bacon. Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast 
greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an 
easy matter to fatten them afterwards. Apples and 
pumpkins are likewise valuable for this purpose. 

There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in 
every way adapted for the purpose of fattening, as are 
the various kinds of grain—nothing that tends more 
to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. 
Indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of 
grain for fattening purposes, and can be given in its 
natural state, as pigs are so fond of it that they will 
eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of animals 
that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. 
Animal food tends to make swine savage and feverish, 
and often lays the foundation of serious inflammation 
of the intestines. 

Spring Feeding. There is no period of the year 
when it pays so well to be on the alert, looking out for 
every class of farm stock, watching for shivering, gen¬ 
eral discomfort and shrinkage, as from March till 
May grass. The hog, if fairly w'ell fed during sum¬ 
mer and fall, and tolerably well cared for during the 
cold, dry weather of the three winter months, will 
have held up pretty well till now. But, as stated, the 
two months during which it will pay better to give 


extra care than during any other period of the year 
begin with March. 

And the question, how to compensate for the ab¬ 
sence of grass, comes up very prominently. Swine- 
breeders do not, as a rule, give due consideration to 
the fact that the hog is, in his natural state, a con¬ 
sumer of green food, and, in that state, is mainly de¬ 
pendent upon grazing. We have, by confining him 
in dirt yards and plank pens, debarring him from ac¬ 
cess to green stuff, changed him from proverbial 
daintiness as to his food, into a veritable “hog,” ready 
to devour all mannerof filth, giving us, in return, flesh 
made up of impurities, because the corruption the hog 
eats inevitably taints his blood, and through this en¬ 
ters into all his tissues. It is no more surprising that 
the hog learns to eat filth, taking this down with ai> 
parent relish, than it is that the boy of 15 learns to 
relish tobacco, perhaps the most acrid, prostrating 
and sickening of all plants. 

As an evidence that the hog was, in a state of na¬ 
ture, quite select in his diet, we will state, upon the 
authority of Linnasus, that, as compared to other veg¬ 
etable eaters, he accepted fewer plants for his daily 
food than any other animal. Thus, the cow ate 276 
plants, rejecting 218; the goat, 449, rejecting 126; 
sheep, 387, rejecting 141; the horse, 262, rejecting 
212. The hog, more nice than either, accepted 72, 
rejecting 17 r. But under domestication, as usually 
carried out, he has no discretion left him. Being de¬ 
nied the privilege of hunting his own food, he takes 
corn for his breakfast; for his dinner he takes corn ; 
and he likewise takes corn for his evening meal. 
Hence, it is not surprising that the hog has become 
diseased, and though, through careful selections, we 
have made a model of his form, bringing it up to the 
highest standard for profit, and at the same time 
pleasing to the eye, yet he is often made to succumb 
to epidemics. 

We all know the effect upon sailors of confinement 
upon a given kind of food, being debarred, at the 
same time, from vegetables. Scurvy, the scourge that 
arises from confinement to certain kinds of food, and 
from, at the same time, being debarred from other 
kinds, is not, as many suppose, a mere affection of the 
gums, l)ut is as general in the disturbance it gets up 
as is the so-called hog cholera in the case of the hog. 

The hog, confined, as he usually is, and fed upon 
corn alone, if he could get his eye upon green grass, 
would doubtless make as strong demonstrations to get 
a taste of the coveted food as did the scurvy-scourged 
seamen of tlie ship Centurion, under Lord Anson, 
when approaching the island of Juan Fernandez, 
crazed at tlie sight of vegetation upon the shore. And 
when a squad of men were sent ashore, bringing green 
grass aboard the ship, the men devoured it with 
avidity, taking on an improved condition at once. 
The villager knows how eager the pigs, shut up in the 
pen during the whole year, are for the grass and weeds 
from the garden near at hand; and partly because he 
wants to get rid of his weeds, and partly because he 
thinks the pigs will like a little green stuff “for a rel- 







SW/NE. 


1217 


ish,” he throws the refuse to them. He does not re¬ 
flect that green food is the natural sustenance of the 
hog, as it is of the cow, while, by feeding on corn 
alone, he is keeping his pigs in an extravagantly ar¬ 
tificial stale. 

The question from March till May is, how best to 
supply the hog with food that will most nearly answer 
in the place of the pasture grass that we suppose all 
hog-raisers expect to supply when the proper season 
arrives. To turn out upon the field then is not ad¬ 
missible, except on something besides the pasture or 
meadow, as, the grass being dead, his instinct would 
lead him to the next best substitute, viz.^ the roots of 
the grass. But the corn and stubble fields—along 
the fences of these—will afford roots which the hog 
can grub up if given the opiX)rtunity; and by even 
this expedient, the weather being moderate, a state of 
unthrift may be converted into thrift, paving the way 
for abundant health and rapid gain when the green 
things of spring are far enough along to give a good 
bite. But in the absence of even the meager change 
to be found along the fences, and especially in the 
case of such animals as cannot be given their liberty, 
the natural instinct for green and soft food should be 
gratified through whatever material may be at hand. 

Health and growth during the following summer 
may depend largely upon the success in averting in¬ 
digestion, and the morbid state of the blood which 
comes of this, through discreet management during 
April and May. If no vegetables can be spared for 
this purpose, it will pay to buy them, not on account 
of the mere nutriment contained, but for the dietetic 
and sanitary reasons mentioned above. Coal ashes, 
charred coal and charcoal from wood should be with¬ 
in reach at all times. In a general way, and by the 
use of divers suitable agencies, the digestion should 
be secured against impairment, the bowels kept in a 
condition the opposite of being constipated, that the 
blood may be neither impoverished nor charged with 
unhealthy secretions. By acting with discretion in 
the manner pointed out, and protecting them from 
inclement weather at the same time, thrift during the 
entire season is likely to be the result. 

Summer Feeding. The warm season is Nature’s 
time for vegetable growth, and no less so for animal 
growth. But farmers seem to regard it as a fortunate¬ 
ly easy time to carry pigs on very small feed. Many 
of them have the strange notion that the pig should 
be tided over the summer upon a little pasture, and 
prepared to be fattened after the cold fall weather 
sets in. Grass promotes the health of pigs, and a 
proper amount of it is highly beneficial; but profit¬ 
able feeding requires that pigs should make their 
most rapid gain in the warm weather. A hundred 
pounds can be put on pigs in summer as cheaply as 
50 to 65 pounds can in cold weather. We believe 
this statement will be endorsed by all feeders who 
have tested the warm and the cold seasons for feed¬ 
ing under ordinary circumstances. We admit that 
swine houses may be built so as to maintain a mild 
temperature in winter, and then there would not be 


so great a difference as we have noted. But those 
who provide for a summer temperature in winter are 
thorough believers in full feeding at all seasons of 
the year, and need no admonition as to the economy 
of full feeding in summer. 

What is the appropriate grain food for pigs in sum¬ 
mer.? The answer to this question must depend 
upon the age and condition of the pigs. Pigs from 
two to six months old must have such food as will 
produce growth of muscle and bone—not fat. Indian 
corn for such pigs is, therefore, to be avoided, except 
in very small quantity. Corn is the most fattening 
food, the food to fill up the large, lank muscular 
frame, to lay on clear, solid jxrrk. But the young pig 
has all this frame-work to grow, and should have 
food best adapted to that end. A clover pasture is 
a good beginning, and this should be supplemented 
with nitrogenous and phosphatic food, such as oats, 
peas, wheat middlings, linseed meal, or cotton-seed 
meal; or best of all, several of these mixed together. 
Linseed meal, which can be had at $20 to $25 per 
ton in many parts of the country, is perhaps the best 
extra food for young pigs in summer, because of its 
ea 5 y digestibility, soothing effect upon the digestive 
organs, and its peculiar adaptation to the growth of 
muscle and bone. Cotton-seed meal has much more 
oil, more nitrogenous matter, and is rich in phos¬ 
phates, but is not so easily digested as linseed meal, 
and is constipating, while linseed meal is slightly 
laxative. Wheat middlings, which is purchasable in 
the West usually at $6 to $g per ton, is also well 
adapted to the growth of frame and muscle in pigs, 
and will produce this growth at a low rate of cost. 
Perhaps the best combination of food would be 100 
pounds of linseed meal, 200 pounds of wheat mid¬ 
dlings and 100 pounds of corn meal, mixed together. 
This would give a mixture of qualities leaving 
nothing to be desired. This combination of food will 
keep the pigs in prime health in the hot season, hav¬ 
ing no tendency to produce a feverish state of the 
system. Peas, oats, or corn, ground together in equal 
proportions, also make an excellent combination for 
summer pig food. We doubt if hog cholera would 
ever appear in pigs thus reared. This disease is of 
very rare occurrence in the Eastern States, and the 
cases there found are mostly propagated by contact 
with Western hogs. Western feeders would do well 
to provide a greater variety of food for their pigs. 
Peas and oats grow as naturally and as profitably in 
the West as corn. Use them all in the growth of 
pigs, and diseases will be much less troublesome. 

How TO Soak Corn for Hogs. During the dry 
summer months corn gets hard and dry, and if it 
happens to be a rough variety, hogs will eat no more 
of it than will keep them in decent living condition. 
At such a time it is profitable to soak the corn, as by 
that means we partially restore it to the condition of 
the roasting ear, and every farmer knows that it is the 
j time that hogs will grow or fatten to the best advan- 

! 

' Bv soaking corn that has liecome excessively hard 
















I 2 l8 


SWINE. 



and dry, we restore it in a measure to its normal state, 
and put it in a condition easily to be masticated and 
rapidly digested, and there hinges the whole question: 
the more rapid the digestion the quicker is assimila¬ 
tion, and the more rapid the assimilation the faster 
does the animal arrive at maturity to fit it for the 
market. 

Corn can be soaked in a tank constructed for that 


Fig. ^.-Hog-Watering Device. 

purpose, where a large number are fed; but on a smaller 
scale, kerosene casks can be used. They may be 
quickly cleansed by taking out the head and throw¬ 
ing in a few old newspapers and touching a match to 
them. When it gets into a good blaze and begins to 
crackle pretty lively, turn the cask upside down, and 
the blaze will be extinguished for want of air. 

Two such casks will hold corn enough to feed two 
days—four feeds—for twenty shoats, soaking each 
cask full of corn twenty-four 
hours. If you are desirous 
of pushing forward your fat¬ 
tening hogs while they bring 
a good price, soak your corn. 

Feeding Green Corn. 

Green corn, as soon as it is 
fairly ripe enough for ordinary 
table use, is probably the 
very best fattening food avail¬ 
able to the general farmer for 
feeding swine. The pigs eat 
it with a peculiar relish, and 
will grow and fatten upon it 
with surprising rapidity. No 
food is equal to this for put¬ 
ting pigs in good “ show con¬ 
dition ” for the fairs. 

But while all this is true, it 
no doubt is a very expensive 
food when used at this period. 

In a discussion upon this 
point to which we once listen¬ 
ed, an old farmer remarked 
that he had “ often noticed that when his wife fed his 
hired men on green corn at the table, one man would 
often eat four or five ears, while one of these same 
ears if ripened, ground into meal and made into 
bread, would feed four or five men.” Probably this is 
overstating the difference, but it is no doubt an ex¬ 
pensive, and in some degree a wasteful, use of food 
to use corn before it is fully ripened. 

Water. Plenty of pure, fresh water is essential to 
the successful raising of swine. They are more choice 


in the food they eat and the water they drink than 
they often have credit for. A hog can appreciate a 
good drink of cool clear water as much as almost any 
animal. It is often a source of great difficulty, how¬ 
ever, to furnish abundance of such water at all times. 
Many devices have been invented for the purpose of 
affording a constant supply of water to swine, but we 
know of none seemingly so well adapted as the one 
illustrated in this connection. It is 
known as the patent hog-waterer and 
is made by the Sandwich Enterprise 
Co., Sandwich, Illinois. 

Fig. 5 represents the apparatus as 
it appears when in position for use. As 
can be seen, all that is exposed is the 
top with its openings for the hogs to 
drink from. The water maintains the 
same height in the drinkingtank, no matter how much 
is used. 

The top presents four openings where hogs can 
drink, the weak animals having equal chance with the 
stronger, and no opportunity is given them to get their 
feet in and soil the water. Indeed, no matter what 
the circumstances, the animals have good, clean water 
to drink as long as the source of supply is kept up. 

By Fig. 6 is presented a sectional cut showing the 
arrangement of the apparatus in ground, from which 
an understanding of its mode of operation can be 
had. A represents the reservoir tank or trough, such 
as any farmer may have for his stock. K, strainer on 
end of pipe to prevent trash or dirt passing through 
and interfering with action of the float valve. B is 


Fig. 6 . —Sectional View of Watering Device. 

the regulating barrel. C, the drinking barrel. G, the 
pipe connecting same. As can be seen the water in 
B and C will remain on same level, as both are con¬ 
nected; consequently, if water be taken from C it will 
lower the level in B correspondingly, and when the 
water in B is lowered the float I descends with it, 
allowing the float valve H to open and water to pass 
through until the float valve shuts off the flow of 
water. 

Teeth. The teeth of the hog may be represented 


























































































SIVINK 


1219 


by the following formula: Incisors, sixupper, six lower, 
canines, one upper, one lower, on each side; wolf teeth, 
so-called, now determined to be molars, one upper, 
one lower, on each side ; molars, six upper, six lower, 
on each side ; in all, 44 teeth. 

To Tell the Age of Swine. The animal is born 
with eight teeth—four corner incisors and four tusks. 

On the eighth or tenth day appears the second or 
third temporary molar. 

At four weeks old the four nippers appear—two in 
the upper and two in the lower jaw. 

At the fifth or sixth week the foremost temporary 
molars appear in the upper and lower jaw. 

^ At the age of three months the intermediary in¬ 
cisors have appeared above the gums. 

At the sixth month the so-called wolf’s teeth will 
have appeared; and at the same age appear the third 
permanent molars. 

At the ninth month the following teeth will have 
appeared, namely, the permanent corner incisors, the 
permanent tusks, and also the second permanent 
molars. 

At the twelfth month the permanent nippers will be 
in view. 

With the twelfth and thirteenth months the three 
temporary molars will have been shed, and their per¬ 
manent substitutes, which, at fifteen months of age, 
will have fully appeared, are now just cutting through 
the gums. 

With the eighteenth month the permanent inter¬ 
mediary incisors and the hindmost permanent molar 
will have made their appearance and with the 
twenty-first month they will be fully developed. 

Ringing. This is an operation performed to coun¬ 
teract the propensity which swine have of digging in 
the earth. The ring is passed through what appears 
a prolongation of the septum, between the snout bone 

and the nasal. 
The animal is 
thus unable to 
obtain suffi¬ 
cient purchase 
to use his snout 
with any effect, 
without caus¬ 
ing the ring to 
press so pain¬ 
fully uixm the 
part that he is 
forced to desist. 
By the accom- 
p a n y i n g en- 

Fig. t-—D ouble Hog R inger. gravingS We 

represent Brown’s single and double hog and pig ring¬ 
ers, made by Chambers, Bering & Quinlan, Decatur, 
Illinois. These rings close with the joints outside, 
aiad it is thus claimed leaves no sharp points in the 
flesh to cause irritation and soreness, as in the case of 
rings that close with joints in the flesh. The cuts 



also show the “ champion hog holder,” in the hand. 

By Fig. 9 is rep¬ 
resented an ap- 
paratus for 
catching hogs, 
man ufactured 
b y the same 
parties as t h e 
ringers are. 
The instrument 
as above des¬ 
cribed for 
ringing hogs an¬ 
swers every pur¬ 
pose for mark- 
in g them, as 
well as sheep 
Fig. Single Hog Ringer. and Cattle, the 

same ring being used. For this purpose it is inserted 
in the ear of the animal, instead of the nose. Letters, 
or numbers, or both, are stamped upon brass, a letter 
or number on 
each piece, 
and then 
slipped upon 
the ring in the 
ear, which is 
then closed. 

Each animal 
when proper¬ 
ly marked, 
should have 
ontheringthe 
initials of its owner’s name and a number. 

Piggeries. In all the great swine-growing regions, 
where from twenty-five to five hundred hogs are annu¬ 
ally fattened and sold from single farms, the life of the 
animals must necessarily be passed out-of-doors. So far 
as thebreedingstock and the first few months of the life 
of the pigs are concerned, this is always the best, both 
from an economical and sanitary point of view. There 
are, however, many small farmers who annually fat¬ 
ten, from what they require for family use, up to fifteen 
or twenty head a year, who find it most convenient 
and economical to feed and fatten both in summer 
and winter in pens. All this large class must depend, 
first, on the skim milk, buttermilk and whey, and upon 
the slop of the kitchen for feeding; second, upon 
clover, cut and fed, weeds and other refuse material 
about the farm, and lastly and principally on corn, 
either ground or raw. It is better for all this class that 
the pens when built be planned so as to combine ease 
of handling with security and comfort of the animals. 

Because swine are blessed with keen appetites, 
strong digestion, and hardy constitutions capable of 
resisting a great amount of neglect and ill-usage, they 
have been, and in too many instances are yet, the 
worst used animals kept for the profit of man. And, 
as if to add to the abuse, their endeavors to make the 
best of ill-treatment, have been charged to the account 






















1220 


SWINE. 


of their natural uncleanliness; and the idea that 
wholesome meat can not be made by feeding animals 
with garbage, has caused pork to become the horror Of 
dietetic reformers, who pronounce it unfit for human 
food. It were as wise to condemn the use of milk, 
and to pronounce cows unfit for civilized communities, 
because some individuals persist in confining them in 
filthy stables, and dosing them with distillery slops. 
In his native state, the hog is as dainty in his taste as 
other animals, and his lair is found in a dry situation, 
well cushioned with clean leaves, unsoiled by any 
neglect of his own. It would be within the mark to 


say that in most instances, twenty per cent of saving 
can be effected in food, and in additions to the manure 
heap, by a well regulated building for the accommo¬ 
dation of swine. 

The plan. Fig. ii, combines the requisites, with 
many of the conveniences, of adesirable pig-pen. The 
engraving shows one complete pen, with its divisions. 

A row of these pens may be built as ?. long shed, and 
the description of one will answer for all. 'I'he pen is 
twenty feet long from front to rear, by eight feet wide. 
The posts at the front are ten feet high, and at the 
rear seven feet. A feed passage runs along the front 
of the pens, shown at a. The feeding and sleeping 
apartment is shown at b. At c is a passage which also 
runs along the whole building,but which,when closed 
by the doors, makes the passage a part of the yard, 
d. The feed passage, a, is three feet wide. The 
feeding place, b, is ten feetdeep by eightfeet in width; 
the passage,is three feet wide, and the yard, four 
feet, making the whole space of the yard seven by ^ 
eight feet when the passage is closed. When the 
passage is opened the door, <•/, closes the openingfrom i 
the yard into the feeding place, and the occupants of I 
the pens are shut up. Any pig that may have to be > 
moved from one pen to another can then be driven : 
without any difficulty wherever it may be desired. A | 
swinging door in the rear may be made to allow the 
pigs to pass in or out of the barnyard or the pasture, 
if one is provided for them. But generally it will be 
found better to have the pens built upon one side of 
the barnyard, so that the pigs may be used to work 


up any materials for manure or compost that may be 
at hand for the purpose. The floor of the pen should 
be, in part at least, of plank; that of the yard maybe 
of pavement, of cobble-stone, or of cement, but should 
be so laid that it can not be torn up. A tight roof 
should cover the whole, and sliding windows at the 
rear and front will provide good ventilation. This is 
very important for the comfort of the animals in hot 
weather. The floor of the pens should slope back¬ 
wards at least two inches in ten feet, and the yards 
ought to be well drained. A bar is fixed around the 
bottom of the pen, about six inches above the floor, 
and projects about six inches from the side for the 
purpose of preventing the young pigs from being 
overlaid by the sow and smothered. A large quan¬ 
tity of waste material may be worked up in these 
yards, and will add much to the comfort and 
cleanliness of the pigs. 

The framework of these pens should be of six 
by six timber for the sills, four by four for the 
posts, and two by four for the girts and tops and 
bottoms of the partitions. The whole quantity of 
lumber needed for one complete pen would be 
1,200 feet, consisting of 8o linear feet of six by 
six timber, 6i linear feet of four by four posting, 
and 77 linear feet of two by four scantling, 104 
feet surface of two-inch plank, and 500 feet of 
boards if the roof is of shingles. A row of ten of 
these pens, making a building 80 feet long, able 
to accommodate fifty or sixty pigs, would cost about 
three hundred and fifty dollars, completed. 

Slaughtering. For slaughtering hogs see page 
1142. 

Curing and Piukling Pork. See Bacon, Ham 
and page 967. 

Cooking Pork. See page 1043. 

DISEASES OF SWINE. 

Their Causes, Symptoms, Remedies. The diseases 
to which swine are liable are not very numerous, but 
some of them are notably fatal. These are due, of 
course, to the abnormal condition in which they are 
kept. In their wild state they are not afflicted with 
any of these maladies. Several of the following dis¬ 
eases are given as treated by A. R. Coleman, in his 
prize essay upon the diseases of swine. This essay 
was selected by the Swine Breeders’ Association as 
the best treatise upon the diseases of hogs yet written. 

Administering Medicine. In explanation of the 
prescriptions given in the article we wish to say that ^ 
they are given from the smallest to the largest doser, 
being adapted to small or large animals, say from fifty 
to two hundred and fifty pounds. It must be left to 
the operator’s discretion and judgment to suit indi¬ 
vidual cases. If the desired effect of any medicine 
is not produced after one or two doses, it should be 
given in smaller quantities and at shorter intervals 
until the effect is obtained. In reference to drench¬ 
ing hogs we wish to say that when medicine can pos- 



























































































POLAND CHINA HOGS, 


































































































































































































































































































SWINE. 


1223 


sibly be given in other ways, it is not advisable, as a 
drench given by force is liable to pass down the wind¬ 
pipe into the lungs as soon as the animal squeals dur¬ 
ing the operation, and frequently causes instant 
death. Again, when the hog is too sick to eat, our 
experience has taught us that to force medicine down 
the hog rarely assists nature in the restorative proc¬ 
ess, as the total loss of appetite usually indicates ap¬ 
proaching dissolution, although in some instances the 
sick hog refuses to eat for a day or two and yet recov¬ 
ers. Sometimes the sick hog will not eat in the morn¬ 
ing, yet eat during the day; therefore it is advisable to 
offer the animal some tempting food (in which the 
medicine is thoroughly mixed) occasionallyduring the 
day. 

To drench a large hog, take a cord, tie a running 
noose atone end, slip it into his mouth and back of 
the tushes, or canine teeth. Secure the other end to 
a post, fence-rail, staple, or any firm and convenient 
place, or let an assistant hold the end. When a hog 
is secured in this way he will always pull back, 
thus keeping the cord tight, and it is then not 
difficult to drench him. Take a piece of hard wood 
and shape it into a stick, flat atone end, and about an 
inch and a half wide, stand on the right side of the 
pig, reach over and insert the flat end between the 
teeth on the left side of the mouth, and then, by turn¬ 
ing the stick edgewise, the mouth will be opened suf¬ 
ficiently wide to admit of the introduction of a portion 
of the neck of a bottle, and also to prevent the latter 
being broken by the teeth. Insert the bottle on the 
right side of the mouth, but be careful to allow only a 
small quantity of the contents to enter the mouth at 
one time until swallowed; then there is no danger to 
be apprehended from choking. On no account allow 
the whole contents of the bottle to empty itself into 
the mouth and throat in one continuous stream; oth¬ 
erwise strangulation will be the inevitable result. 

In administering medicine it is by far the best 
way, if it can be accomplished, to mix and give it in 
their food; but this cannot always be done. The ani¬ 
mal may not always be able, either from weakness or 
other causes, to take it, for the medicine may be of a 
character not adapted to be given in that form, for 
either in taste or smell it may communicate to the 
food such an unpleasantness that the animal will pos¬ 
itively refuse to touch it. The sense of smell is par¬ 
ticularly well developed in the hog. Medicines of 
small bulk and emetics,when a speedy or certain effect 
is desired, are best given in solution as a drench, or 
when not possible to give medicine in the food drench¬ 
ing must be resorted to. In administering these, per¬ 
sons not accustomed to handling hogs will have great 
difficulty in doing so. To drench small pigs let an 
assistant seize the animal by the ears and slightly 
raise it, keeping the body secured between the legs. 

As a rule farmers give over-doses of medicine to 
their hogs and also to other animals. It is better to 
administer medium doses and repeat every twelve 
hours if necessary. Large doses not only debilitate 
the animal, but unfavorably affect the sense of taste 


and the hog soon becomes disgusted with all drugs 
and will refuse to take additional doses. 

Apoplexy. • This is a cerebral disorder, caused by 
an excessive determination of blood to the brain, or 
congestion, and may be produced by over-driving in 
hot w’eather, a too plethoric condition of the system, 
over-feeding, or by excitement. 

Symptoms. These are usually few at the outset, as 
the affection generally occurs with great rapidity. A 
restlessness may be observed, with bloodshot eyes and 
variable appetite, with constipation, and scanty ex¬ 
cretions of faeces and urine, or a comatose condition. 
The animal may be feeding, when it may be observed 
to suddenly stop, reel, stagger and fall dead—a quan¬ 
tity of froth or foam issuing from its mouth. 

Treatment. Apoplexy in the pig being a most fatal 
complaint, endeavor if possible to ascertain correctly 
and remove the exciting cause. If from a too plethoric 
condition of the system—owing to the nature of the 
food — the animal should be placed on low diet, and 
it might be advisable to administer an emetic, such as 
tartar emetic 3 to 8 grains, and white hellebore 2 to 
4 grains. Afterwards the following might be given: 
Epsom salts, 2 to 4 ounces; calomel, 3 to 10 grains; 
ginger, to 4 drachms in i pint of water. If very 
much constipated, use frequent clysters. Keep on 
low diet, and pay strict attention to cleanliness. The 
treatment of this disease is in the majority of cases 
anything but satisfactory; therefore the greatest atten¬ 
tion should be directed to the removal of the exciting 
cause, as a preventive measure for the w'elfare of 
the yet unaffected animals. 

Epilepsy. This disease is cerebro-spinal, and is 
generally organic; but it may be functional, and 
symptomatic of irritation in other parts, as in the 
stomach, intestines, or other organs; although up to 
the present time little light has really been thrown on 
its nature. It is due most probably to some lesion or 
peculiar morbid condition of the nervous system, 
and may be to some peculiar condition of the blood, 
probably arising from defective nutrition,or it may be 
due to worms, or parasites. It is characterized by 
sudden fits. 

Symptoms. These mainly comprise severe convul¬ 
sions, with coma, and foaming at the mouth. The 
animal may be in apparent health, and without any 
previous manifestations of disorder, or at all events 
may appear quite calm and conscious, w-hen, without 
any warning, a paroxysm will come on. If standing 
it may be observed to stagger, stare, and commence 
violently champing the jaws, with foaming at the 
mouth. The animal may then drop on its haunches 
and the fore-legs become rigid, the muscles of the 
neck contract, the head be throwm up, and violently 
thrown from side to side, or jerked upwards; the mus¬ 
cles of the body are also severely convulsed. Urine 
and faeces are discharged involuntarily, and the crea¬ 
ture breathes w'ith difficulty, the tongue often pro¬ 
trudes, and is badly bitten; at length the animal falls, 
straining, struggling and unconscious. 












1224 


SJVINE. 


I he mucous membranes are red and congested and 
the heart beats violently, the convulsive j>henomena 
speedily subsides and the animal regains its feet or 
else falls into a deep sleep. In severe forms the con¬ 
vulsions and death soon ensue; in others, the fits 
grow weaker and less frequent until they disappear 
altogether. As a rule they are never of very long 
duration. 

Treatment. This is not in the majority of cases at 
all satisfactory. Epilepsy is rarely recoverable. As¬ 
suming the affection to have no other origin than that 
of a purely nervous disorder, extract of belladonna, 5 
to 20 grains, would appear to be indicated; but if the 
abnormal action can be traced to worms, then their 
eradication should be provided for. Whatever may 
be the exciting cause, endeavor to remove it. Good 
food, proper housing, attention to the general com¬ 
fort and opportunity for exercise are indispensable. 
At the period of attack little can be done; the dash¬ 
ing (jf cold water over the head is the most proper 
course to pursue. After the seizure has passed, ex¬ 
isting irregularities may then receive attention, and 
their removal attempted. A very useful vermifuge is 
areca nut pulverized in i-drachmdoses, given fasting, 
and afterwaras followed by a purgative, such as Ep¬ 
som salts, 2 to 6 ounces, or Castor oil, 2 to 4 ounces. 
With the exception of the Epsom salts, which might 
be given in the food, the other three medicines had 
better be administered in the form of a drench. 

Cholera; Anthrax; Typhus; Cyanosis; Ery¬ 
sipelas; Garb unculosus; Castro-Enteritis. This 
disease is known by the vernacular or common names 
of distemper, red soldier, red disease, blue sick¬ 
ness, blue disease, hog cholera and measles. It is a 
subject respecting which there is a great diversity of 
opinion, some regarding it as typhus, others as 
anthrax hence the various appellations. It is un¬ 
doubtedly a blood disease. It is a malady that ap¬ 
pears first to affect the digestive organs, and then the 
blood undergoes changes favorable to translations, 
which occur in different parts of the body. By most 
authorities it is considered contagious. 

This disease has been so terrible in its devastating 
effects, and so great a pecuniary loss to the farmers 
of this country, that we will speak of it more in detail 
than other diseases require. 

History of the Disease. During the year 1856 
there appeared in the New England States occasional 
cases of sickness of a peculiar nature among the 
hogs. In the two following years this disease extend¬ 
ed into the States of New York, Pennsylvania and 
Maryland. Many farmers in the counties of Adams 
and York, Pennsylvania, in 1858, lost almost their 
entire stock of swine. 

During the year 1859 it traveled westward through 
Pennsylvania and Ohio and reached the miasmatic 
districts of the Wabash river in the Southern portion 
of Indiana and Illinois, where it multiplied and de¬ 
veloped rapidly, and of a malignant type; especially 
in such parts of the country where torpidity of the 


liver, intermittent, bilious and typhoid fevers, prevailed 
in the human family. It is claimed by some that the so- 
called hog cholera was endemic in the Western States 
several years prior to 1859, but we have not found 
any authenticated account of its previous existence. 

Since the year 1859, the hog disease has spread 
West, North and South, throughout the United States 
and Territories. It appears in some seasons epi¬ 
demic, other seasons endemic. 

Probable Origin of Hog Cholera. For ages hogs 
have been kept in filth and dirt, and in many in¬ 
stances in closely confined pens, and fed in their own 
offal, and were obliged to drink in dirty, filthy troughs, 
or in stagnant pools of water, filled with myriads of 
poisonous germs. The hogs were not only compelled 
to eat their food mixed and highly flavored with their 
own manure, but to remain for months in close prox¬ 
imity to the same. Many of the pig-sties were walled 
in by a tight board fence, which excluded pure air; ■ 
consequently they were obliged to breathe the foul 
and noxious gases loaded with disease germs con¬ 
stantly arising therefrom. The smell of an ancient 
hog pen is sufficient proof, and should satisfy all 
doubters on this point. 

Year after year hogs have been kept in the same 
pen, or yard, amid a constant accumulation of swine 
discharges, filth and decomposing organic substances. 
The ground became saturated with putrescent matter; 
the moisture and requisite temperature in hot weather 
induced decomposition and putrefactive fermentation, 
which yielded septic germs. The disease germs be¬ 
ing inhaled into the lungs of the swine, they were 
thus planted in the blood during its circulation 
through the lungs. 

If the swine were not made apparently sick from 
the effect of the poisonous germs, their systems were 
weakened, and the liver generally deranged, the 
poison acted directly on that organ; and the disease 
was transmitted to their offspring, which in turn 
were likewise subjected to the same routine of filthy 
treatment administered to their progenitors, and thus 
further charged their systems with disease germs. 

This hereditary diseased condition, together with 
the direct and constant reception of the septic germs, 
cumulative poison, during several swine generations, 
most effectually loaded the swine system with dis¬ 
ease, until at last the time had arrived, the swine 
constitution succumbed; the heroic and repeated 
rallying efforts of Nature failed; the burden of disease 
could no longer be borne; the last straw broke the 
hog’s back; the septic germs developed in the swine 
system, a new disease was born, and was named 
hog cholera. 

Remedies and Sivindling Hog-Cholera Receipts. 
About all the poisons usually kept in the drug stores 
have been given to hogs within the past few years. 
Hogs have been dosed with arsenic, antimony, calomel, 
copperas, blue vitriol, and other poisons, in hopes 
that some might prove a cure or preventive. Persons 
have been traveling through the country peddling 
“ sure-cure and preventive receipts for hog cholera,” 














SWINE. 


1225 


for which they get from the farmers, who are anxious 
to find something to stop the terrible ravages upon 
their stock, from $5 to ^50 for each receipt. These 
are nothing but swindles, and no farmer should pay a 
cent for such knowledge. These men know nothing 
or but little of the disease and of course their remedies 
are worthless and even hurtful. Here is one for which 
a farmer paid $10, for it was warranted a sure cure 

“Take calomel, poke root, wild cherry bark, mu¬ 
riatic acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, oxalic acid, 
pyroligneous acid, phosphorus, plantain, arsenic, 
ipecac, Indian or wild turnip, arnica, Peruvian 
bark, sulphurous acid and potash, equal parts. 
Dose, I pound for 10 hogs every 6 hours until the hog 
needs no more.” 

In commenting upon the foregoing we will state 
that wild cherry bark, plantain and Peruvian bark 
are harmless. Ipecac and wild turnip may be taken 
in moderate quantities. The acids may be given in 
some diseases in small doses, well diluted with water. 
Calomel, arsenic and potash are well known {xjisons. 
Poke root and arnica, in large doses, are violent 
poisons. Hogs that take a dose of this wonderful and 
infernal mixture will never have a chance to die from 
the effects of “ hog cholera,” as a dose of this poison¬ 
ous combination will take care of the hogs long before 
“ hog cholera,” or any other disease, can affect the 
animal. Therefore, in this respect, this is a “ sure pre¬ 
ventive.” 

Symptoms. The premonitory signs occur late, are 
very transient, and are seldom observed; usually the 
death of one or more pigs, under mysterious circum¬ 
stances, first arrests attention. Some may then be 
noticed to be dull, not to seek for food or water, but 
to creep beneath the straw or any dark place, seeking 
quiet and isolation from the rest, carrying the head 
low and ears drooping. 

Signs of abdominal pains are often well marked, 
and there is a disposition to lie on the belly with fore¬ 
feet outstretched. 

In some cases there is a great cerebral disturbance 
and in others stupor, so that they may be either wild 
and frantic and utter cries, or else quite unconscious. 
Vomiting frequently occurs, the retching being often 
quite violent, and food may be vomited, or mucus 
and bile only. 

In the early stages the faeces are of normal consist¬ 
ence, and the urine pale. After a time diarrhoea sets 
in, and the excrement is then dark or black colored, 
and extremely offensive. There is a singular jerking 
or spasmodic breathing, complicated by congestion of 
the lungs, and usually a painful, irritating cough, 
which increases the general weakness. Great weak¬ 
ness of the hind parts is often noticed from the com¬ 
mencement of the attack, which increases as the dis¬ 
ease advances. The animal staggers when moving 
about, its limbs cross each other, and often at last are 
perfectly paralyzed. It is then often found that the 
creature cannot scream, and there is present a sub¬ 
dued hacking cough. The blood does not flow freely 
if a vein be opened, and ecchymosis occurs over the 


whole body. The discoloration of the skin and mu¬ 
cous membranes—suggesting so many names for the 
disease—commences some time before death, and oc¬ 
curs especially on the belly, inside of the thighs and 
fore-legs and behind the ears. Where the skin is 
thinnest it is especially noticeable. The red or pur¬ 
plish color disappears wherever the skin is pressed, 
except in parts where any extravasation of blood has 
occurred. In rapid cases, the mucous membrane is 
of a bluish red color, and in chronic cases it is of a 
dirty yellow color. The temperature of the body is 
at first increased, but afterwards it is lowered. Slight 
forms nowand then appear, which consist of discol¬ 
oration of the skin and loss of appetite, extending 
over a few days, when recovery follows; but in severe 
cases, the animals generally succumb in a very short 
space of time from the commencement of the attack. 

Post-mortem Appearances, The skin is black 
and blue, as if the animal had been bruised during 
life. The capillaries and moderate-sized veins of 
the skin and subcutaneous tissue are dark colored, 
and gorged with blood. A yellow serum is apt to 
accumulate wherever there is ramified redness. The 
serous and mucous membranes are studded with ec¬ 
chymosis, which are almost developed as a rule in the 
thoracic organs. Impaction of solid material in the 
intestines is frequently observed. The liver and 
spleen are usually congested and of a dark color, and 
the parenchyma of the liver more particularly is soft. 
The lungs are often much congested. The blood is 
dark, seems fluid, and coagulates very slowly. 

Treatment. When the disease breaks out, keep 
the animals on low diet, and promote action of the 
bowels by clysters; and give them an emetic—white 
hellebore 5 to 10 grains, or sulphate of zinc, 5 to 15 
grains, followed by purgatives. The following drench 
would be suitable: Epsom salts, 2 to 4 ounces; sul¬ 
phur, I to 2 ounces; and gentian and ginger, in pow¬ 
der, I to 2 drams, in about 2 pints of water. The dose 
must be regulated according to the size of the animal. 
The medicine should be given before diarrhoea sets in. 
Moderate exercise, fresh air and syringing, or sluicing 
the animal over with cold water, are measures to be 
recommended. 

Preventive measures should consist of cautious 
feeding in young growing animals, wholesome vegeta¬ 
ble diet, and a sparing allowance of only well cooked 
animal food, strict attention to cleanliness, and sepa¬ 
ration of the afflicted from the healthy animals. The 
sulphite or hypo-sulphite of soda, in about i to 2 
dram doses, five or six times a day, would act very 
well. It could be given in a little feed if the animal 
would take any. 

Dr. J. H. Detmars, an eminent and well known 
microscopist and biologist, who has been employed 
for years by our Government to investigate the 
so called hog cholera, classifies the diseases un¬ 
der the single general head of epizootic and enzo¬ 
otic diseases of swine, or epizootic influenza of 
swine, but assuming different characteristics, as the 
catarrhal-rheumatic form, the gastric-rheumatic form. 









1226 


^ PV/Ar£. 


the cerebro-rheuniatic form, and the lymphatic-rheu¬ 
matic form. The treatment which he recommends is 
as follows: The treatment may be divided into two 
parts, a hygienic and a medical. The former, which 
includes a removing of the causes, is, in this, as in 
most other cases, of very great importance. If the 
causes are promptly removed, a great many sick ani¬ 
mals not already too far gone may be saved. If the 
same are not, the very best medical treatment will be 
of little avail. The sick animals must be separated 
from the herd, must be provided with a clean and dry 
resting-place, must have pure air to breathe, clean 
water to drink and healthy, clean and easily digested 
food to eat. He recommends giving to each hog at 
the beginning of the disease a good emetic, composed 
either of powdered white hellebore ( Verat> tii?i allmvi) 
or of tartar-emetic, in a dose of about one grain for 
each month the sick animal is old, provided the latter 
is of good average size. I’he largest dose to be given 
a full-grown animal should not exceed fifteen or six¬ 
teen grains. The emetic is best administered by mix¬ 
ing the same with a piece of boiled potato, or, if 
the hellebore (which he prefers) is chosen, strewing 
the powder on the surface of a small quantity of 
milk, as neither boiled potato nor milk will be refused 
by any hog unless the animal is very sick, and in that 
case it will be too late to make use of an emetic. 

After the desired action has been produced the 
pimal will appear to be very sick, and will try to hide 
itself in a dark corner, but two or three hours later it 
will make its appearance again, and will be willing to 
take a little choice food, such as a few boiled potatoes, 
a little milk, etc. At this time it will be advisable to 
again give a small dose of medicine, either a few 
grains (two or three to a full-grown animal and to a 
pig in proportion) of tartar-emetic or of calomel. Mix 
with a piece of boiled potato, or, if the symptoms 
should not have returned, mix with a small pinch of 
flour and a few drops of water (sufficient to make a 
stiff dough) and form into small round pills. 

The tartar-emetic has to be chosen if the disease 
has its principal seat in the respiratory organs or i)re- 
sents itself in its catarrhal-rheumatic form, and the 
calomel deserves preference if the gastric or bilious- 
rheumatic form is prevailing, but especially if the liver 
is seriously affected. Either medicine may be given 
in such small doses as mentioned three times a day 
for several days in succession, or until a change for 
the better becomes apparent. It is also advisable, 
particularly if the disease exhibits a very typhoid 
character, now and then to mix for each animal a few 
drops carbolic acid with the drinking water or with the 
slops. Convalescent animals, which have become 
very weak and emaciated, will be benefited bv giving 
them once a day from a few grains to half a drachm 
of sulphate of iron (copperas) mixed with their food, 
but the use of iron must be discontinued if the patients 
become constipated or if the excrements turn black. 
Those convalescents in which the lungs have become 
hepatized to a considerable extent may receive re¬ 
peatedly small doses of carbonate of potash for the 


purpose of promoting the absorption of the exuda¬ 
tions deposited in the tissue of the lungs. The size 
of the dose of carbonate of potash as well as of iron 
depends upon the size and the age of the animal. A 
local or external treatment is also of considerable im¬ 
portance. A good counter-irritant or blister, composed 
of cantharides, or Spanish flies, and oil, made by boil¬ 
ing one ounce of the former and four ounces of the 
latter for half an hour over a moderate fire, or for one 
hour in a water-bath, should be applied on both sides 
the chest in all such cases in which the organs situated 
in that cavity are seriously affected. Such a counter- 
irritant has usually a ve^ beneficial result. In most 
cases one application will prove sufficient to relieve 
the animal to a considerable extent, provided the oil 
is thoroughly rubbed in before the disease has made 
too much headway, or before the vitality of the or- 
ga,nism has been destroyed. If the effect of the fly- 
blister proves insufficient, it may be applied again the 
next day ; but if the same produces no effect at all, it 
may be taken as an indication that the animal is going 
to die, and that any further treatment will be useless. 

In relation to prevention and treatment, Dr. Det- 
mars, in a late report, says: The worst thing that 
possibly can be done, if swine-plague is prevailing in 
the neighborhood, is to shelter the hogs and pigs un¬ 
der or in an old straw or hay stack, because"nothing 
is more apt to absorb the contagious or infectious 
principle, and to preserve it longer or more effectively 
than old straw,hay,or manure-heaps composed mostly 
of hay or straw. It is even probable that the conta¬ 
gion of swine-plague, like that of some other conta¬ 
gious diseases, if absorbed by, or clinging to, old straw 
or hay, etc., will remain effective and a source of 
spreading the disease for months, and may be for a 
year. Therapeutically, but little can be done to pre¬ 
vent an outbreak of swine-plague. Where it is suf¬ 
ficient to destroy the infectious principle outside of 
the animal organism, carbolic acid is effective and, 
therefore, a good disinfectant; but where the conta¬ 
gious or infectious principle has already entered the 
animal organism its value is doubtful. Still, wherever 
there is cause to suspect that the food or the water 
for drinking may have become contaminated with the 
contagion of swine-plague, it will be advisable to give 
every morning and evening some carbolic acid, say 
about ten drops for each animal weighing from 120 to 
150 pounds, in the water for drinking; and wherever 
there is reason to suspect that the infeclious principle 
may be floating in the air, it will be advisable to treat 
eveiy wound or scratch a hog or pig may happen to 
have immediately with diluted carbolic acid. During 
a time, or in a neighborhood in which swine-plague is 
P^^^^dmg, care should betaken not to ring or castrate 
any pig or hog, because every wound, no matter how 
small, is apt to become a port of entry for the infectious 
principle, and the very smallest amount of the latter 
IS sufficient to produce the disease. Still, all these 
minor measures and precautions will avail but little 
unless a dissemination of the infectious principle, or 
disease germs, is made impossible. 


















SWINE. 


1227 


To prevent the spreading of the disease the fol¬ 
lowing precautionary measures should be taken; 
Any transportation of dead, sick, or infected swine, 
and even of hogs or pigs that have been the least ex¬ 
posed to the contagion, or may possibly constitute the 
bearers of the same, must be effectively prohibited. 
Every one who loses a hog or pig by swine-plague 
should be compelled by law to bury the same imme¬ 
diately, or as soon as it is dead, at least four feet deep, 
or else to cremate the carcass at once, so that the 
contagious or infectious principle may be thoroughly 
destroyed, and not be carried by dogs, wolves, rats, 
crows, etc., to other places. Another thing may yet 
be mentioned, which, if properly executed, will at 
least aid very materially in preventing the disease: 
thatis, to give all food either in clean troughs, or, if corn 
in the ear is fed, to throwiton a wooden platform which 
can be swept clean before each feeding. If the cause 
and the nature of the morbid process and the character 
and importance of the morbid changes are taken into 
proper consideration, it cannot be expected that a ther¬ 
apeutic treatment will be of much avail in a fully 
developed case of swine-plague. 

Fatty Degeneration in Pigs. Of the first symp¬ 
toms of this fatal ailment Dr. N. H. Paaren, Illinois 
State Veterinarian, Says that sometimes within a day 
or two after birth, the pigs will be singularly quiet, 
making little resistance to being taken hold of, and 
showing a slowness to seek the mother when placed 
a distance from her. Apparently the young animals 
are in good condition, but their actions contradict the 
appearance. A state of general helplessness, or par¬ 
tial paralysis soon results, beginning at the hinder 
extremities and increases until the fore parts become 
involved. Sometimes the pigs will quit sucking the 
next day, or a few days after birth, and will stand 
around, or lie down quietly and suddenly die, without 
having shown any marked symptoms of disease at all, 
and so far as can be seen, without much suffering. 
Others, while having a good appetite, and having 
plenty of milk from the mother, will in the course of 
* a week or longer, gradually grow thinner and weaker 
until death ensues. Others will become corpulent, 
and even lay on considerable fat, but still die of ex¬ 
haustion. Often a few of a litter will begin scouring 
badly, or become bloated, without any known cause 
and soon die off. Again, apparently healthy pigs will 
suddenly become affected with partial or general 
paralysis, or with cramps, and speedily die. Dr. 
Paaren says that he has been informed of whole lit¬ 
ters being carried off in the various manners described. 

In the main, the Doctor states, a post-mortem ex¬ 
amination always reveals the same conditions. There 
is a general want of blood, and a consequent paleness 
of all the organs, especially of all the muscles, which 
appear attenuated, flabby and frail. Frequently the 
muscles have such a bacon-like glossiness that only 
by the closest inspection can sections thereof be 
recognized as muscle. Examination under the mi¬ 
croscope reveals fatty degeneration of the muscular 
structure. Sometimes the entire muscular fiber seems 


to be made up of granular matter, and often there is 
not the slightest appearance of transverse striae on the 
muscular fiber, which appears to be composed of 
minute and highly refracting globules of oil. Pigs 
that die soon after birth, generally show an imperfect 
development of fatty tissue, and many of them are 
even very lean. Thus, the Doctor shows that a state 
of fatty degeneration does not consist of an excessive 
development of fat between the muscles, with an 
atrophied state of the latter; but on the contrary, is a 
morbid alteration of the muscular fibers themselves, 
whose contractile substance is transformed into fat. 

In consequence of the fatty degeneration. Dr. Paaren 
proceeds to say, the efficacy of the affected organs is 
materially lessened, and naturally the young pigs dis¬ 
like exercise and soon become helpless. The degen¬ 
eration of the respiratory muscles and the muscles of 
the heart causes imperfect breathing and circulation 
of the blood. If the digestive organs, the liver, the 
pancreas and the pepsin glands are in a state of fatty 
degeneration, they cannot perform their offices, assim¬ 
ilation is imperfect and the production of blood can¬ 
not take place. The blood being poor, the general 
state of weakness is increased, and the further per¬ 
fection of fatty degeneration promoted. The general 
weakness thus produced is a sufficient cause of fa¬ 
tality. 

The causes of fatty degeneration in pigs are not 
always the same. Sometimes it is congenital. It has 
been clearly established that it often develops in the 
foetus. That they are born in apparently perfect con¬ 
dition, is owing to the fact that until their birth they 
are protected from external influences, and are sus¬ 
tained by nourishment fully prepared in the shape of 
the blood of the mother. As soon as it is born, how¬ 
ever, and becomes dependent for its sustenance upon 
resources from without, which must be digested and 
assimilated through its own vital powers, the young 
animal is in danger of a collapse from its inherent 
weakness; and if it does not succumb soon after its 
birth, it is apt to succumb sooner or later to diseases 
which are due to fatty degeneration. 

Dr. Paaren claims this disease is one of the banes 
of high breeding and in-and-in breeding. Want of 
proper exercise and too high keeping of the sows are 
very liable to increase this morbid tendency. In-and- 
in breeding, he claims, judiciously practiced, is not 
objectionable, but when close breeding is persisted in 
while animals are continually kept in an abnormal 
condition of body (which is the case under the pres¬ 
ent system of feeding), evil consequences will sooner 
or later become manifest. Medical treatment in such 
cases as this of course is futile. 

Foot-and-Mouth Disease; Epizootic Aphthze. 
This is a contagious eruptive fever, affecting all 
warm-blooded animals, and attacking men, under cer¬ 
tain circumstances, as readily as any of our domestic 
quadrupeds. The contagious matter is discharged 
in great abundance with the saliva, and from the 
vesicles which form in and about the mouth, also on 
' the teats and feet. The virus adheres to the wood- 







1228 


SIVINE. 


work, litter, floors, roads and whatever the afifected 
animals come in contact with, and is thence com¬ 
municated to healthy animals coming after them. 

Symptovis. The disease is invariably characterized 
by a brief period of incubation, varying from twenty- 
four hours to three or four days. The earlier symp¬ 
toms are usually ushered in by a shivering fit, 
succeeded by a slight dullness. A vesicular eruption 
soon occurs.in the mouth and on the digits, and in 
female animals usually also on the teats. There is a 
tendency in young animals, when sucking the dam or 
drinking the milk from affected animals, to a similar 
eruption on the fauces and pharynx, with irritation of 
the larynx and of the whole digestive tract. Diar- 
^ rhaa in these cases tends to exhaust the young 
animals, whose sore mouths prevent the taking of 
food. The eruption in the mouth is first indicated 
by smacking of the lips, and champing of the jaws, 
and great salivation. The pain is evidently intense. 
If the mouth be examined, vesicles will be found on 
the tongue, and on the inner surface of the lips and 
cheeks. In a short time the vesicles burst, and the 
red, painful spots thus exposed are soon covered by 
epithelium in favorable cases, whereas in others un¬ 
healthy ulcers develop. When the eruption occurs 
on the feet, it is observed around the coronet, and in 
the inter-digital space. The intense pain, inability 
to stand, lameness and swelling above the hoofs, are 
usually the first signs noticed. The animal is in¬ 
clined to lie down the greater portion of the time, 
and to utter screams, accompanied with much champ¬ 
ing of the jaws, and salivation if compelled to move. 
There is a great tendency to sloughing of the hoofs, 
and pregnant sows frequently abort; emaciation 
occurs, the poor sufferer being unable to take food, 
owing to the intense pain in the mouth. There is 
also more or less constitutional fever, often attended 
by a cough. In favorable cases all symptoms of 
fever usually subside by the sixth day, the appetite is 
restored, and convalescence well established by the 
ninth or tenth day. In cases of a fatal termination, 
the fever runs high, ulceration spreads, the animal 
becomes exhausted, the hoofs slough off, the blood 
becomes impure, and death generally occurs about 
the ninth or tenth day. In the majority of cases the 
disease is mild. 

Treatment. Although epizootic aphthae is not often 
a fatal disease, still attention must be paid to proper 
treatment. The use of laxatives and salines must be 
resorted to, and the affected parts should be dressed 
with chlorine water or carbolic acid, one part to 
twenty or forty parts of water,—or other antiseptic 
and healing dressings. It is hardly necessary to at¬ 
tempt to feed when the animals are suffering from 
this disease, except allowing them their slops or gruel. 
The preventive measures should be strict-isolation of 
the affected animals from the healthy ones, the plac¬ 
ing of suspected ones in quarantine, and the free use 
of disinfectants about the premises. 

Keep all the suppurating surfaces clean, especially 
about the hoofs. One might use some of the following 


applications: Chloride of zinc, 2 drams; tincture 
of inyrrh, i ounce, and water, i pint. Or, carbolic 
acid, I ounce; glycerine, 12 ounces; tincture of 
myrrh, i ounce; water, i pint. Or, Condy’s Fluid, i 
tea-cupful; water, i pint. Attend well to ventila¬ 
tion and cleanliness and to the general comfort. The 
sulphite or hyposulphite of soda given in to i 
dram doses three or four times a day is good. It is 
also a good antiseptic and healing gargle for the 
mouth. 

Fractures in Swine. These occasionally occur in 
hogs, but in the way of treatment little can be done. 
If -slight, they had better be left entirely for nature 
to effect a cure; but if serious and the animal is in 
proper condition, it should be killed at once for food. 
From its obstinate, intractable nature but little can 
be accomplished in the way of treatment. 

Mange or Itch. This is a skin disease of purely 
a local nature, and is caused by an insect {sarcoptes)^ 
a species of acarus, which induces irritation, ulcera¬ 
tion, suppuration and incrustation on the surface of 
the body generally. 

It is a contagious disease, never oiiginatlng spon¬ 
taneously, and requiring for development the passage 
of either the parasites or their eg_gs from diseased to 
healthy animals. The pig is, perhaps, less affected by 
this troublesome disorder than other animals; any 
way it is the least observed. 

Symptoms. Much irritation and itching occurs, 
the animal manifesting great uneasiness, continually 
rubbing itself, and does not thrive. The insect is 
situated under the scales of the cuticle, and very dif¬ 
ficult generally to detect, but may sometimes be found 
by a powerful magnifying lens. 

Treatment. Apply topically any of the following 
dressings: Carbolic acid, i ounce, to water, 16 ounces* 
or mercurial ointment; but care should be taken not 
to apply these to too great a surface of the body at 
one time. Another dressing is oil of tar, sulphur, and 
linseed oil, equal parts, or creosote, i ounce, spirits 
01 wine, 15 ounces, and water, 16 ounces. All the 
premises and articles coming in contact with the 
affected animals should be thoroughly cleansed or 
destroyed. Of course all unaffected animals must be 
kept from coming in contact with affected ones. Se¬ 
questration must be strictly observed and enforced. 
Measles; Rubeola. Measles may be defined as 
a contagious febrile disease, characterized bv catar¬ 
rhal symptoms, and the presence of a rash under the 
skin with the disappearance of fever. It has often 
been confounded with small-pox. The term measles 
has been most erroneously applied to two diseases of 
the pig, the one being a parasite malady, due to the 
existence of Cysticercus cellulosus in the muscular 
system; and the other a disease of the blood of a 
grangrenoiis character, usually associated with severe 
gastro-imestinal derangement, and well known as 
hog cholera,” “blue sickness,”etc. Very little is 
really known with regard to this malady. It is not 
known whether it is one and the same disease in man 




















SWINE. 


1229 


and these animals, or whether it is transmissible from 
animals of one species to those of another. 

Sy/nptof/is. From what has been observed of this 
disease, it appears to consist of irritative fever, with 
catarrhal symptoms, swelling of the head and throat, 
constipation usually, and loss of appetite. Irregular 
eruptions commonly begin to appear about the second 
or thiid day, which are generally confined to the in¬ 
sides of the thighs and fore legs, sides and under¬ 
parts of the body and face, and consists of a per¬ 
ceptible elevation, the redness of which disappears on 
pressure. In the center of these elevations a percepti¬ 
ble hardness is felt; usually after the expiration of 
another day a red papulous eruption takes place from 
the central points of hardness, and gradually in two 
or three days more the acute signs are allayed, the 
spots become brown colored, the cuticle peels off, and 
perfect subsidence usually takes place by the ninth 
or elevenih day. Sometimes complications occur, as 
diarrhoea or inflammation of the lungs, these often 
proving fatal. With the first symptoms of the fever 
there is generally cough, vomiting, redness of the 
eyes and flow of tears. 

'rreatmcnt. As soon as the disease is ascertained 
to be present, the sick animals should be separated 
from the healthy ones; and those that have been in 
contact with them, it would be well to place in quar¬ 
antine. Strict attention should be paid to cleanliness 
and general comfort, and free ventilation, yet allow¬ 
ing a warm temperature. The bowels require to be 
kept open with gentle laxatives, and mild doses of 
salines are useful. Feed with warm, sloppy, easily 
digested food, and have plenty of cold, clean water 
always accessible. It is not by any means a dan¬ 
gerous disease if proper care is taken of the patient 
and complications do not occur. 

If much fever is present it would be well to give 
three or four times a day as a drench, potassium-car¬ 
bonate, Yz a drachm to i drachm ; sodium-carbonate, 
20 to 40 grains; Epsom salts, i to 2 ounces. Dis¬ 
solve in from a half to a pint of water. These doses 
must be regulated according to the size of the ani¬ 
mal, the smallest dose being suitable for pigs of 
about 50 lbs. weight, and the largest for animals of 
200 lbs. and upwards. 

Parturient Paralysis. The sow is sometimes 
attacked by this affection. The most frequent cause 
is exposure when the sow is in a too plethoric condi¬ 
tion at the time of parturition. 

Treatment. Care should be used in permitting her 
pigs not to worry her. They should be kept from her, 
or only allowed to nurse at certain times, though 
usually the milk dries up. Give a sufficient purgative 
to move the bowels; then administer salines, and if 
there be much fever give sedatives; or if she be very 
weak give stimulants, as mix vomica, 5 to 20 grains 
twice daily, until the desired effects are produced. 

Pleuropneumonia. This disease may be divided 
into two forms. One, sporadic or enzootic pleuro¬ 
pneumonia, which occurs spontaneously, and is in¬ 


fluenced by climate, season, and location. It is not 
usually fatal, and is generally considered not to be 
propagated by contagion, but common to all animals. 
The other, epizootic pleuro-pneumonia, is a malig¬ 
nant form of inflammation of the lungs, of an emi¬ 
nently contagious character, and heretofore supposed 
to be peculiar to the ox species alone. 

That this latter form has its origin spontaneously, 
and afterwards spreads by contagion and infection, 
there can be no doubt whatever. By every means in 
our power, we should avoid, by preventive measures, 
the introduction of affected animals among healthy 
ones, because treatment in contagious pleuro-pneu¬ 
monia is a miserable failure. Happily our country 
has not suffered from its devastating ravages as have 
most of the older European countries. 

Sporadic jfleuro-pneumonia is in the majority of 
cases amenable to treatment; but whether after a cer¬ 
tain time, and under certain circumstances, it does, 
or does not, become a contagious affection, has not 
been definitely determined. 

Symptoms. Rigors, dullness, loss of appetite, or 
depraved appetite, often eating each other’s excrement; 
general debility; respiration much affected, a quick, 
spasmodic, labored breathing, with hard, dry, hacking 
cough, and in some cases swelling about the lower 
jaw, often coughing up through one or both nostrils 
mucus or coagulated blood, and sometimes lung sub¬ 
stance; also, either constipation or diarrhoea. When 
the latter occurs the faeces are usually black and 
extremely fetid. Toward the last stages the animals 
become emaciated, and in walking show staggering 
gait, often crossing the hind legs, and sometimes fall¬ 
ing. They are inclined to lie in moist, damp places. 
It is in the early stages of the disease that loss of ap¬ 
petite, rigors, dullness, cough, and the swelling of the 
lower jaw and throat are usually observed. 

In the early stages when breathing is very bad, 
Fleming’s tincture of aconite should be given, eight 
or ten drops, till as many as twenty, and to some even 
forty-five drops might be given with good results; also 
nitrate of potash, in about i-drachm doses. I’o a fair¬ 
sized hog should be given gentian i drachm, ginger i 
drachm, and about every alternate day,either sulphur 
or magnesium sulphate, from one to two ounces. In 
constipation, purgatives should be given in greater or 
less quantity until the desired effect is produced. Af¬ 
ter the first stages are passed, sulphate of iron may 
be given, Yz drachm daily. * After a time, every 
day or so, great benefits may result from strong 
counter-irritants, composed of mustard, turpentine and 
liquid ammonia, applied behind the shoulders. If 
there is much coarse hair, it should be cut off, and a 
blister applied with a stick once or twice a day. 

Quinsy; Cynanche tonsillaris. This disease is 
somewhat similar to a malignant sore throat, but 
chiefly manifesting itself on one side of the neck, and 
implicating the tonsil of that side. 

Symptoms. The bristles on the affected side are 
erected. There may be 12 or 15 of them sticking out 
















1230 


SWINE. 


and firm, and if they be pulled, or even touched, the 
animal screams with pain. The surface over which 
they are implanted, is depressed or cup-shaped, and 
of a dark bluish color. The animal becomes exceed¬ 
ingly dull, listless, deaf, and is continually lying; 
there is no desire to take any food, and if made to 
rise and move, it is very evident that the bodv is sup¬ 
ported with difficulty by the extremities; the breath¬ 
ing becomes laborious, the expired air hot and fetid; 
the mouth hot and foaming, and the lower jaw is con¬ 
stantly moved from right to left, or left to right; the 
eyes are bloodshot; there is either extreme of consti¬ 
pation or diarrhoea, and the evacuation of faeces seems 
to affprd some momentary relief. The animal usually 
becomes comatose, and may be asphyxiated in from 

24 to 48 hours, or linger on and die in convulsive fits, 
about the seventh, eighth or ninth day. 

Treatment. The affected animals should be in¬ 
stantly separated from the healthy ones, and, in the 
first stages, the affected tissues should if possible be 
either extirpated freely with the knife, or very deeply 
cauterized. Cold water, with vinegar and niter in it, 
should be allowed the animal. Gargling the throat 
frequently with chlorine water is beneficial. Admin¬ 
ister an emetic, such as white hellebore, 10 grains, or 
tartar emetic, 5 to 10 grains, or sulphate of zinc, 10 to 

25 grains. Afterwards a brisk purgative—say Kpsom 
salts, 3 to 6 ounces—if constipation is present, per¬ 
sisting in the free use of injections. Also give stim¬ 
ulants to support the animal through the attack. 
These constitute about the chief and only means that 
can be employed. Emetics in moderate doses—such 
as tartar emetic, 3 grains, ipecacuanha, 4 grains— 
giyen frequently, are very beneficial. All these med¬ 
icines must be given in the form of a drench. In garg¬ 
ling the throat the fluid must be thrown in from a 
small syringe. This can easily be done when the 
mouth is opened, either by an assistant’s hands, or by 
the insertion of a stick or other hard, suitable instru¬ 
ment. 

Rupture; Hernia. By hernia is meant the pro¬ 
trusion f)_f any organ or viscus, or part thereof, through 
an opening, either natural or artificial. The term 
hernia is most commonly applied to rupture or dis¬ 
placement of portions of the intestines, omentum or 
other abdominal organ. 

Hernia in the pig is of little consequence as com¬ 
pared with hernia in the horse; therefore, it will only 
be necessary to notice two or three of the most fre¬ 
quent forms in which it occurs in swine. 

Ventral or abdo 7 ninal hernia is a protrusion through 
an artificial opening in the abdominal walls. This 
may be caused by a direct injury, and is easily seen, 
and most frequently occurs in young animals. If it 
does not become strangulated, that is, constricted at 
the opening through which it has passed, there is little 
danger to be apprehended. Usually, little can or 
need be done in the way of surgical treatment. Ani¬ 
mals thus affected usually do very well, and fatten as 
readily as others not so injured, the pig not having 
to undergo any violent exertion, as in the case of the 


horse. It is advisable that the animal be kept quiet 
and comfortable, and fattened as speedily as possible, 
paying attention to the rupture, so thatshould any ob¬ 
struction or strangulation of the part occur, it may be 
slaughtered at once, in preference to trying any 
remedial measures. 

Umbilical hernia a protrusion through the naval 
opening. This occurs only to young animals at birth 
or very soon afterwards. It is often congenital. In 
early life, as the animal grows, it often retracts and 
disappears naturally. If it be very desirous to keep 
the animal for stock or show purposes, early bandag¬ 
ing should be adopted. 

Scrotal hernia is a descent of the intestine into the 
scrotum. This usually occurs in young animals, and 
is often not detected until the animal is castrated, 
when the portion of intestine will portrude through 
j the incision made by the operation. When this is the 
case, it should be returned as soon as possible, and a 
few stitches put through the scrotum, allowing a small 
dependent orifice for the escape of any matter that 
may form, but not sufficiently large to admit of the 
passage of the intestine. When so^^treated most cases 
usually do well. The animal should be kept quiet, 
and on rather a low, sloppy diet for a few days, and 
allowed plenty of clean water to drink. 

Sore Throat, Malignant; (Edefna glottidis. 
This disease consists of a rapid effusion and exuda¬ 
tion amongst the tissues comprising and surrounding 
the laryngeal opening and glottis, attended by great 
difficulty of breathing, in which life is jeopardized by 
interfering with respiration. From what is known 
concerning it, most authorities agree in classing it 
among the contagious diseases ; and from the sud¬ 
denness of its attack, and the rapidity with which it 
runs its course, it generally terminates fatally. 

Sympto 7 )is. This disease with the pig is character¬ 
ized by febrile symptoms, dullness, stiff gait and loss 
of appetite, quickly followed by difficult breathing, 
swelling and soreness of the throat and tongue, gasp¬ 
ing for breath, cough, heat of expired air, and great 
heat of back, bluish color of the buccal membranes, 
difficult deglutition, and symptoms of suffocation. If 
the animal is not too fat, externally and along the 
course of the trachea, a hard inflammatory swelling 
may be traced, often extending down to the fore ex¬ 
tremities; the breath is often extremely offensive, des¬ 
quamation of the epithelium occurs within the mouth 
and there is a great tendency to gangrene. The dis¬ 
ease may terminate fatally in from one to three days. 

Tre^at 7 ne 7 it. This is, in the majority of cases, most 
unsatisfactory; for generally the poor sufferer suc¬ 
cumbs to a disease which we appear to have no 
power to arrest, much less to cure. Happily it is of 
rare occurrence. In the early stage an active emetic 
might be given, such as tartar emetic, 4 grains; ipe¬ 
cacuanha, 6 grains; white hellebore 6 grains. Give 
either in food, or drench very carefully. If the ani- 
rnal will drink anything, or will eat a little, a purga¬ 
tive should be given, as, castor oil, 2 to 4 ounces; or 
raw linseed oil, i pint; or aloes, i to 2 drachms in 

















5 IV/JVE. 


1231 


solution. If the animal will drink water, dissolve in 
it a little hydro-chlorate of ammonia and niter, or 
sulphite or hypo-sulphite of soda, i drachm, and 
give several times daily. The application to the 
sides of the neck of rags wrung out of boiling water, 
or other active vesicant, would be beneficial. Also, 
as constipation is generally present, frequent injec¬ 
tions may be beneficial. 

In other animals, when the difficulty of breathing 
is great, tracheotomy might be’performed; but in the 
pig the operation is not practicable, it being far 
easier performed in theory than in practice. 

Preventive measures should be adopted in prefer¬ 
ence to curative. Great care should be exercised in 
handling or cutting the diseased flesh, as bad results 
might occur from having abrasions or cuts upon the 
hands. Other animals should not be allowed to eat 
any of the blood or flesh of diseased animals, and the 
carcasses of all that die from this disease should be 
buried deep and as soon after death as possible. 

Trichiniasis. The disease known in the human 
family by this name is due to a small species of entozoon 
or parasite, and appears to be generally found in the 
muscles of voluntary motion. Trichinae dwell in 
very minute cysts of an oblong figure. (See page 893.) 
AVhen taken with food, they multiply in the intestines, 
and then migrate to the muscles. There are also 
other varieties of Tania and hydatid parasites, pecu¬ 
liar to other animals, as sheep and cattle, from eating 
the flesh of which this or similar diseases may be in¬ 
duced in the human body. Pigs, and often cattle 
and sheep, suffer to a great extent from hydatids of 
the liver. These Cysticerci are apt to take up their 
abode also in the liver, mesentery and other internal 
organs of man, when consumed as food, especially 
when taken in a raw or underdone condition. 

Prevention in these cases is about all that can be 
done, as treatment is of little or no avail; for it is 
usually not until after death and in the cutting up of 
the meat that the disease is observed. If pigs were 
kept more enclosed, where they could have no possi¬ 
ble access to the excrement of human beings and 
dogs, the disease would be much less prevalent than 
it is now. 

It would appear that the embryos of the ova of 
Tania can affect only young pigs under a year old, 
because in older animals they cannot pierce through 
the tissues, as experiments performed with animals 
over a year old have generally failed. 

In some of the sparsely populated districts hogs 
might run at large without much risk of contracting 
disease, but in thickly populated districts swine should 
be kept and bred in enclosures. This is believed to 
be the only sure and proper way to prevent and keep 
this disease in subjection. 

Worms ; Cysticercus cellnlosus. The very inap¬ 
propriate term “ measles ” is applied to that morbid 
state induced by the presence of Cysticercus cellulo- 
sus in the muscular structure of swine. It is a purely 
parasitic disease, and depends for its origin on the 
78 


introduction, into the system of the pig, of the mature 
and fecundated ova of one or more species of tape¬ 
worm (7a?7/fa). From experiments and observations 
that have been made, it is now a conceded fact, that 
the tapeworm of man ( Tania soliuni) and the tape¬ 
worm of the dog ( Tania serrata), and probably of the 
wolf, will produce in the muscular system of the pig, 
the cystic form of parasite, the Cysticercus cellulosus 
and in the brain of sheep the Canurus cerebralis, or 
hydatid disease; and also, that both the Canurus cer- 
ebralis, or hydatid of the sheep, and the Cysticercus 
cellulosus, or measles cyst of the pig, will produce 
tapeworm in both man and dog. The ova of the 
tapeworm are taken into the system of the pig by feed¬ 
ing or swallowing them in human and canine excre¬ 
ment—afterwards developing—and the embryos are 
supposed to pierce and pass through the tissues, and 
are then carried through the large arterial vessels by 
the circulation until they reach their destination in 
the muscular system or structures. But it would ap* 
pear that this can happen only to young animals, 
the parasites not being able to make their way through 
the tissues of adults. 

Pigs are said to be born measly, and it is supposed 
that one of the most constant means whereby the dis¬ 
ease is propagated is by breeding from affected 
parents. Pigs affected with Cysticerci may become 
fat and never betray any sign of sickness, or the para¬ 
sites may be so numerous as to cause great constitu¬ 
tional disturbance. The flesh after death requires 
very careful examination to detect the cysts or blad¬ 
ders containing the parasites. They are often found 
beneath the internal membrane of the mouth, under 
the tongue, inner lining of the eye-lids and the mus¬ 
cles below the spine within the abdomen. The dis¬ 
ease is supposed not to be so prevalent now as for¬ 
merly, owing probably to the animals, not being 
allowed to run at large so much and get access to 
human excrement. Keep dogs clear of tapeworms 
by an occasional vermifuge; bury all excrement of 
dogs found in pastures, and kill all stray and worth¬ 
less curs. 

Wounds. These may be divided into incised, 
lacerated, punctured and contused. From wounds 
the pig appears to be particularly exempt, as com¬ 
pared with other and especially the larger animals. 
This may be owing to the short life usually allotted 
him, his small size, low form, peculiar habits, and his 
being also generally pretty well covered with fat, 
thus protecting to a great extent all vital and im¬ 
portant organs. ■ Where pigs are kept with cattle, 
they are sometimes punctured or gored by the horns 
of the latter, in which case the abdomen sometimes 
becomes lacerated, allowing part of the intestine to 
protrude. This, of course, is often attended with 
dangerous consequences. 

Treatment. This should be attended to as soon as 
possible, not allowing the protruding intestine to get 
cold. If the intestine is not broken, treatment is 
usually successful. First cleanse the part if dirty, 
using water about blood warm; then carefully return, 












1232 


5 WING-PLOIV—S YRPHUS PL V. 


t 


and bring the abdominal walls together, and secure 
by a few stitches, leaving long ends, and allowing 
these to hang out of the wound; next close the skin 
by stitches, but leave sufficient opening at the most 
pendent part, to pdlow the free exit of any matter that 
may accumulate. Of course the animal must be 
held down by assistants during the operation. After 
wards keep the bowels open by the use of injections 
of tepid water. Endeavor to prevent constipation by 
a laxative and cool diet, such as cooked vegetables, 
gruel, or the like. It is not advisable to give any 
drastic purgatives ; but if necessary to resort to 
medicines to relax the bowels, use castor or raw lin¬ 
seed oil, repeated every few hours until the desired 
effect is produced. If in warm weather, and there is 
much fever or heat about the injured parts, it would 
be well to shower or apply cold water, to which might 
be added a little laudanum, and if the discharge is 
very offensive, and there appears any tendency to 
take on a gangrenous character, a little carbolic acid, 
or chloride of lime, or permanganate of potash should 
be added to the water. A small quantity might be 
injected into the wound as well as bathing it ; but 
care must be taken not to inject much fluid into the 
abdominal cavity, on account of the danger to be ap¬ 
prehended from inflammation of the peritoneum or 
caul. 

Swingle-tree, a whiffle-tree, which see. The words 
swing-tree, single-tree and whipple-tree are also used 
in different sections of the country to designate the 
same object. 


Swing Plow, a plow with no wheels under the 
beam. 

Swiss Chard, a variety of white beet cultivated 
solely for its leaves, which are either juicy and used 
as greens, or are ornamental. The leaves are thick, 
having heavy midribs, which are served like asparagus, 
while the rest of the leaf is cooked as spinach. If 
often cut, new and more tender leaves will be repro¬ 
duced. It is also called “ Silver ” or “ Sea-Kale” beet. 

Sycamore, a coarse, large tree, common in bottom 
lands throughout the United States, and more prop¬ 
erly called “button-wood.” It belongs to the plane- 
tree family, and by some scientists has been called 
“American plane-tree.” 'I'he true “sycamore” of 
European literature is a different species, and is not 
found growing wild in this country. The American, 
or button-wood, is not valuable, its chief excellence 
being that it furnishes the best chop-blocks. The 
grain runs zigzag and the wood is therefore very hard 
to split; hence, poor for firewood. Being liable to 
warp greatly, it is of no account for lumber. 

Syringe (sir inj), a small tube, with a force valve> 
for injecting fluid into cavities. There. are many 
styles, and special forms for particular parts. .Some 
have flexible tubes, some inflexible. As scarcely any 
general disease can be properly treated without such 
an instrument, one or two of the most common forms 
should be in every household. 

Syrphus Fly, one of the insects beneficial to man. 
See pages 887, 889. 



1 








T 



^ABLE. On this subject scarcely any sug¬ 
gestions are called for in a practical encyclo- 
I pedia, as in the selection of any kitchen, 
dining-room, parlor or bed-room table the al¬ 
most universal practice must be to visit a furni¬ 
ture store and select what seems to suit best. 
Every one, of course, must have his fancy as to 
what is most convenient for his purposes. 'I'here 
are tables with and without drawers, leaves, castors, 
etc., and there are extension tables, square, oblong, 
round and oval, and for the parlor and bed-room are 
tables and stands with walnut top, marble top, or 
other style of finish, and of various degrees of ex¬ 
pense. 

Tackle, a pulley or machine with ropes and blocks 
for raising heavy weights. 


Tadpole, the young produced from the egg of the 
frog, which is extremely unlike the animal in its per¬ 
fect state, seeming to consist only of a head and tail. 
The head is large, black, and roundish; the tail slen¬ 
der and magnified with a broad, transparent fin. Its 
motions are very lively. Its food consists of small 
water plants and different animalculae. The mouth 
has very minute teeth. About five or six weeks after 
it is hatched, the first change takes place. The hind 
legs first appear, and gradually increasing in length 
and size, are succeeded, in about two weeks, by the 
fore-legs, which are formed at an earlier period be¬ 
neath the skin. The tail now decreases, so that, in a 
day or two it is quite obliterated. After this change 
the animal leaves the water and covers the shores in 
myriads. It has now become a perfect frog. Tad¬ 
poles, immediately after they are hatched, are per¬ 
fectly transparent; and, when placed before the 
double microscope, the pulsation of the heart may be 
easily seen, and the blood propelled thence may be 
observed in its passage through the whole body. 

Ta-feu (ta' fu), a fertilizer composed of night-soil 
and guano. 

Taflfety or Taffeta (taf' i-ty), a fine, smooth stuff 
of silk, having usually a remarkably wavy luster, im¬ 
parted by pressure and heat with the application of an 
acidulous fluid to produce the effect called “ water¬ 
ing.” It is of all colors, and is often striped with 
gold, silver, etc. 

Taffy, a kind of candy made of molasses boiled 
down and poured out in shallow pans. See Candy. 

Tail-race, the channel which carries off the water 
below a water-wheel. 


, Tallow, the harder ixrrtion of animal fat, abound- 
I ing especially in suet, from the ruminants, cattle, 

I sheep, goats and deer, although there are scarcely 
! any animals but a sort of tallow may be obtained 
1 from them. It consists principally of stearine, marga- 
j tine and oleine, and yields by distillation a large portion 
of oleic and margaric acids. Its ultimate constitu¬ 
ents are, 78.996 per cent, of carbon, 11.700 of hydro¬ 
gen, and 9.304 of oxygen. See the articles Suet, Fat 
and Oil. 

Tallow is used in medicine as an emollient and 
I demulcent; in pharmacy, to give consistency to plas- 
i ters and ointments; and in the arts, for dressing 
leather, for making candles and soap, and for other 
j purposes. Pure tallow is white and tasteless, and 
! differs little from pure lard except in greater density. 

To purify rancid tallow, melt it upon lime-water 
j and stir it rapidly and thoroughly. Let it stand until 
the water settles, and the work is done. Sometimes, 
however, the same process has to be repeated. By 
this means the impurities are worked out into the 
water below. 

Tallow Candles. The process of making tallow 
candles is explained in article Candles. 

Tamarind, the pod of a tropical tree, which is of 
the shape and size of a large bean pod. In the coun¬ 
tries where it grows it occasionally forms an article of 
food, in the form of confectionery, and is esteemed on 
account of its pleasant acid and cooling qualities, so 
useful in a warm climate. The tamarind is slightly 
cathartic. Sugar is used in preserving it. There is 
but little demand for it in the United States. 

Tame, reconciled to the presence of man. Cannot 
be properly said of plants; these are distinguished 
into “ wild ” and “cultivated.” 

Tannic Acid, the peculiar vegetable principle 
which combines with the gelatine of skins and con¬ 
verts them into leather. It can be separated from the 
vegetable substances which most abundantly contain 
it, and especially from gall-nuts, by any one of sev¬ 
eral chemical processes; and when separated and 
purified and dried, it is a white, odorless, fiercely 
astringent and uncrystallizable powder, very soluble 
in water and alcohol. 

It destroys the acidity of acids, or completely 
swallows it up in its ■ own astringency, and is de- 
com posed by nitric acid and by chlorine in a very 
obscure or complicated manner; and is precipitated 
by the carbonates of ammonia, by alumina, by the 
‘ alkaline earths, and by many of the oxides of the 












1234 


TANNING—TAFESTR Y. 


common metals. It forms with the peroxide and the 
protoxide of iron, a black-colored compound which, 
togetherwith gallate of iron, constitutes the basis of 
writing ink, and of the black dyes. 

Tanning. General recipe : Soak the hide eight or 
nine days in water, then put it in lime; take it out 
and remove the hair by rubbing it, and soak it in clear 
water until the lime is entirely out; then, for three or 
four days, soak the hide in water in which alum and 
salt have been dissolved, at the rate of r pound of 
alum and 3 of salt for an ox-hide. Take it out, let it 
get half dry, and then beat or rub it until it becomes 
pliable. This method, however, does not produce 
good leather for shoes. 

To Tan Soft Leather, for Gloves, etc. Take 
^ bushel of bran and 4 pailfuls of hot soft water; let 
it stand 24 hours; strain off and add 3 pounds of 
salt, ^ pound saleratus, 2 ix)unds of dissolved japon- ‘ 
ica, and ^ pound oil of vitriol; stir till all is well 
blended together. Let the hides remain in the dye 
from one to three days. Smaller quantities of the dye 
can be prepared by observing the proportions of ingre¬ 
dients. This makes as nice leather from squirrel, 
dog, cat, calf and sheep skins as can be desired for 
mittens, gloves, etc. 

To Tan Mink and Muskrat Skins. First wash 
the hide in warm water, and remove all fleshy and 
fatty matter. Then soak it in the following solution: 
10 gallons of cold soft water, to which is added 8 
quarts of wheat bran, pint of old soap and i ounce 
of borax. If the hides have not been salted, add i 
pint of salt. Green hides should be soaked 8 or 10 
hours, and dry ones till they are soft. To make tan 
liquor, to lo gallons of warm soft water add bushel 
of bran. Stir it well and let it stand in a warm room 
until it ferments; then add slowly 2j4 pounds of sul¬ 
phuric acid, stirring all the time. Let the hide remain 
in about 4 hours, then take out and work over a beam 
until dry. 

To Tan Buckskins. Take a skin either green or 
well soaked, and flesh it with a dull knife; spread the 
skin on a smooth log and grain it by scraping it with 
a sharp instrument; rub nearly dry over the oval end 
of a board held upright. Take the brains of a deer 
or calf, dry by the fire gently, put them into a cloth 
and boil until soft, cool off the liquid until blood-warm, 
with water sufficient to soak the skin in, and soak un¬ 
til quite soft and pliable, and then wring out as dry 
as possible; wash in strong soap-suds and rub dry< 
and smoke well with wood smoke. Instead of brains, 
oil or lard may be used, and the skin soaked therein 
six hours. 

To Cure Sheep-Skins, with the Wool on. Take 
a spoonful of alum and two of saltpeter; pulverize 
and mix well together, then sprinkle the ^xiwder on 
the flesh side of the skin, and lay the two flesh sides 
together, leaving the wool outside. Then fold up the 
skin as tight as you can, and hang it in a dry place. 
In two or three days, or as soon as it is dry, take it 
down and scrape it with a blunt knife, till clean and 


supple. This completes the process, and makes you 
a most excellent saddle cover. If, when you kill your 
mutton, you treat the skin this way, you can get more 
for them from the saddler than you can get for the 
wool and skin separately disposed otherwise. 

To Cure Rabbit-Skins. First lay the skin on a 
smooth board, placing the fur side under, and fasten 
the skin to the board with tinned tacks. Wash it 
over with a solution of salt; then dissolve \ Y. ounces 
alum in one-half pint of warm water, and with a 
s^xuige dipped in this solution, moisten the surface 
all over; repeat this every now and then for three 
days; when the skin is quite dry, take out the tacks, 
and rolling it loosely the wrong way, the hair inside, 
draw it quickly backw ards and forwards through a 
large smooth ring, until it is quite soft; then roll it in 
the contrary way of the skin, and repeat the operation. 
Skins prepared thus are useful for many domestic 
purposes ; and to save and dress all the good skins of 
freshly killed animals is real economy. 

Tansy, a well known bitter herb. Its roots are per¬ 
ennial, its stems are annual, solid, smooth, unbranch¬ 
ed and about two feet high; its leaves are doubly 
pinnatifid, deeply serrated, and of a dark green color; 
and its flowers grow in dense terminal corymbs, 
and are numerous, and have a golden yellow color, 
and bloom in July and August. The whole plant 
emits a strong but not unpleasant odor, and has a bit¬ 
ter taste, and is alleged to possess tonic, cordial and 
vermifuge properties, and has long figured in hor¬ 
ticultural catalogues as an aromatic herb for making 
tansy pudding and for other kitchen uses; but it does 
not agree with every stomach, and has quite lost a 
large portion of its culinaiy'^ reputation. Two varieties 
of it occur in gardens, the Double or Curled and the 
Variegated or Striped-leaved. The former is culti¬ 
vated for ordinary purposes on account of being milder 
and more grateful than the wild sort, while the latter 
possesses some little claim to a place in the flower- 
garden. Tansy is propagated from slips or offsets of 
the root, planted in spring or autumn at distances of 
12 to 18 inches apart. 

Medicinally it has been used in intermittent fevers, 
hysterics, amenorrhoea, and as a preventive of rheu¬ 
matism ; but at the present day it is principally used 
as a vermifuge. 

Tapestry (tap'es-try), a kind of woven hangings of 
wool and silk, often enriched with gold and silver, 
representing various figures. Figured carpet may be 
called tapestry carpet. To adorn a parlor properly the 
same principles of taste, with reference to harmony, 
etc., of color and figure, should be observed as with 
reference to dress. For example, when the fashion 
is to have light colors prevail, curtains and the wall 
paper should be of light colors, as well as the carpet. 

But there is one of the fundamental principles of 
taste which has reference to any sensation of pleasure 
and pain that may be produced by a like grouping of 
objects. For example, if a parlor is draped heavy and 
close, so that the air becomes heavy and oppressive 








TA/’/^:- WORM—TEA. 


from the exhalations of the tapestry, this fundamental 
principle is violated; for nothing can really be in good 
taste which uniformly produces a sense of pain. A 
great amount of heavy and dark tapestry covering all 
of the windows except a small portion near the base, 
is extremely oppressive. 

Tape-Worm: see Worms. 

Tapioca (tap-i-o'ca), a coarse granular substance 
obtained by heating the moistened starch from the 
roots of a Brazilian plant. Cassava or mandioc is a 
more finely granular form. The root is poisonous, 
but by pulverizing, washing and heating the poison is 
driven out or destroyed. Tapioca constitutes a verv 
bland, light and nutritious article of food for invalids. 
It is generally served in the form of pudding,but some¬ 
times as gruel or porridge. For tapioca pudding see 
page 1054. 

Tap-root, the main root of certain trees and plants, 
which grows straight down into the earth. It char¬ 
acterizes those trees which often grow in places ex¬ 
posed to much wind, as the oaks, which are thus better 
enabled to withstand high wind. Such trees as pre¬ 
vail in bottom lands have no such stout central sup¬ 
port as a tap-root, and when exposed to high wind 
are sometimes blown over. Hence we find in bottom 
lands many pits in the ground, made by the blowing 
down of such trees, which by falling turn up the earth by 
their roots. The horticulturist may draw a lesson 
from this fact, and be careful not to cut off the tap¬ 
roots of his trees in the work of transplanting. 

Tar, an acrid, bituminous fluid obtained from the 
wood of certain pines, the larch, fir, etc., by heating. 
Its dark color is mainly due to the smoke made in 
heating the wood. The uses of tar are numerous in 
the arts, and medicinally its effects are similar to those 
of turpentine,—stimulant, diuretic, anthelmintic and 
laxative. It is much used externally, by the veterina¬ 
rian, on wounds and other sores, either alone or with 
other drugs. 

Tare. The “ tare ” of ancient history is supposed 
to be what is now known as “ darnel,” a somewhat 
poisonous grass sometimes found in grain-fields in 
the eastern portion of the United States and in the 
Old World; but at the present day the term denotes 
several species of quite a different European plant 
and a kind of vetch, which latter is cultivated in Eng¬ 
land for fodder. 

Tarlatan (tar'la-tan), a kind of thin, transparent 
muslin, used for ladies’ dresses and the like. 

Tarragon (tar'a-gon), a species of wormwood, fra¬ 
grant and aromatic, used in France to correct the 
coldness of salad herbs. Infused in vinegar it makes 
a good fish sauce, and it is also an ingredient in pickles, 
soups and other dishes. 

Tart, sour; sharp; also a species of small open pie 
or flat piece of pastry, containing jelly or conserve. 
See Pies, page 1021. 


1235 


Tartar, an acid concrete salt, dejxDsited from 
wines completely fermented, and adhering to the 
sides of the casks in the form of a hard crust. It is 
white or red, the white being more highly esteemed. 
When pure it is called “cream of tartar,” and when 
crude “ argal ” or “argol.” The word “tartar "also 
denotes a concretion which often incrusts the teeth 
(see Teeth), consisting of salivary mucus, animal mat¬ 
ter and phosphate of lime. 

Tartar Emetic is a double salt consisting of tar¬ 
taric acid in combination with potassa and protoxide 
of iron. Medicinally, according to size of dose, etc., 
it has a great variety of effects. When a person takes 
too much by mistake, vomiting generally takes place 
and nearly all the nauseous substance is thrown up. 
If vomiting has not taken place, tickle the throat, 
giving large draughts of warm water, until emesis does 
follow; then give astringents, as oak bark, Peruvian 
bark, etc. 

Tartaric Acid is obtained from tartar, and is solu¬ 
ble, white and crystalline. It is much used in calico 
printing and dyeing, and also for making effervescing 
draughts with soda, as in Seidlitz powder. As a neu¬ 
tral salt, in combination with lime or potash, tartaric 
acid exists in several of the edible fruits, particularly 
the grape and the tamarind. 

Taxidermy (tax'i-der-my), the art of preparing and 
preserving the skins of animals in the natural form 
and appearance. Stuffed birds and quadrupeds are 
desirable in every household, both for ornamentation 
and as a source of instruction; but the art of preparing 
them is too complicated and difficult for general prac¬ 
tice, as the animals, even the birds, have to be 
skinned, turning the skin inside out even to the nose 
or beak,feet and tip of the tail, poisoned with arsenic, 
and adjusted back to its natural shape and smooth¬ 
ness; and none but enthusiastic “geniuses” would 
undertake such tasks. Artificial eyes, to be obtained 
of dealers in that special line, have also to be inserted, 
and great skill and patience exercised in mounting. 

Tea. All the varieties of the tea of commerce are 
prepared for the market by more or less application of 
artificial heat: and some are highly or repeatedly torre¬ 
fied. The leaves which aregatheredintheearliestspring 
afford the strongest and most valuable varieties: those 
which are gathered late in the year afford the inferior 
varieties; and those of any season can be piade into 
the green or hyson varieties by peculiar and abundant 
torrefication. 

Many adulterations of tea, by the admixture of the 
leaves of old stock, of exhausted specimens, or of 
totally different plants are practiced bothin China and 
America. The Chinese mix the waste, unmarketable 
teas of former years with the new crop, in order to in¬ 
crease its bulk, and mix other substances with many 
or most or all of the varieties, in order to increase 
their weight, to modify their color, or to give them a 
peculiar flavor; and if they were not checked and 
controlled by searching inspection at Canton, they 
would practice such great deception as would speedily 











1236 


TEAL— TEDDER. 


throw the whole tea trade into a state of chaos. The 
teas freest from admixture with foreign leaves are the 
better gradee of black teas, while those which are most 
adulterated are the very low-priced and much broken 
teas, and the lower qualities of black and green gun¬ 
powder teas. The pigmentary matters usually em¬ 
ployed in coloring or facing teas are Prussian blue, 
tumieric, China clay, indigo, sulphate of lime, and ! 
silicate of magnesia. These are mixed in various pro- 1 
ixjrtions so as to produce different shades of blue and j 
green. ' 

The tea-plant is indigenous in eastern parts of China , 
and in Japan, and is held in the highest esteem by 
the natives, both as an article of diet, and as a means 
of national wealth. It has been used by the Chinese I 
from tiine immemorial, some say from the time of ! 
Confucius, as both an invigorating beverage and a 
medicinal condiment, peculiarly salutary to the con- ’ 
stitution. It has for ages been the theme of their | 
poets, the idol of their husbandmen, and the highest ' 
favor of their emperor and his government; and it is 
discussed at great length, and with reference to all its j 
history and treatment, in a seriesof 24 native treatises, 1 
which began to be composed about the seventh cen- ’ 
tury. The consumption of it throughout the vast Chi- j 
nese empire is so great that, in the opinion of an 
pninent traveler, it would not be materially lowered 
in price to the native consumer if the whole tea-trade 
in America was abandoned. 

Tea is cultivated, not in every part of China, but 
chiefly in a tract on the east side, called the tea coun¬ 
try, situated between the 28th and 35th degrees north j 
latitude, and more particularly between the 30th and 
33d, and possessing a mean temperature in Novem¬ 
ber of 56® Fahrenheit at sunrise and 62° at noon. , 
Butin Japan it is cultivated in all parts of the coun¬ 
try, around the border of grain and rice fields. The 
mode of cultivation in the two countries is very much 
the same. The plant thrives best on light, stony 
soil, and is commonly sown in the month of Feb- 
ruar\’, in rows 4 or 5 feet apart. From 6 to 12 seeds 
are deposited in each hole; for, on account of 
their oiliness, they are apt to become rancid, so that 
a considerable proixirtion do not germinate. The 
plants require to be carefully weeded while very 
young, but are otherwise easily reared. 

Their leaves are not available for gathering till the 
third year after sowing; but they are then good and 
abundant. At seven years from sowing, the plants 
attain their full height, but they then have thinner 
and less valuable leaves than in the third and three 
following years; and at that time they are generally 
cut over near the ground, so that they send forth an I 
exuberance of new shoots, and may yield as strong, 
well-flavored and plentiful leaves as before, and, by 
this practice of cutting over, repeated at suitable in¬ 
tervals, they can be rendered fairly or fully productive 
during an indefinite number of years. The leaves 
are gathered either singly or i-n sprigs; and can be 
collected by a diligent worker, sometimes to the 
amount of ten or fifteen ]X)unds in a day, and on the 


average, from four to six. The leaves are gathered 
at different seasons or upon different methods, accord¬ 
ing to the several varieties of the tea; and are torre¬ 
fied in buildings adapted for the purix)se, having a 
number of small furnaces, each about three feet high. 
With a large, flat iron pan at the top. 

Next to the peculiar flavor that gives tea its popu¬ 
larity as a beverage, it is an astringent, always tend¬ 
ing to close the superficial cells of the alimentary 
canal, and indeed those of all the blood and lym¬ 
phatic vessels of the system. It therefore tans, as it 
were, the membranes, making a sort of leather of them, 
thus retarding the normal processes of daily renewal. 
Hence, it is often remarked that tea-drinking prevents 
one from eating so much as he otherwise would, and 
therefore from doing as much work as he would with¬ 
out it. Its tanning effects is often seen in its turning 
the fair skin of the young people to a dark color 
before they are 40 or 50 years of age. 

To Make Tea. Scald the pot and put in a tea- 
s])oonful for each person. Uixjn green tea ix)ur a 
little water, and allow it to stand two or three minutes 
where it will keep hot; then fill the ix)t from the tea¬ 
kettle. Green tea should never be boiled, and it is 
rendered dead by being steeped long. Of black tea 
the same measure is used, the pot being filled up at 
first, and set immediately upon coals or a stove, just 
long enough to boil it. Water should be added to 
the tea-pot from the tea-kettle, boiling hot. Black 
and green tea are good mixed. Never let tea stand 
in tin. 

Teal, a bird of the duck genus. 

Team, two or more horses, cattle or other draft ani¬ 
mals attached to a vehicle or load for drawing it. 

Teasel. This is a rasping herb used for raising the 
nap on cloth, or combing out the fibers upon the 
dressed surface of woolen cloth. The bastard variety 
found in some sections of the East is of no use. The 
teasel is a biennial. The seed is sown on a deep, 
loamy clay, previously well plowed and harrowed, in 
drills 20 inches apart, leaving a plant ever)' ten 
inches, or in hills 16 inches apart. Cultivate. As the 
plants do better when allowed to remain and mature 
where they are sown, the ground can be kept cov¬ 
ered by sowing between the rows. In collecting the 
crop, cut about eight inches below the head, just as it 
is going out of flower, when the awns are the toughest. 
Spread and dry under cover, and assort into three 
lots, according to size and quality. An acre in good 
condition ought to yield 150,000 to 200,000 heads, 
worth $1.50 to $2.50 per t,ooo. 

Technology (tek-nol'o-jy), the science of the in¬ 
dustrial arts. Some industrial colleges are called 
“technological ” schools. The industrial arts embrace 
agriculture, horticulture, gardening, carpentry, black- 
smithing, masonry,and all other “useful arts.”’ A list 
of all the industrial institutions in the United States 
is given on page 865. 

Tedder, a machine for turning and s])reading hay; 














TEETH. 


called also “hay-tedder.” A cut ot one is given on 
page 643. 

Teeth. The teeth of most of the higher orders of 
mammals, notwithstanding great and signal differ¬ 
ences in the chief groups of genera, possess certain 
imjx)rtant common characters of both classification 
and composition, or, in every case, comprise incisors, 
cuspidates and molars, and consist of enamel, ivory 
and bony cement. They have different forms and 
arrangements and relative numbers in different genera, 
to suit to a nicety the especial wants and feeding hab¬ 
its of each animal; yet, in all instances, though more 
or less vigorously, according to the saliency of their 
points and hardness of the substances on which they 
operate, the incisors nip, the cuspidates tear or lacer¬ 
ate, and the molars grind or bruise or pulverize. The 
three classes as they exist in the horse, may be taken 
as a familiar specimen, and bear the ixjpular names 
of nippers, tushes and grinders, and have been de¬ 
scribed in our article on Horse. The enamel, the 
ivory, and the bony cement aggregately adapt the 
teeth to withstand the attrition of eating, the chemical 
action of substances incidentally lodged in the inter¬ 
stices, the action of the atmosphere, and the diversity 
of organic forces within the exposed and unexposed 
parts of the teeth; and they are differently propor¬ 
tioned to one another, not only in the teeth of differ¬ 
ent species of animals, but in the different classes of 
the teeth of the same species, and in the different 
parts of the same tooth. The aggregate substance of 
the teeth has more power of resisting both mechanical 
and chemical agency than common bone; the crown, 
or exposed and working part of each tooth has vastly 
more hardness and exterior strength than its root or 
unexposed part; and the working surface of the 
crown, whether it consists of edge or ix»ints or laminae, 
enjoys exactly the amount of superior hardness or in¬ 
trinsic diversity which fits it for performing its me¬ 
chanical functions in the best j^xjssible manner with 
the least possible wear. 

The enamel is by far the densest and hardest of 
the three constituents of the teeth, and will yield fire 
with steel like flint, and is not easily acted on by 
even the best-tempered files. It never occurs alone, 
but always as a coating to the other constituents; and 
it serves so to temper the teeth, as steel tempers iron, 
that they may resist attrition, and continue unworn 
as long as the wants of the animal may require. 

The ivory is considerably softer than the enamel, 
yet harder than common bone; and it differs from 
the latter principally in containing a greater proportion 
of phosphate of lime, and in some instances, in con¬ 
taining fluorate of lime. The osseous or bony cement 
is softer than the ivory and contains a larger propor¬ 
tion of animal matter, and somewhat nearly resembles 
common bone. 

Two sets of teeth are given to man and the greater 
number of quadrupeds; the one temporary, and com¬ 
monly called shedding or milk teeth, and the other 
permanent, and commonly called adult or permanent 
teeth. The jaws grow much faster, and mature much ' 


1237 


earlier, in proportion, than the general system of the 
body; and therefore a temporary and comparatively 
small set of teeth is given them to suit their infant 
state, and another and comparatively larger set to 
suit their natural state. 

The milk teeth are 20 in number, and the pennanent 
teeth are 32, 20 of which take the place of the milk 
teeth. At the front of each jaw are two pairs of cut¬ 
ting teeth, called “incisors;” next is a pair of long 
teeth (having long fangs especially), called “eye¬ 
teeth” or “canine teeth,” or “canines;” next, two 
pairs in each jaw of “bicuspids,” or “pre-molars;” 
and lastly, three pairs of “grinders,” or “ molars,” the 
last pair of these being called also “ wisdom teeth,” 
which do not appear until the individual is about 
full-grown. 

Of the milk teeth, the “central incisors ” (first pair) 
come through the gum at about the seventh month of 
infancy, those in the lower jaw usually first, and give 
place to the permanent teeth in the seventh year. 
The “ lateral incisors ” (second pair) next appear, 
that is, from the eighth to the tenth month, and give 
place to the permanent teeth in the eighth year. The 
canines appear from the 14th to the 20th month, to 
be followed by permanent in the nth or 12th year. 
The pre-molars appear from the 12th to the rqth 
month, to be followed, the first pair in the loth year 
and the second pair in the nth. The molars (ex¬ 
cept the last pair, or “ wisdom teeth,” as noted above), 
break through the gums from one and a half to three 
years of age, and yield to permanent teeth at 12 and 
13 years. See Teething. 

Care of the Teeth. Do not crack nuts with 
them, or use them for any other purpose requiring 
equal violence. Do not let them come in contact 
with very hot drinks, especially on the first draught, 
at any one time. Even cold fluid, coming in con¬ 
tact with the teeth directly after they are heated up 
with hot drinks, is likewise deleterious. Do not 
undergo a mercurial salivation or chew the substance 
of matches, which contain phosphorus. Use the 
tooth-brush, with clear water, after every meal, and 
in the morning on rising. Undoubtedly the best 
dentifrice or tooth powder is pulverized charcoal. It 
whitens them, purifies them from unpleasant odors, 
and will also purify the breath. If you choose, a little 
common salt may be added to the charcoal. If the 
teeth are thoroughly cleansed two or three times a 
week with pulverized charcoal, and washed with 
water as above indicated, they will be white, pure 
and will not decay with ordinary usage until far ad¬ 
vanced in life. Have a dentist examine them eveiy 
few months, to remove any tartar that may be col¬ 
lecting on them and to fill cavities, if any can be dis¬ 
covered. Never use metallic tooth-picks. 

One of the greatest enemies to human teeth is the 
concretion denominated tartar, which forms u{X)n 
them like a crust, and would encase them wholly 
were there no impediment. Of the nature of this 
tartar and how it is formed a great deal has been 
written ; but the whole that has been advanced and 


















1238 


TEETHING. 


urged, sometimes very authoritatively and with great 
dogmatism, only goes to prove that the writers knew 
nothing of the matter. All, however, that we really 
know on this is, that the substance termed tartar does 
actually exist on the teeth, to which, if not removed, it is 
very injurious, and that the rapidity of its formation 
frequently depends upon the state of the stomach. 
In some idiosyncrasies it is not formed at all; in 
others, only a little; in others, a great deal. When¬ 
ever it does appear, it should be removed; yet, even 
when there is idiosyncratic tendency to its accumula¬ 
tion, it will not have time to form if the teeth are 
properly attended to—a thing requiring more of the 
minuteness of attention than of actual trouble. If 
tartar be allowed to accumulate, which it almost al¬ 
ways does ill the permanent absence of tooth-brushes 
and tooth powder, it not only gradually loosens and 
destroys the teeth, but corrodes the gums, and re¬ 
duces them to a state of disease frequently mistaken 
for scurvy, even by medical men ; and at length it 
occasions the total destruction of the teeth, and a sad 
unsightliness of the gums, with no other remedy left 
but to encase the latter in an artificial socket bearing 
a set of artificial teeth. 

Loose but Sound Teeth. Turkish myrrh diluted 
in water—at first a teasjxionful to a tumblerful of 
water, and gradually strengthened—and used as a 
wash four or five times a day, will generally give re¬ 
lief. There are only two causes for the above trouble, 
viz: calomel and soda, and the use of both must be 
stopped entirely. 

For the Gums. Alum water will harden the gums 
and prevent loosening of the teeth. 

A Dentifrice. An ounce of myrrh in fine powder, 
and a little jxiwdered sage, mixed in two spoonfuls of 
honey, make an agreeable and delicate dentifrice. 

SozoDONT —A Dentifrice. Castile soap, five 
parts; glycerine, five parts; alcohol, thirty parts; 
water, twenty parts; oil of pepperment, oil of cloves, 
oil of cinnamon, and anise, a few drops. 

Deschamp’s Dentifrice for Removing the Yel¬ 
low Color from Teeth. Take of dry hypochlorite 
of lime, dram; red coral, 2 drams; triturate well 
and mix thoroughly. This powder is employed in 
the following manner; a new brush is slightly moist¬ 
ened, then dipped in the powder and applied to die 
teeth. According to Deschamp, a few days’ use of 
this powder will produce a marked alteration in the 
appearance of the teeth, which will acquire a white 
color. 

Cure for Toothache. Spirits of camphor, 10 
drops; oil of cloves, 10 drops; chloroform, 15 drops; 
spirits of ether, 15 drops. Apply to the cavity, or rub 
the gum a little. The cure is immediate. 

Magnetic Pain-Killer for Acute Pain and 
Toothache. This is one of the very best receipts 
for relieving acute pain and toothache: Laudanum, 

I drum; gum camphor, 4 drams; oil of cloves, 
dram; oil of lavender, i dram: add these to i ounce 


alcohol, 6 drams sulphuric ether, and 5 fluid drams 
chloroform. Apply with lint; or, for toothache, rub 
on the gums, and upon the face against the tooth. 

Chloral for Toothache. Dr. Page recommends 
chloral hydrate as a local application in cases of 
toothache. A few grains of the solid hydrate intro¬ 
duced into the cavity of the tooth upon the point of a 
quill speedily dissolves there; and in the course of a 
few minutes, during which a not unpleasant warm 
sensation is experienced, the pain is either deadened, 
or, more often, effectually allayed. A second or 
third application may be resorted to if necessary. 

Infallible Cure for the Toothache. Pulver¬ 
ize and mix in equal quantities, alum and common 
salt; wet a small piece of cotton, and causing the 
mixture to adhere, phice it in the hollow tooth. A 
sensation of coldness will be produced at first, Avhich 
will gradually subside, and with it, the torment of the 
toothache. 

Another: To r teaspoonful of creosote put half a 
teaspoonful of alcohol. Soak a bit of cotton well 
with this, and put it into the tooth. No harm will 
arise from the use of creosote, if care is taken not to 
swallow the spittle. 

Another: Cotton wool, wet with paregoric or spirits 
of turpentine, and placed upon the tooth, will often 
give relief. Bathe the face with hot drops, and hold 
some in the mouth; if this does not succeed, soak the 
feet in warm water, and put a mustard poultice upon 
the back of the neck. Wrap up in clothes, and drink 
composition, until a copious sweat is produced. 

Teeth of Horses; see pages 681 and 736; of cat¬ 
tle, page i8i;of sw'ine, pages 1218-19. 

Teething, the first teeth of many children come 
through without any evil effects, but with others this 
process produces fever, diarrhoea, restlessness, erup¬ 
tions of the skin and even sometimes convulsions or 
fits. Feeble and excitable constitutions are most lia¬ 
ble to these disorders. While teething there is more 
or less disorder of the stomach and bowels with most 
children. Most children are loose: with some, how- 
e ver,_the reverse is the case. A slight degree of loose¬ 
ness is perhaps not objectionable; but should they 
become too much so, which is liable in hot weather, 
they must be checked gradually. The time of teeth¬ 
ing, as a rule, runs from the fifth or the sixth month to 
the sixteenth month. Some children begin to cut 
their teeth as early as at the age of three months, 
while others do not begin till at the age of eight or 
ten months. 

The treatment of the child during teething is sim¬ 
ple. The bowels should be kept open, and T restless 
and gums painful give a little paregoric. The breast 
should be given to the child often, but not long at a 
time, so as to avoid over-loading the stomach. The 
child should have plenty of fresh air, exercise and a 
cool bath each day. It is very important the bowels 
of the child be kept free, which is easy to do without 
medicines, and infinitely better, namely, by not per¬ 
mitting it to eat anything made from fine or bolted 













TEMPERA PURE— THA TCH. 


1239 


flour. If one, however, thinks this impracticable, and 
prefers medicine, castor oil, in doses from a tea¬ 
spoonful to a tablespoonful, may be given every few 
days. Disguise the nauseous taste of the oil by a 
little brandy and cinnamon essence. The gums may 
also be rubbed with honey three or four times a day. 

It is a great help and a remarkable relief to the 
child to cut Of lance the gums. The relief children 
experience in the course of two or three hours from 
the operation is often very remarkable, as they almost 
immediately become lively and cheerful. If the 
gums be carefully looked at, the part where the tooth 
is pressing up is swollen and redder than usual; and 
if the finger be pressed on it the child shrinks and 
cries, showing that the gum is tender. When these 
symptoms occur, the gum should be lanced, and 
sometimes the tooth comes through the next day, if 
near the surface; but if not so far advanced the cut 
heals and a scar forms, which is thought by some ob¬ 
jectionable, as rendering the passage of the tooth 
more difficult. This, however, is untrue, for the scar 
will give way much more easily than the uncut gum. 
If the tooth do not come tlrrough after two or three 
days, the lancing may be repeated; and this is more 
especially needed if the child be very fractious, and 
seems in much pain. Lancing the gums is further 
advantageous, because it empties the inflamed part of 
its blood, and so relieves the pain and inflammation. 

Temperature, of the body: see Heat, page 850, 
in article Hygiene. 

Tenant, a person who holds tenements or lands or 
both, during a limited period, on consideration of ren¬ 
dering stipulated services or paying a stipulated 
rent to the proprietor. See page 421. 

Tendon, the contracted end of a muscle, which is 
a hard, tough cord, or bundle of fibers, communi¬ 
cating motion from the muscle to the bone. 

Tendril, a coiling, wire-form shoot of a vine that 
winds around another body for the purpose of sup¬ 
port. It commonly grows straight and outstretched 
until its apex hooks around it to secure a hold; then 
the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up spL 
rally and so draws the shoot of the growing plant 
nearer to the supporting object. Tendrils usually 
coil around twigs; but those of the Virginia creeper, 
for example, have their tips expanded into a flat disk 
or foot, which adhere to objects by a deposit of glue, 
as the rootlets of the ivy do by their tips. Tendrils 
are, also, generally forms of branches, but sometimes 
they are forms of leaves, as in the pea. Their nature 
in each case is to be learned from their position. 

Tenement, house, or other buildings which are 
permanent. Blackstone says of this word that “al¬ 
though in its vulgar acceptation it is only applied to 
houses and other buildings, yet in its original, proper 
and legal sense, it signifies everything that may be 
holden, provided it be of a permanent nature, 
whether it be of a substantial and sensible, or of an 
unsubstantial, ideal kind.” 


Tenesmus (te-nez'mus), frequent, vain and pain¬ 
ful desires to evacuate the bowels, as in dysentery. 
Being a symptom of inflammation of the lining mem¬ 
brane of the digestive tube, the treatment consists 
in curing the primary trouble; and this in great part 
consists of copious warm-water injections. 

Tenon (tenon), the end of a piece, generally of 
timber, which enters a mortise. 

Terminal (ter-min-al), in plants, the central 
branch of the main stem, or central branchlet of a 
branch, etc., as distinguished from all the other 
branches, called “laterals” (side-branches). 

Terrier, a variety of dog: see page 318. 

Tetanus, a disease which consists in the perma¬ 
nent contraction of some or all of the muscles, with¬ 
out alternations of relaxation. It includes the form 
called lockjaw; and in every case the patient cannot 
swallow, and the trunk is immovably rigid and curved. 
It is generally brought on by painful wounds, as run¬ 
ning a rusty nail into the foot. The treatment con¬ 
sists of a full hot bath, opium, a teaspoonful of 
whisky every two or three hours, chloroform, etc. Not 
all of these will be needed in most cases. See Lock¬ 
jaw, page 946. 

Tetanus, of the horse : see page 809. 

Tethering, the confining of a grazing animal to 
small and precise limits of pasturage by means of a 
rope or light chain fastened to a pin driven in the 
ground. See page 281. 

Tetter, a skin disease. See Salt Rheum, page 
1095. 

Texas Fever. The so-called Texas fever is an en¬ 
zootic disorder peculiar to the ox tribe, incapable of 
being communicated by simple contact of sick with 
healthy animals, but is engendered wherever North¬ 
ern cattle have grazed on pastures previously, or sim¬ 
ultaneously occupied by herds from Texas, Florida, 
Arkansas, and the Indian Territory. The disease is 
not transmissible between Northern cattle, and a few 
nipping frosts check its ravages everywhere. It is a 
disease in which all the internal organs are more or 
less affected, but especially is this the case with the 
spleen, which often attains an enormous size. The 
disease occurs in two forms, in which four stages are 
readily recognizable, viz: the inpubation, the stage of 
invasion, the congestive stage, and the terminative 
stage. The infection is of a permanent nature. 
Splenic apoplexy is an anthrax disease of a conta¬ 
gious nature, which Texas or splenic fever is not. For 
the treatment of this disease see page 217. 

Textile Fabrics, cloths, woven material, gener¬ 
ally for garments. The general classes of material 
are vegetable fiber, as cotton, linen, ramie, jute, hemp 
etc.; wool and hair,as sheep’s wool, camel’s haij-, and 
the hair of many other animals; and silk. 

Thatch, to make a roof or wall by binding together 
straw, dried grass, or other like material in a regular 








1240 


THEOR 1 THORO UGHPJN. 


manner. Rye straw, threshed with a flail and kept 
straight, with the short and broken straws raked out, 
is the best material; but good vvheat or oat straw will 
make a safe roof. The roof is made ready for thatch¬ 
ing by nailing strips of board, say i x 2 inches, across 
the rafters, putting them a foot apart. The i)itch 
should be steep to insure a water-proof and durable 
roof. The straw should be cut to a uniform length. 
For greater convenience in handling, tie the straw 
in bundles that will average about six inches in thick 
ness. There are different ways of fastening; some 
use twine, but it is preferable to use wire or the straw 
itself to fasten the bundles on. Take a few straws 
from the side of each bundle after it is laid on the cross 
strips, and passing them over the next one laid and 
under the strip, and over again, then adding more 
straw from the bundle just tied. In this way a con¬ 
tinuous rope is made until the end of the course is 
reached. The courses should overlap so as to make 
the roof the thickness of three bundles, or about eight¬ 
een inches; and if the pitch is one-third, the mate¬ 
rial good and well laid, it should be a warm and 
serviceable roof for 20 years. 

Theory, literally, a view, of some scheme, plan or 
doctrine; and this idea, indeed, is the essential fea¬ 
ture in all the applications of the word. While this 
term is properly used in most instances, we introduce 
the topic here mainly to observe that it is too often 
used for the purpose of sneering. Concerning one 
who has made a wise suggestion, but is not under¬ 
stood, it is often said that he is “too theoretical,” that 
he is “more theoretical than practical,” etc. Every¬ 
thing that becomes practical was at first a “theory,” 
and all the thoughts and plans one has are “theories” 
until they are executed, and even then they are al¬ 
ways “theory and execution” together. 

Thick Wind, of horse: see page 736. 

Thill, one of the shafts of a carriage between 
which the horse is put: sometimes corrupted to “fill.” 

Thistle, a large group of herbaceous plants, com¬ 
prising many of the most troublesome weeds of agri¬ 
culture. They are also an exceedingly destructive 
class of weeds, and demand constant attention, not 
only of individual farmers but of whole communities, 
for keeping them down and exterminating them. The 
greatest pest, however, of this class of weeds is the 
Canada thistle. To distinguish tins from the com¬ 
mon thistle, observe that its heads are hard and small, 
l)eing about the size of a marble, and that the leaves 
have narrower and more scattering lobes and appear 
much more ragged and straggling. The best meth¬ 
ods of extirpation are the following: when a patch of 
them have about come into flower, plow them under; 
go over the ground with a hoe or spade and dispatch 
those which have escaped the plow, and keep up this 
process until the middle of autumn ; the next year the 
piece may be sown to wheat and again watched for 
new plants. If, however, the patch be small, the 
plants at any time before seeding may be cut off at 



Canada Thistle, 


the surface of the ground with a hoe or spade, and a 
teaspoonful of dilute sulphuric acid dropped upon 
each root. Sometimes merely mowing off with a 
scythe when in early flower is sufficient for the extir¬ 
pation of this troublesome pest. The mowing should 
be repeated two or three times. The method and 
amount of work required are dependent upon the 
condition of the ground. On newly cleared grounds 
they can be often kept down by seeding thickly to 

grass, and mowing the crop 
when both the thistles and the 
grass are in bloom. Digging 
holes into the mass of roots 
and leaving a pint or more of 
salt to each one, is also a sure 
i method of killing this weed. 
I Cropping to clover or grass is 
another good plan. But State 
legislation is necessary in this 
work, as it is almost useless 
for scattering farmers to fight 
this enemy, unless all unite, 
as ‘the downy seed of this 
thistle is blown about so easily by the winds. Mowed 
thistles wilted are greedily eaten by live stock. 

The above cut shows only a branch of the Canada 
thistle: otherwise the flower heads would appear dis- 
pro]X)rtionately large. 

Thoracic (tho-ras'ik), pertaining to the thorax: see 
next paragraph. The “thoracic duct” is a tube 
ascending near the spinal column through the abdom¬ 
inal cavity and chest, to convey the “ chyle," or nu¬ 
triment drawn from the food by the lacteals along the 
alimentary canal, up near the neck on the left side, 
where it empties into the subclavian vein. 

Thorax (tho'rax), the chest. This is the cavity of 
the breast, containing the heart and lungs with their 
attachments, and is separated from the abdomen be¬ 
low by the diaphragm. The thorax of an insect is the 
second or middle division of the body, to which the 
wings and legs are attached. 

Thorn, as the name of a tree, is a term comprising 
several species of Cratcegus, as,the English hawthorn, 
the Evergreen thorn, the so-called “ red haws,” be¬ 
sides several ornamental varieties in cultivation. Some 
of these trees, however, are apparently thornless, as 
their “ thorns ” are only rudimentary. 

Thornapple, one name of the familiar jimson- 
weed. 


Thoroughbred, bred to a high point for a specific 
purpose, as horses for speed, and cattle for various 
purposes. For one of the latter to be technically 
“thoroughb.red,” it must be full-l)looded, or bred from 
the best blood, and recorded in the Herd Book. 'I'he 
breeding of horses for speed has been carried on 
longer and more strictly than in any other line, so that 
the result is now a distinct breed known as “Thorough¬ 
bred,” which is fully treated on pages 687 and 700. 

Thoroughpin, an affection of the hock-joint of 
the horse; see page 834. 















THRESHING 


1241 


Threshing, the separation of grain from the husks 
or straw by a beating process. We need not enter into 
an extended history of this process. It is well known 
that the most ancient custom of threshing was the 


be disturbed; but in the haste of both threshers and 
farmers the grain is often threshed when the straw is 
very damp, and unless great care is taken to hold the 
bundles on the cylinder, much waste is apparent; and 



P'lG. I. — Vibrator Threshing-Machine. 


trampingout of the grain by cattle. This was supersed¬ 
ed by the flail, which is the only arrangement used at 
present in many countries. All of these old-time 
customs of performing this operation has been prac¬ 
tically superseded in our own country by the thresh¬ 
er, and even by the steam thresher. The flail is 
used only where it is desirous to save the straw of 
full length and unbroken. 

The steam threshing-machine of to-day is probably 
the perfection of rapid, clean and cheap threshing. 
Many of the separators propelled by steam will thresh 
out 1,000 bushels of wheat per 
day and even more in good grain, 
while the practical limits of those 
run by horse-power are less than 
half that amount. Many devices 
have been patented for threshing 
by means of power machines, 
among them beaters and rotating. 

The spiked cylinder is, however, 
in most general use, being faster 
than any other known device. 

The time of threshing often 
depends on the time when you 
can secure the services of the ma¬ 
chine, unless you have one of 
your own. Within a fewdays after 
the wheat is stacked, it may be 
threshed, much depending upon its condition when 
stacked. The early threshing of wheat after it is 
harvested is not always a wise economy. The 
sweating of wheat, however, is best done in the 
mow or stack, and when in this stage should never 


it is to be doubted if as good flour can be obtained 
from this wheat as could have been obtained by later 
threshing. Farmers should insist upon experienced 
men attending to machines, rather than novices, who 
only know that the wflieat is to be run through the 
machine. A tyro at thfe business will often allow 
many bushels of grain to be carried over into the 
stack unthreshed. 

Many farmers cannot buy a thresher ” them¬ 
selves, but should be enabled to determine the kind 
of a machine that is most profitable to them in the 


I threshing of their grain. The main requisite of a good 
I thresher consists in its ability to thoroughly separate 
the grain from the straw, chaff, etc. With the farmer 
who hires his grain threshed, speed is another good 
I point which, in the selection, must not be lost sight of. 



Fig. 2. — Short-Apron Threshing-Ilachine. 






































































































































































































1242 


THRIPS— THYME. 


Some of the varied improvements made within the 
last dozen years in this very important and expensive 
machine are quite remarkable. There are several 
companies in the United States that manufacture 
good threshers, machines that do their work thor- 
oughly and well. AVewishto illustrate some of the 
leading features of the thresher. 

Fig I represents a thresher adapted to the thresh¬ 
ing, not only of wheat, but also oats, barley, flax, 
timothy, millet, Hungarian, orchard grass, clover, etc. 


man & Co., Canton, Ohio; E. M. Birdsell & Co., 
South Bend, Ind.; J. O. Spencer, Union Springs, N. Y.; 
M. Williams & Co , St. Johnsville, N. Y.; B. Gill &: 
Sons,Trenton, N. Y.; A. B. Farquhar, York, Pa.; 
G. Westinghouse & Co., Schenectady, N. Y.; and 
Joseph Hall Works, Rochester, N. Y. 

Thrips, a species of small, spotted fly infesting 
certain plants, especially the grape-vine. See page 
590 - 



Fig. Z.—Improved Bag-Holder. 


It is very simple in its construction and noted for its 
light running. The manufacturers are Nichols, Shep¬ 
ard & Co., Battle Creek, Michigan. It can be run bv 
either steam or horse power. 

Fig. 2 is a representation of the “Apron ” thresher, 
manufactured by J. I. Case & Co., Racine, Wis. It 
can be used for all kinds of grain, is simple in con¬ 
struction and easy-running. It is an improvement 
over the old “Short-Apron,” in the shortening of 
the apron, lengthening and widening of the straw 
rake, doing away with the cross apron belt on 
the right-hand side, and substituting gearing, driving 
the beater and fan with one belt, and lowering the 
machine four inches. It is run either by steam 
or horse power. 

Accompanying Nichols, Shepard & Co’s machine is 
an improved bag-holder, illustrated by Fig. 3. It is 
useless to attempt to enumerate the various merits 
claimed for one make of these machines over others. 
Among the leading manufacturers of threshers and 
separators throughout the United States, are Nichols, 
Shepard &: Co., Battle Creek, Mich.; the Pitts Agri¬ 
cultural Works, Buffalo, N. Y.; Minard Harder, 
Cobleskill, N. Y.; Russell & Co , Massillon, Ohio; 
A. W. Gray &: Sons, Middletown Springs, Vermont; 
the Silver &: Deming Company, Salem, Ohio; the 
Wheeler cY Melick Company, Albany, N. Y.; C. Ault- 


Throat, Sore. See Sore Throat, page 1150. 

Throwing, or Casting, a horse, is the operation of 
throwing him down upon the ground, generally in a 
confined place, and so fastening him that he cannot 
stir. This is for the pur^xise of performing surgical 
cperations. 

Thrush, the name of several species of song-bird, 
the most familiar examples of which are the following: 

1. Robin. See page 1085. 

2. Wood Thrush. This is confessedly the sweet¬ 
est feathered songster that America affords, being 
fully equal to the nightingale of Europe, and in the 
estimation of many even superior. It is found through¬ 
out the United States east of the Missouri river, and 
as far south as Guatemala, in Central America. It 
builds its nest in low bushes, of leaves, grass and 
mud, lined with fibrous roots, where it lays four or five 
light blue eggs. 

3. Hermit Thrush. This bird, whose song rivals 
that of the Wood thrush, is somewhat smaller, and 
ranges throughout the States east of the Mississippi 
river. _ Prevailing color, a light olive-brown. It has 
a whitish ring around the eyes, and sharply defined 
subtriangular spots of dark olive-brown on the breast. 

4. Wilson’s Thrush is found throughout the States 
east of the Missouri river. Prevailing color, brown: 
differs but little in its appearance from the preceding. 

Besides the above, there are found in the same 
region, but of less note, the Olive-backed, the Gray¬ 
cheeked, the Varied, etc., of the true thrush genus; 
and several so-called thrushes of kindred genera. 

Thrush is also the name of a disease, consisting of 
white pimples in the mouth and throughout the 
alimentar}' canal; common among infants. 

Thrush is also the nahie of a diseased condition of 
the sensible frog of the horse’s foot: see page 835 ; 
and a disease of the mouth of cattle: see page 217. '• 

Thumb-Screw, an adjusting screw, either with a 
milled head or with a head flattened vertically, to be 
turned with the thumb and fingers. 

Thyme (time), a sweet-aromatic herb of the mint 
family, of which there are two species, sometimes, but 
rarely, cultivated for flavoring culinary preparations, 
use in liniments, etc. Though strictly a perennial, it 
becomes stunted after three or four years, and requirk, 
at comparatively short intervals, to be reproduced. A 
light, dry, and rather poor soil is most conducive to 
its best condition ; and a rich or moist soil renders it 
luxuriant, but occasions it to be deficient in fragrance 
















































































TICK—TILE. 


1243 



and greatly tends to make it perish in winter. The 
situation can not be too open. The plant may be 
propagated either from top-slips or parted roots in 
spring, planted 6 or 12 inches apart, or from seed 
sown in April, broadcast or in drills; and the plant- 
lets, from seed, may be either transplanted in summer 
or allowed to remain in the drills, and those trans¬ 
planted must be occasionally watered till they become 
established. In autumn,.decayed stems and branches 
should be cleared away and a little fresh soil scattered 
among the old plants. Young plantlets of thyme 
may be planted close along the margin of a border to 
serve as an edging. 

Medicinally, the oil of thyme is considered the most 
important. It is “reputed” to be “resolvent, tonic 
and stomachic.” 

Tick, a little insect, of a livid color and globose 
form, that infests sheep, dogs, goats, cows and other 
animals. It is many times larger than a louse, and 


Fig. I. —Eureka Drain-Tile Machine. 

of a different color, but not of so frequent occurrence. 

It varies in size from a pin’s head to a small bean, but 
is commonly about as big as a pea; and when not 
gorged with blood it is flat, but when bloated, is round 
and of a brown or black color. It has six legs, 
and runs with much speed. It attaches itself to the 
skin by means of sharp claws at the extremity of the 
legs, and pierces the skin by means of sharp instru¬ 
ments in the head. When once it fastens on a 
spot, it seems to remain quite fixed for several weeks 
or even months; and it becomes surrounded with 


numerous young ones, who appear at first like red 
jxjints, but afterward acquire a brown color as they 
grow. It propagates rapidly, and is often found in 
great numbers on a single sheep, and commonly pre¬ 
fers the animal’s neck and shoulders to other parts. 
To destroy ticks, see respective articles on the ani¬ 
mals. 

Tied. A horse’s elbows are said to be “ tied ” when 
they set too close to the ribs. 

Tile. While this term originally denoted only baked 
plates of clay for roofing, flooring, etc., it now includes 
very prominently drainage pipe, made of burnt clay; 
and in addition to what is said in the article on Drain¬ 
age, some remarks are called for here on the subject 
of tiling in particular, and of tile machines, etc. 

In the first place, with respect to the mechanical 
composition of a good tile clay, it should be free from 
stones, and when cut with a knife should present a 
uniform, greasy-looking surface, free from the appear¬ 
ance of coarse sand. Secondly, when a portion of it 
is bruised in a mortar and mixed with water, and the 
water, after remaining in the mortar five minutes, is 
poured off, with the finely divided matters suspended 
in it, and the washing is repeated so long as the water, 
after five minutes of rest, carries away any suspended 
matter, there should remain in the mortar not more 
than 5 to 10 per cent, of sand. A strong tile-clay 
will possess the properties just mentioned, and when 
carefully managed, and molded in the tile machine 
by an experienced workman, will be found well 

adapted to the manufact¬ 
ure of thin, light tiles and 
pipes. Such clays, however, 
require careful “ handling,” 
and, from drjung imperfectly 
in the sheds, frequently 
crack in the kilns; they are 
also exceedingly difficult to 
burn, requiring a strong 
heat. Pure pipe clay and 
porcelain clay are the most 
infusible of all forms of clay 
and consist merely of two 
substances, silica, or the 
earth of flints, and alumina. 
The ordnary clays, however, 
used in making bricks and 
tiles, contain, as already 
stated, in addition to the two substances mentioned, 
other matters, which greatly modify these characters, 
and especially their fusibility. These substances, which 
act as fluxes, are oxide of iron, lime, magnesia, and 
the alkalies potash and soda. 

When the silica present is not in a state of very 
minute division, when it fonns coarse gravel, it inter¬ 
feres with the plastic qualities of the clay. On the 
other hand, when a very large proportion of alumina 
is present, the clay is indeed exceedingly tenacious, 
but at the same time, when molded into tiles, dries 














































































































TILE. 




1244 


with great difficulty, and frequently retains so much 
water when placed in the kiln that the result is, when 
it is fired, great numbers of the tiles are cracked. The 
most rapidly drying clays are those which upon wash- 


FiG. I. — Cut-off to Tilr. Markin,', 

ing with water are found to yield some finely-divided 
sand ; and the obvious method of improving the quality 
of those clays which crack in the kiln, is to add to 
them a proper amount of fine sand. 

In the manufacture of bricks and 
heavy pipes of clay, this is espe¬ 
cially necessary. 

Clays which contain a considera¬ 
ble amount of any of the substances 
which act as fluxes (lime, etc.), when 
too strongly heated, melt and run, 
and therefore require that a compar¬ 
atively low temperature should be 
applied. The infusibility of such 
clays may be increased byithe addi¬ 
tion of more infusible clays, or fine 
silicioLis sand. Frequently the lime 
is found forming nodules in the beds 
of clay, and may then be separated 
by mechanical means, as by screen¬ 
ing the clay. In such cases, the clay 
should not be puddled previous to 
screening, as by such means the 
crushed lime would be diffused 
through the mass. Very pure clays 
are to be preferred for the manufac¬ 
ture of thin pipes and delicate 
earthenware articles, but at the same 
time they require a greater temper¬ 
ature to be applied in the kiln, and 
thus increase the cost. In such cases, it has been 
found useful to add some fine ground lime or chalk to 
the clay in the pug mill, which increases its fusibility 
and also gives the article a finer surface. 

Tiling, or stone pipe, is the best material in the 


world for walling wells, and is much used in bored 
wells. Such tubing keeps out perfectly all surface water 
and all worms and insects. With the ordinary brick or 
stone wall these things constantly drop in ; and rotting 

insects, worms,toads,etc., are no 
more welcome in our wells than 
in our water-pails or in our- 
drinking glasses at the table. By 
all means, therefore, tube your 
wells with brick or stone tiling, 
with the joints so cemented that 
not a ])article of foreign matter 
or decaying substance can fall 
into the water, which you expect 
to drink, or use in cooking. 
Such wells never need cleaning ; 
but if by some rare accident 
something should get into a tiled 
well that ought not to be there, 
it can be easily cleaned out 
without removing the tubing. 

The illustrations in this 
article represent the Eureka 
drain tile machine, cut off and 
die for making brick, made by 
Chandler & Taylor, Indianapolis, Indiana. There 
are many machines of similar construction now in the 
market for making tile, but this is regarded as one of 


Fig. z —Die /or Making Brick. 

the best. Fig. 3. represents a hand machine made 
by R. R. Foote &Co., Chicago. 

Necessary Size of Tile. From Allen’s “Ameri¬ 
can Agriculture” we obtain the following: “ An acre 
of land in a wet time contains about 1,000spare hogs- 























































































































































































































































TILL A GE— TIME. 


1245 


heads of water. An underdrain will carry off the 
water from a strip of land about two rods wide, and 
one 80 rods long will drain an acre. The following 
table will show the size of the tile required to drain j 



Fig. 4.— Tile Mackirie. 

an acre in two days’ time (the longest admissible) at 
different rates of descent, or the size for any larger 


area: 

Diameter of Bore Rate of De- Velocity of Cur- Hogsheads 
in Inches. scent. rent per Second Discharged 

in Inches. in 24 hours. 


2.I ft. in 100. 

U 


2 . 
2 . 
2 

3 - 

3 - 

3 - 

3 - 
4 ' 

4 - 
4 - 
4 ' 


ii u 
ii u 
a n 
a a 
a a 
a u 
u u 
u u 
a u 


50 ' 
20. 
10. 
100. 

50- 

20. 
10. 
100. 

50- 

20. 


22. 400 

32. 560 

51. 900 

73.^>290 

27.1,170 

38.1.640 

67.3.100 

84.3.600 

32.2,500 

45 .3.500 

72.5.600 


10.100.7,800 

The above table is calculated for smooth tile, well 
laid. 


Tillage, breaking up, turning over, stirring, pulver¬ 
izing, and otherwise working the soil, preparatory to 
the raising of crops from seeds,offsets, or other germs. 
The principal operations of it are plowing, grubbing, 
harrowing, rolling and hoeing; and a very complete, 
close series of them occurs in summer-fallowing. 
See the articles Plowing, Plow, Harrow, etc. 


Timber, in the sense of a forest, see article Forest¬ 
ry; for measuring, see Lumber; for value in fuel, see 
Fuel. In the sense of the material, or wood, we will 
give the most imixirtantimformation here. 

Strength of Wood, Pulled Lengthwise, 
Each rod being one-fourth of an inch square. 

Pounds. 


Ash, toughest, broke with. i,ooo 

Locust,. 1,280 

Elm,. 837 

Pitch Pine,. 75 ° 


Beech and White Oak,. 718 

Cedar,. 712 

Maple and Chestnut,. 65 6 

White Pine,. 550 

Walnut,... 487 

Poplar,. 437 


Broken sidewise, one inch square, one foot long. 

Pounds. 


Hickory,. 270 

White Oak, seasoned,. 240 

Ash,. 175 

Chestnut,. 170 

Yellow Pine,. 150 

White Pine,. 135 


A support (in pillar form) an inch square will bear 
the following weights before being crushed: Oak,, 
about 4 tons; pine, nearly 2 tons; elm, over i ton; 
best cast iron, 57 to 58 tons; cast copper, 58 tons; fine 
brass, 81 tons; hard brick, i ton. 


Green and Dry Wood. Fresh green wood loses 
about a third of its weight in seasoning, equal to 156 
gallons in every cord. The burning of one cord of 
green wood absorbs as much heat in evaporating this 
water as would be sufficient to heat 780 gallons from 
freezing to boiling. Seven cords of dry, hard wood 
have as much heating jxiwer as eight of green. The 
farmer who draws 50 cords of green wood on his 
wagon, draws over 20 tons more of water than in dry 
wood. 

Preserving Timber. As a general rule itis prefer¬ 
able to soak with petroleum wooden structures above 
ground, and apply hot gas tar to wood which goes be¬ 
low the surface. The petroleum soaks well into 
the vjores, and gives the wood the character of cedar; 
but long continued contact with the moisture of the 
soil tends to abstract or dissipate a part. Gas tar 
cautiously heated and applied to wood (the best way 
is to immerse the wood in a kettle of tar) remains 
mostly at the surface and forms an impervious coat¬ 
ing. The most perfect preparation, doubtless, would 
be to get all the petroleum into the pores of the wood 
first, and then coat with the tar. 

Charring is a common and cheap plan of rendering 
the surface of wood imperishable. 

Wood may be preserved many years by the various 
processes of poisoning,—with arsenic, corrosive subli¬ 
mate, nitric or sulphuric acid, etc.,—processes called 
“kyanizing,” “foremanizing,”etc., after their inventors, 
Kyan, Foreman, etc. These methods are effectual, 
but are somewhat expensive and dangerous. Such 
poisons are inserted in deep auger-holes, one to each 
post, for example, when green, and from a teaspocn- 
ful to a tablespoonful, according to the nature of the 
poison. The substance oozes throughout the wood, 
as it were saturating it so that no germs of decay can 
live in it. See page 442. 

Time. The method by which our years and days 
are computed is called “ Gregorian,” after Pope Greg¬ 
ory XHI, who in 1582 made a change of 10 days. 








































































1246 


TIMO THY— TOAD. 


decreeing that Oct. 5, that year, should be considered 
the 15th, in order to inaugurate a more correct sys¬ 
tem than had been in vogue since the days of Julius 
Cassar (B. C. 45), called “ Julian ” time. The Grego¬ 
rian method is the “ New Style,” while the “ Old 
Style,” or Julian, is still followed in Russia. Down 
to the present century, dates were often given even in 
our own language, thus: “Jan. 15, O. S.,” equal to 
“Jan. 27, N. S.,” if during the i8th century, 12 days 
having then to be added. By the old style nearly 
three days were lost every 400 years, whereas the 
present or Gregorian calendar will be practically cor¬ 
rect for 2,500 years to come. It allows of no inter¬ 
calary day (leap year) for the years ending in even 
hundreds, excepting the 4th (or 400th). All the 
other years divisible by four without a remainder are 
leap years, when February-is given 29 days. Leap 
year is also called “ bissextile ” (twice sixth), from the 
old Latin custom of putting in the intercalary (or 
“ extra ”) day twice as the sixth before the calends 
(first) of March,—that is, while Feb. 24 of common 
years was the sixth before the first of March, in leap 
years the 25 th was also called the sixth before the 
first of March. 

Questions often arise concerning the recurrence of 
certain days,—for example, when will the 4th of July 
come on Sunday again.-* When will five Sundays 
come again in Februaiy- ? What day of the week was 
Sept. 27, 1864.? etc. Most such queries can be an¬ 
swered by calculating from the fact that 28 years com¬ 
pletes a cycle of all these things,—the number 28 
being the product of 4 (years to each leap year) by 7 
(days in the week). Some of these phenomena re¬ 
cur seven times within the 28 years, some four times 
and some once. Abbreviated revolving calendar cards 
have been invented, of easy operation, by which any 
of these questions can be answered in a moment, 
without any calculation. 

Time of Day. A good almanac will give the varia¬ 
tion of the sun from true clock time for each day in 
the year. The sun is on the meridian (shadow at 
noon-mark) at 12 o’clock on only four days in the 
year: all other days it varies from it, to all points 
'with 161^ minutes. See Sun-Dial. Sun time is 
sometimes called “apparent ” time, and clock time is 
often called “ mean ” time. To find the true time, 
first ascertain the true meridian by fixing up two points 
of sight with the north star, notice the variation of 
the sun from true clock time by the almanac, and set 
your time-piece by the noon-mark. In these days of 
railroads, however, when most people are governed 
by them, “ railroad time ” is found the most service¬ 
able. 

Time Bargain, an agreement to buy or sell goods 
at some definite time in the future at a fixed price. 

Time, Legal, to which certain actions at law are 
limited. See Limitations, page 944. 

Timothy, or Herd’s Grass. See page 597. 

Tin, a silver-white metal, extensively used in coat¬ 
ing thin sheet-iron, which also is then called “tin,” 


The metal tin, when jDure, is very malleable, is harder 
than lead, is about 7J^ times heavier than water, 
and melts at 442Fahr. The poisonous matter and 
bad taste which get into water and other liquids stand¬ 
ing in tin. vessels come from the solder of the seams 
and joints, or from impurities in the tin, and not from 
the pure tin itself. This fact gives a hint to every 
housekeeper, who, if inclined to be decent and have 
a due regard to the health of all concerned, will 
know what to do. Fruit and all other edible articles 
sold in tin cans at the groceries are apt to be more or 
less poisonous. 

To Mend Tinware. Take a sharp knife and 
scrape the tin around the leak until it is bright, so 
that the solder will stick. Then sprinkle on a little 
ixiwdered resin (they have liquid solder to sell, but 
resin will do as well); lay your solder on the hole and 
with your soldering-iron melt it on. Do not have the 
iron too hot or the solder will not adhere to that. 
After two or three trials you will succeed very satis¬ 
factorily. See Solder. 

To Tin Over Rusty Spots on tinware, take a 
quantity of muriatic acid and dissolve all the zinc 
in it that it will cut; then dilute it with one-fourth 
soft water and it is ready for use. 

Tin Cans. A good use to be made of old tin cans 
IS to make flower-pots of them in the house and bird’s- 
nests of them out of doors. 

Tincture, a spirituous solution of a vegetable, ani¬ 
mal or saline substance. Sometimes, however, but 
rarely, we have aqueous and ethereal tinctures. 
Nearly all tinctures are alcoholic extracts from some 
vegetable substance, made for medicinal pur[X)ses. 
In the progress of medicinal practice, more tinctures 
and less of the crude material are given in treatment 
at the present day than formerly. In making a tinc¬ 
ture, the ingredient, which should be kept separate 
from all other substances, should be reduced to a 
coarse powder and placed with proof spirits in a 
closed vessel, and kept at a temperature of about 80°, 
and frequently shaken. From seven days to several 
weeks will be required. Home-made tinctures, if the 
work is carefully conducted, are more reliable than 
those of the drug-stores. 

Tine, the tooth or prong of a fork. 

Tire, the iron band which binds together the fellies 
of a wheel. See page 163 and article Wagon. 

Tissue (tish'u), the texture or grouping of anatom¬ 
ical elements of which any part of the body is com¬ 
posed. Thus we have muscular, nervous, bone, etc., 
tissues; and in botany we have woody, cellular, etc., 
tissues. The study of tissue structure has been car¬ 
ried to a great extent for some years past, so that it 
has a distinct scientific name,— “ histology; ” and 
many changes in medical science have correspond¬ 
ingly been made. 

Toad. It inhabits darkly or deeply shaded places 
in summer, and lies dormant in an excavated hole 








TOAD-FLAX— TO BA CCO. 


1247 


during winter. It couples in the water in March and 
April. The female produces innumerable small eggs, 
united by a transparent gelatinous substance in two 
strings, which are often 20 or 30 feet long; and the 
male assists with his hind feet in extracting these 
eggs. The common toad feeds on flies, ants and 
other insects, and therefore does good and no harm in 
gardens. The several species have different notes or 
sounds in spring. It is preyed upon by buzzards, 
owls, .snakes, and some other animals. It begins 
to breed at four years of age, and commonly lives 
upwards of 15 years, but has been known, in some 
curious instances, to attain a remarkable longevity. 

Toad-Flax, called also “ Butter and-Eggs ” and 
“ Ramsted,” is a slowly spreading but persistent weed. 
When rare, and cultivated only in gardens, its flower 
was considered interesting; but, like the dandelion, 
it has become too common to be longer interesting. 
The flowers are in part of the color of butter and in 
part of the yolk of eggs ; hence one of its names. It 
spreads by its creeping roots, which are eradicated 
with difficulty. 

Toadstool, vegetable growths upon other decaying 
vegetable matter. They are of the nature of fungus, 
the latter term being the scientific name for all plants 
in this branch of the vegetable kingdom, from the 
largest size down to the microscopic. The species of 
microscopic fungi are very numerous. The larger 
forms, with which we are more familiar, are of no 
practical consequence. The edible forms are called 
Mushrooms, which see, page 983. 

Toast, bread cut into slices and browned, and gen¬ 
erally buttered and served with other delicacies. 

Mock Cream-Toast. Melt in i quart of morn¬ 
ing’s milk, about 2 ounces of butter, a large teaspoon¬ 
ful of flour, freed from lumps, and the yolks of 3 eggs 
beaten light; beat these ingredients together several 
minutes; strain'the cream through a fine hair sieve, 
and when wanted heat it slowly, beaten constantly 
with a brisk movement; it must not boil or it will 
curdle and lose the appearance of cream; when hot, 
dip the toast; if not sufficiently seasoned with butter, 
add salt; send to the table hot, in a gravy bowl, the 
cream which is not taken up by the toast. 

German Toast. Cut thick slices of bread,—bakers’ 
is the best; dip them each side in milk enough to 
soften, then dip in beaten egg; put in a pan greased 
with just sufficient butler to fry; fry till brown as an 
omelet, then serve, well sprinkled with white sugar. 
Two eggs would be sufficient to dip nearly a dozen 
slices of bread. Like pancakes, the hotter the toast 
the better. 

Milk Toast. One quart of milk; when it comes 
to a boil thicken with i teaspoonful corn starch; add 
salt. Toast the bread a light brown; butter each 
slice, put layers of toast in a covered dish, and pour 
on the thickened milk, then more toast and milk, and 
so on till the dish is full; cover, let stand five min¬ 
utes, and serve. 

79 


Tobacco. As this plant can be raised with profit, 
in nearly all sections of the Union, we give here its 
method of culture. 

Cultivation. The seed is first sowed in beds, in 
late winter or early spring, at the rate of a tablesjxion- 
ful to every two square rods. The seeds are so 
minute that sowing evenly is scarcely attainable with¬ 
out first mixing it with three or four times its bulk of 
sand, ashes or fine mold. The bed should be either 
of newly cleared land or of soil on which has been 
burned a heavy coating of brush. It should then be 
kept entirely clear of weeds for six or eight weeks, 
when they will be ready to transplant to the field. 

In the preparation of the ground in the field, quite 
as much judgment and care must be exercised as in 
the preparation of the seed bed. Thorough prepara¬ 
tion of the soil will tell on the future crop just as cer¬ 
tainly as carelessness will result in failure. It is 
important, therefore, to start right and keep right to 
the end of the season. The tobacco plant is very 
exacting in the matter of soils, and will be content 
with none but the best. He who cannot supply this 
want might as well not undertake the cultivation of 
the crop. Under proper treatment and favorable 
conditions tobacco will do well on many soils; but 
the best tobacco is, with very few exceptions, grown 
on limestone land. There seems to be something 
especially conducive in this geological formation to 
the production of choice cigar tobacco. A warm, 
friable soil, such as is commonly known among 
farmers as a sandy loam, resting upon a limestone 
foundation, is much the best tobacco land. 

The plants should be set below the general level 
of the row, as by future hoeing the higher portions 
should be cut down to a level. All other cultivation 
should be the same as that for corn or other hoed 
crops, thorough and frequent. No weeds dare be 
allowed at any time. In an'average season the plant 
will mature sufficiently by the early part of August to 
dispense with further cultivation of the ground, as 
the plants shading it will check the growth of weeds. 

Whenever the plant develops from 14 to 16 leaves, 
break off the top; don’t cut it off. This arrests the 
further production of leaves, but will promote the 
growth of suckers, which will have to be removed 
after attaining a length of three or four inches, as 
often as they appear. 

It may be well to refer here to two formidable 
enemies of the plant, viz: the black cut-worm and 
the green tobacco worm. The former will attack the 
roots of the plant as soon as it is put into the ground. 
The depredations of this worm sometimes necessitate 
frequent re-planting. They must be hunted and de¬ 
stroyed until they disappear, which they will do as 
the season advances. The last named generally ap¬ 
pears about July r, and feeds on the leaf until the 
crop is secured in the sheds. In fact, they frequent¬ 
ly, if not picked off clean, cling to the leaves after the 
stalk is hung up. About these there is but one 
advice to give: pick them off and destroy them, going 
over the field for this purpose daily, as the ravages of 





1248 


TOBACCO. 


the green worm do more to injure the quality, per¬ 
haps, than any other thing. See pages 885-6. 

Usually, from two to three weeks from the time of 
topping, the plant will mature and be ready to cut. 
Uniform size of leaves and a stiffness of the leaf, 
making it liable to break by bending and handling, 
are the surest signs of maturity. 

Cut after the dew is off, but not during the middle 
of the day, when the sun is bright, as you must guard 
against burning while it is undergoing the wilting 
process, preparatory to spearing and handling in the 
removal to the shed. 

When sufficiently wilted, the plan most in practice 
is spearing or stringing upon laths four feet long, five 
or six plants to the lath, and then, removing the same 
into sheds, ,hang up for curing. The distance be¬ 
tween the lath, general arrangement of shed and 
management thereof, as to ventilation, admission of 
light, etc., must be attended to. Air and light, hav¬ 
ing a great influence on the curing and fixing of color, 
must be used to the best advantage in catering to the 
tastes of the trade. 

In removing plants to the shed after cutting, various 
devices are used. Sleds, wagons of various styles, or 
any way in which you succeed withmit breaking or 
bruising the leaf, is a good plan; and the quickest way, 
with these ends accomplished, is the best. 

By the middle of December and after, whenever 
the plant is sufficiently pliable by moisture to strip or 
handle it without injury, you can strip it; assorting 
leaves is one of the prominent features in the strij> 
ping process. All solid leaves should be kept sepa¬ 
rate as wrappers, and these sorted into hands of ten 
or twelve leaves, each hand tied at the butt by a 
single leaf. All leaves in the same hand should be 
of uniform length. The hands should then be assort¬ 
ed with reference to length into two or three sizes. 
All defective leaves should be treated alike and put 
up separately, the respective qualities being bulked 
separately ready for market. 

The yield per acre is generally from 1,500 to 2,500 
pounds. 

Varieties. The varieties of tobacco are numer¬ 
ous, not less than a dozen being cultivated in America. 
The most fragrant are produced in Cuba, and are al¬ 
most exclusively used for cigars. They command 
several times the price of ordinary kinds. The leaves 
of New England tobacco, being thin and tough, are 
largely used as cigar wrappers. The tobacco of Vir¬ 
ginia, Maryland, Kentuck}/ and some adjoining States 
is peculiarly rich and high-flavored, and is most 
esteemed for chewing. Much of the peculiar flavor 
and value of tobacco depends on the soil and the 
preparation or sweating of the plant after drying. 
Highly manured land does not produce the best flavor¬ 
ed tobacco. 

Evils of the use of Tobacco. We wish to make 
some observations upon many of the evils, both direct 
and indirect, which arise from the use of this weed. 
We do this more as a preventive, to keep the young 
men from becoming addicted to its use, rather than to 


induce those who have the habit fastened upon them, 
to quit its use. 

Tobacco is a native of the West Indies. Romanus 
Paine, who accompanied Columbus on his second 
voyage, seems to have been the first to introduce 
tobacco into Europe as an article of luxury. Paine 
is said to have lived a vagabond life, and died a miser¬ 
able death. 

The natives called it Peterna. The name tobacco 
is derived from the town of Tabaco, New Spain. The 
Latin name, Nicotiana Tabacum., is from Jean Nicot, 
who was a French ambassador from the court of Fran¬ 
cis I. (born the year tobacco was introduced by Paine) 
to Portugal. On the return of Nicot, he brought and 
introduced to the French court the narcotic plant, 
and popularized it in France. Thence it was intro¬ 
duced all over Europe, but encountered great oppo¬ 
sition. Sir Walter Raleigh introduced tobacco into 
England about 1582. 

History informs us that a Persian king so strongly 
prohibited its use, and visited such severe penalties 
upon its votaries, that many of his subjects fled away 
to the caves, forests, and mountains, where they might 
worship this matchless deity free from ])ersecution. 
The czar prohibited its use in Russia under penalty 
of death to smokers, mitigating snuff-takers’ penalty 
to tnercly slitting open their noses! 

In Constantinople a Turk found smoking was placed 
upon a donkey, facing the beast’s rump, and, with a 
pipe-stem run through his nose, was rode about the 
public streets, a sad warning to all tobacco-smokers. 
King James thundered against it. The government 
of Switzerland sounded its voice against it till the 
Alps echoed again. 

But in spite of opposition and the vileness of the 
article, it has worked itself into general use, next to 
that of table salt,—and to-day a majority of the adult 
male population of our Christianized and enlightened 
United States are its acknowledged votaries! 

In reference to the use of tabacco the late Horace 
Greely made the following remark: “ I do not say that 
every chewer or smoker is a blackguard; but show me 
a blackguard who is not a lover of tobacco, and I will 
show you two white blackbirds.” 

It Begets Laziness and National Ruin. Upon 
this feature of the use of tobacco, Sir Benjamin Brodie, 
a distinguished physician of London, says: “A large 
proportion of habitual smokers are rendered lazy and 
listless, indisposed to bodily and incapable of much 
mental exertion. Others suffer from depression of the 
spirits, amounting to hypochondriasis, which smoking 
relieves for the time, though it aggravates the evil after¬ 
wards. 

“What will be the result if this habit be continued 
by future generations?” 

Tobacco is ruining our nation. Its tendency is to 
make the individual user idle, listless and imbecile. 
Individuals make up the nation. Those nations using 
the most tobacco are the most rapidly deteriorating. 

Once the ships of Holland plowed the waters with 
a broom at the mast-head, emblematic of her power 










TOILET. 


1249 


to sweep the ocean. Behold her now! “ Her people 

self-satisfied, content with their pipes and the glories 
once achieved by their grandfathers.” Look at the 
Mexicans, and the lazzaroni of Italy. “ Spain took 
the lead of civilized nations in the use of tobacco, but 
since its introduction in that country the noble Cas¬ 
tilian has become degenerated, his moral, intellectual, 
and physical energies weakened, paralyzed, and de¬ 
based. The Turks, descendants of the warlike 
Saracens, are notoriously known as inveterate smokers, 
and to-day they are characterized as an enervated, 
lazy, worthless, degenerate people.” 

Go about the shoi>s, and bar-rooms, and billiard- 
halls of our own community, and see our lazzaroni. 
What class do they principally represent—the active 
and virtuous, or the idle and vicious.^ 

Hereditary Evils of its Use. Man stuffs him¬ 
self with tobacco jxiison. It becomes a part of him,— 
muscle, blood, bone! Like begets like, and behold 
the tobacco-user’s children,—puny,yellow, pale, scrofu¬ 
lous, rickety, consumptive. Many years ago it was 
estimated that twenty thousand persons died annually 
in the United States from the use of tobacco. Nine- 
tenths begin with tobacco catarrh, go on to consump¬ 
tion, and death. Upon this same subject Dean 
Swift said: 

“ The diseased, enfeebled, impaired, and rotten con¬ 
stitution of the parent is transmitted to the child, 
which comes into the world aninvalid, and then, being 
exposed more directly to the poisonous effects of this 
pernicious habit of the parent, its struggle for life is 
exceedingly short, and in less than twelve months 
from its birth it sickens, droops, and dies, and the 
milkman’s adulterated milk, especially in cities, is 
often made the scape-goat for this uncleanly, if not 
sinful, habit of the parent.” 

Medical Properties. Tobacco is a violent acro- 
narcotic, sedative, diuretic, emetic, cathartic, and 
errhine. The peculiar principle is a violent poison, 
one drop of which, placed upon the tongue of most 
animals, being sufficient to produce death. On this 
account a person can become a slave to its use, so 
that the greatest pleasure seems to consist in continu¬ 
ing the use of it rather than in abandoning it; and 
the system, becoming thus gradually and insinuatingly 
filled with its elements, is liable to succumb to 
premature old age, debility, nervousness and suscepti¬ 
bility to fatal diseases which seem very remote from 
what could be caused by tobacco. 

Like other poisons, tobacco is a surer thing to kill 
with than tocure; henceits valueas a vermin destroyer, 
in the orchard, tfte garden and the house. In many 
receipts for these purposes tobacco is referred to 
throughout this work. In some skin diseases also, 
where vermin are to be destroyed, tobacco is often 
employed. 

Toilet. The ordinary business of the toilet is too 
well known to require that we should go into all the 
details respecting it ; nor shall we attempt to unveil 
all the profound mysteries of the cosmetic art, by 


which almost miraculous effects are daily promised, 
but seldom performed. Our object is chiefly to point 
out some circumstances that concern the preserva¬ 
tion of health or convenience. 

The term toilet is originally French ^.nd is 

derived from toile., any thin stuff. It appears fo have 
been first applied to a fine covering of linen, silk, or 
tapestry spread over a table in a bed-chamber, or 
dressing-room, to place the dressing things upon, such 
as dressing-boxes, mirrors, perfumes, combs, pin¬ 
cushions, brushes, razors, etc. 

One of the chief objects of attraction in the affairs 
of the toilet is the care of the skin, the keeping of 
which in a condition to perform its important func¬ 
tions has been shown to be essential to health by 
numerous medical writers. The principal means by 
which it is effected are the use of the bath, and fre¬ 
quent ablution. 

Cos.METics. The desire of being agreeable has, 
no doubt, led to the invention of cosmetics. Under 
this tenn are usually comprehended all the expe¬ 
dients invented to soften the skin, to maintain its 
transparency, luster and freshness, to give color to 
the complexion, to prevent or efface wrinkles, to 
whiten and clean the teeth, to stain the hair and eye¬ 
brows, and, in short, to improve the appearance of the 
face and hands. 

The term is derived from a Greek verb, to 
adorn. The Greek ladies, we are told, studied much 
the use of cosmetics, as the women of the East do at 
the present day; hence, we see frequently advertised 
various nostrums under the title of some Eastern 
name. When we consider the anatomical structure 
of the skin, and how easily it absorbs substances ap¬ 
plied to it, it is evident how careful we should be not 
to use any deleterious materials for the face and hands, 
and that we should know accurately the nature and 
composition of all substances recommended by per¬ 
fumers. The intimate connection between the func¬ 
tions of the skin and those of the stomach were not 
so well understood formerly as they are in the pres¬ 
ent day; and hence many practices were resorted to 
in the use of cosmetics that are now known to be very 
improper. Nevertheless, all cosmetics are not to be 
condemned equally ; some are, perhaps, harmless, and 
others are occasionally useful. We shall illustrate 
this by a few general remarks. Of paints for the face, 
which are occasionally employed, some, as we shall 
show, are highly dangerous ; and those which are not 
so have an injurious effect, if used constantly, in 
stopping up or clogging the pores of the skin. Those 
cosmetics which owe their efficacy to vinegar and 
alum, or any other acids and astringents, are often for 
a time efficacious, giving a firmness and luster to the 
skin; but this effect is merely temporary, for they in 
time alter its texture, dry it, and produce premature 
wrinkles ; they are, therefore, better avoided. Mucil¬ 
aginous cosmetics, such as barley water, oat-meal, 
etc., have not this inconvenience; they render the 
skin more supple, softer, and more polished. Pastes 
and ointments sometimes produce good effects in cer- 











1250 


TOMATO. 


tain states of the skin. They are generally laid on 
the face and hands, and remain on all night, contrib¬ 
uting to restore the suppleness and elasticity of the 
skin; but the fatty substances that form their basis 
ought to be well purified. Some consider the wax 
that sometimes enters into the composition as too dry¬ 
ing and irritating, and recommend fresh cream or 
glycerine as better. As a general rule, it is prudent 
to avoid the use of all cosmetics the composition of 
which is a secret or unknown, which will, of course, 
exclude all those which are advertised with high- 
sounding names. Some of these produce astonishing 
effects at first but ultimately ruin the skin, destroying 
its natural functions, and, consequently, seriously 
injuring health. 

All medical men teach that the best way of improv¬ 
ing the skin is to improve the health generally by 
temperate living and moderate exercise. 

Complexion, A standard volume lies before us 
giving 49 recipes for improving the complexion, and 
eminent authorities on etiquette and the laws of 
health are also on the table before us, earnestly ex¬ 
horting every one to discard all such things. It may 
be true that both health and etiquette require us to 
forego the use of all cosmetics; but for the conven¬ 
ience of those who are determined to use such things, 
we give two or three of the best. Pimples on the face 
are best avoided by a strict observance of the laws of 
health. Burnt grease (made in frying), sugar in any 
form, spices, most medicines, and acrid substances 
befoul the “blood,” and the latter undertakes to 
throw them off through the skin in the form of pim¬ 
ples, boils, insensible perspiration, etc. 

Wash for the Face. The following will be found 
an excellent wash for the face. It contains nothing 
injurious and imparts a clear alabaster appearance to 
the skin. This recipe has been sold by agents in 
different parts of the country for five and ten dollars, 
and we are acquainted with ladies who thought it an 
excellent investment: Bay rum, 3 ounces; glycerine, 

2 drachms; flake white, 3 drachms; prepared chalk, 

2 drachms; cologne spirits, ^ grain; and soft water, 
1% pints. 

Another that has met with a large demand is made 
as follows; Four ounces of bay rum, i ounce of flake 
white, I ounce of glycerine, and 8 ounces of rain¬ 
water. Mix and color with the least bit of carmine. 

Paints for the Face. There have been many 
mixtures of paints put upon the market for painting 
the face. They are not now, we are glad to say, so 
generally used as formerly. Pearl while is one of 
these. It is a preparation of bismuth and is extremely 
injurious to the skin. Pearl powder was another. In¬ 
stead of its being pearls ground to powder, it was, we 
believe, made of French chalk powdered, and perhaps 
mixed with pearl white or bismuth. 

With respect to red paints, vegetable reds alone are 
safe to use; they are dyeing substances, and are harm¬ 
less,—such as those made from cochineal, safflower, 
cartharaus, sandal wood and Brazil wood; but the 


mineral reds, such as minium or red lead, and ver¬ 
milion or cinnabar (a sulphuret of mercury), are 
poisonous, and ought to be entirely excluded from the 
toilet, together with every composition into which they 
enter as an ingredient. All these metallic prepara¬ 
tions, and also ceruse, or white lead, destroy the tex¬ 
ture of the skin, cause wrinkles, and compel those who 
begin their use to continue the practice, although 
dangerous. The consequences of this are nervous 
affections, and perhaps palsy. 

There is no standard color of the face which one 
should seek to attain or to admire, other than that 
which one would have by living strictly. Thus, in 
the present stage of human development, some would 
have rosy or ruddy cheeks, some swarthy and some 
of a mixed or undefined color. 

Fleshy Face. European painters and sculptors, 
from time immemorial, have invariably represented 
the beautiful human form as having plump, round 
cheeks, and thus have formed the tastes of the 
masses, both in the old country and in America, for 
the beautiful human face to be in no other shape 
than “ plump,” fleshy. This habit of thought is con¬ 
firmed by the fact that when a person becomes an 
invalid he loses flesh, rosiness of cheek and becomes 
lean and cadaverous. At the same time it is well 
known that nearly all the hard work of the world is 
done by lean men, who have no rosy cheeks, although 
many of them have a ruddy complexion. We leave 
the reader to put the above three facts together, with 
as many others as he can, and reason out his own 
conclusions. 

We are aware that “falling in love ’’overrides all 
other considerations, and that nature, by a law,of 
compensation, continually endeavors to recover a 
normal development; and that, according to this law, 
a person having one extreme of physical form or 
feature, is apt to seek as a companion for life one 
who has the opposite extreme,—that the thin-faced 
is most apt to prefer the full-faced, and vice versa. 
One s constitution will color all his views concerning 
matters of taste, despite all the advice we can give 
here; and we have therefore devoted our space to 
things without the domain of taste. 

We have very fully treated of the care of the hair, 
teeth and of perfumes, pomades, etc., under their re¬ 
spective heads. 

Tomato (to-ma'to or to-mat'o), a vegetable bear¬ 
ing a well-known fruit, formerly known as love-apple. 
It is a native of South America, and until within a 
comparatively short period of time it was considered 
as unfit for food and even by some as poisonous. It 
is now cultivated throughout the land and is regard¬ 
ed as a most healthful food, although few persons 
are pleased with its taste at first. This must be 
cultivated, which, however, is not very difficult with 
most persons. The vine is very susceptible to frost, 
but is easily cultivated. 

Cultivation. Sow in March or April in the hot- 












TOMATO. 


1251 



bed or in pots in a sunny exposure in the house; 

when desired to 
make healthy, 
stocky plants, 
they may be trans¬ 
planted or re¬ 
potted when 
about two or three 
inches high; when 
five or six inches 
high, if the ground 
becomes w a rm, 
transplant to the 
Fig. I.—Gen. Grant Tomato, open ground. Oil a 

cloudy or rainy day if possible; if not, the young plants 
should be liberally watered and shaded from the hot 
sun. For a heavy crop, a warm, dry, sandy loam, 
only moderately rich, is best. To have the fruit 
ripen as early as possible in preference to a heavy 
crop, select rather light, poor soil and a sunny loca¬ 
tion. Trimming off the branches and top and train¬ 
ing to a stake are believed by many to promote 
earliness; propagation by slips is said also to aid in 
this. Root-pruning has been systematically demon¬ 
strated to be very injurious. Set the plants four feet 
apart each way, upon mounds of earth, to allow the 
foliage to open and let the sun in amongst the fruit. 
A cheap trellis made by driving three stakes around 
the plants and encircling them with three or four 
barrel hoops, makes a very nice support for training. 
The burying of the removed leaves immediately 
around the plant is a good practice, both by insuring 
full disturbance of the soil, and by the presenting of 
a fertilizer progressed precisely to the point of fruit¬ 
making. The portions buried decay rapidly, and are 
rapidly assimilated. 

For field culture it is best to plant on rather poor 
land and manure in the hill with a shovelful of rich 


This gives the plant 
roots get 


a thrifty start, and 


compost, 
when the 

beyond the manure 
the growth of the 
plant is checked and 
fruitfulness induced. 

If you are growing 
for the factories you 
must grow such 
varieties as they wish. 

The crop will prove 
a profitable one at 25 
cents a bushel, which 
is about the factory 
price, and when, as 

is sometimes the case, a scarcity in the market brings 
the price up to 7 5 cents or a dollar, they are largely 
profitable. When tomatoes are grown by the acre 
the large green worm (pages 885-6) often causes 
serious trouble. Hand-picking appears to be the only 
remedy. We have a valuable aid in this work, in a 
small Ichneumon fly; its little white cocoons are 
often seen sticking to the back of some unfortunate 



worm. Such cocoons should never be disturbed. 

To ripen late tomatoes, pull the plants having 
green tomatoes on them, before the commencement 
of frosts, and hang them in a well ventilated cellar. 

Varieties. Of the many varieties mentioned by 
seedsmen we will give but about two dozen of the 
best. 

Livingston’s Acme. A purple variety like the 
Paragon. 

Paragon. Ripens perfectly around the stem, and 
is the largest round tomato in cultivation. 

Conqueror. Handsome, somewhat resembling the 
Canada Victor, but not as large, solid or always early; 
vines small. 

Canada Victor. Excels in ripening nearly all its 
crop early. 

Cook’s Favorite. Round and solid. 

Gen. Grant. Smooth, symmetrical and solid. 

Trophy. Magnificent. 

Golden Trophy. A yellow, rapid, free grower. 

Hathaway’s Excelsior. Spherical, early, solid, of 
excellent quality and very productive; skin rather thin. 

Hubbard’s Curled Leaf. Probably a strain of 
Early York. 

Early York. Very early, dwarf and productive; 
irregular in shape. 

Foote’s Hundred-Day. Extremely early; fruit 
small and irregular. 

Keyes’ Early Prolific. Medium size in large clus¬ 
ters. 

Large Red Smooth. The standard kind; good 
for market. 

Little Gem. Small, but extra early. 

Red Cherry. Flavor unsurpassed; fruit small. 

Yellow Cherry. For preserving and pickles. 

Tilden. Large, smooth, thick-meated, high-flavor¬ 
ed and first class on low, rich soil. 

Alpha. One of the best to ripen. 

Triumph; Orange Field. A new variety of rich, 
fruity flavor. 

Yellow Fig. Pear-shaped and is preserved as figs. 

Strawberry^ Ground Cher^ or Alkekengi. Grows 
enclosed in a husk within which it will keep all winter, 
excellent for preserves. 

Currant. Resembles long bunches of currants; 
for ornament only. 

Several other ornamental and curious varieties are 
advertised by seedsmen. 

To make tomato catsup, see page 168; to can 
tomatoes, see page 158; to preserve them, see page 
1050; to pickle green tomatoes, see pages 1020-1. 

To Cook Tomatoes. Peel and put them into 
a stew-pan; put in a little salt and stew them for 
half an hour; then turn them into a deep dish with 
buttered toast. Another way of cooking them is to 
put them in a deep dish, with fine bread crumbs, 
crackers pounded fine, a layer of each, alternately ; 
put small bits of butter, a little salt and pepper on 
each layer. Have a layer of bread crumbs on the 
top. Bake it three-quarters of an hour. 




















































TON—TO WNSHIF. 


1252 


Ton, 2,000 pounds. This is sometimes called the 
“short ton.” in contradistinction to the old “long 
ton” of 2,240 pounds, still in use in England. 
Spelled /««, the word denotes a cask, like a pipe or 
puncheon. 

Tongue (tung). It is important for all to know 
that a white-coated tongue, with red edges, denotes 
fever of some simple type, which ought to be cured 
in a day or two; and that a brownish coat on the 
tongue indicates typhoid or other serious conditions, 
which require more skilled and prolonged treatment. 

According to Dr. John M. Scudder the coated 
tongue indicates an impairment or arrest of digestion; 
and the tongue uniformly of a deep red, either smooth 
and glossy or covered with a brownish or dark filthy 
matter, indicates an excess of the salts of the blood. 
In such cases he gives acids to counteract this excess. 
The broad pale tongue, with a pasty-white or yellow¬ 
ish coat, indicates a defect of the salts, and in medi¬ 
cal treatment calls for alkalies. 

Defective digestion, from late suppers, gluttony or 
want of exercise, often occasions a dejxjsit on the 
tongue during the night. This should be scraped off 
with a knife or scoured off with a brush and water. 

To Cook Beef Tongue, see page 66. 

Tonsils, almond-shaped bodies, situated on each 
side of the rear portion of the mouth, or about opjx)- 
site the uvula, or “ soft palate.” They are, in the 
adult, about half an inch in length, consist of follicles, 
and yield a viscid mucus to facilitate swallowing. 
Their inflammation is the disease called tonsillitis, or 
quinsy. The symptoms are soreness, pain in swal¬ 
lowing, swelling of one or both tonsils and fever. 
Sometimes the disease grows to be very severe, even 
occasioning death by suffocation. A dose of citrate 
or sulphate of magnesia, or some other cooling ape¬ 
rient, should be given the first day; then wine of 
ipecacuanha, 20 drops every three hours, with fre¬ 
quent draughts of flaxseed tea or flaxseed lemonade. 
Poultice with flaxseed meal to which lard and lauda¬ 
num have been added. When the poultice is 
changed, bathe with liniment of ammonia, or soap 
liniment to which aqua ammoniae has been added. 

If still severe and not certainly suppurating, a very 
small blister may be applied, or the part may be 
painted with tincture of iodine. When an abcess is 
evidently forming poultices will be better, until it is 
ready to open from within. Do not undertake to 
lance a suppurated tonsil unless you know how to 
avoid cutting the internal carotid artery. 

Tools: see Implements, page 863. 

Tooth: see Teeth, page 1237. 

Top-dressing, a manure of any kind spread ujx)!! 
plowed land without being turned in; or a fine, or 
comminuted or thoroughly reduced or special manure 
sown or equally distributed upon grass land. Com¬ 
mon kinds of top-dressings are ashes, road-dust, 
gypsuMi, common salt and the nitrates of soda and ! 


potash. Liquid manure is always used as a top¬ 
dressing. See article Manure. 

Tornado, a wind which is so violent as to destroy 
property or life. The word “ hurricane ” has a similar 
meaning, but is sometimes limited to winds of slight¬ 
ly less violence than a tornado. In these days of 
newspaper sesquipedalianism, “cyclones ’’threaten to 
whirl the other two words out of use. 

The only practical remarks we can make concern¬ 
ing tornadoes is to tell how we may best avoid them. 
They generally come during the thunder-storm season 
of the year, namely. May and June,—the former 
month mostly in the South^ and later further north. 
When the sky is threatening, watch the clouds south¬ 
west of you, as tornadoes generally travel northeast. 
When you see a dark, funnel-shaped cloud in the 
southwest, moving slightly toward the north, run to 
the southeast; if it seems to be southing, run to the 
northwest. By these means you will get out of its 
track,—nearly always. But if it seems to be making 
straight for you, go into a cellar, to the west side of 
it, and if convenient place heavy boards or pieces of 
timber over you, leaning them up against the wall. 
A death-like stillness of the air prevails just before a 
tornado. 

Tourniquet (tur'ni-ket), a surgical instrument for 
stopping the course of blood in a limb, by exerting a 
strong compression upon the principal artery. The 
purpose is, of course, to prevent bleeding in case of 
dangerous wounds and in surgical operations. 

Township, the district or territory of a town ; in the 
older States it is often called simply“town.” Inmost of 
the States the township is six miles square, but in some 
it is five, seven or ten miles square. Some “town¬ 
ships ” are, of course, necessarily fractional, as those 
along rivers, lakes and the boundary' line of counties 
or of the State. 

Townships are numbered from a base line and a 
“ principal ” meridian, fixed by the Government. Thus, 
“T. 5 N., of range 2 W.” denotes the 5th township 
north of the base line in the 2d range west of the 
(numbered) principal meridian. 

Townships are divided into square miles called 
“ sections,” and these are numbered commencing at 
the northeast corner, thus; 


6 

5 

4 

0 

2 

r 

7 

8 

9 

10 

r r 

r 2 

r8 

17 

r 6 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

3 T 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


Timniship. 

The sections are further subdivded into “quarters,” 












































TRACES—TRA VELING, 


1253 


which are a half mile in extent on each side, thus: 


N. W. qr. 

N. E. qr. 

S. W. qr. 

S. E. qr. 


and these are still further subdivided by private 
parties, into “halves of quarters,” “quarters of 
quarters,” etc. 

The inhabitants of townships are invested with cer¬ 
tain powers for regulating their own affairs, such as 
repairing roads, constructing ditches, providing for 
the poor, etc. The township is subordinate to the 
county. 

Traces, the chains or heavy leather straps (tugs) 
by which the team draws the load. They extend 
from the hames to the whiffle-trees, and are some¬ 
times divided into two sections, one of leather and 
the other a chain. 

Trachea (tra-ke'a), the scientific name of the wind¬ 
pipe. It is coming into more common use, with the ad¬ 
vance of popular education. Inflammation of the 
trachea is called tracheitis, and surgical incision of 
that organ is called tracheotomy. 

Tracheotomy, the formation of an artificial open¬ 
ing in the windpipe. This is an operation seldom 
required and should never be attempted by a non¬ 
professional person not acquainted with the art and 
science of surgery. We therefore give no description 
of it. 

Track-Cleaner, attachment to a mowing machine 
to throw the cut grass away from that which is uncut. 

Training is a general term applicable to many 
things, as the training of children, of horses and other 
animals, and of plants. Grape-vines, tomato-vines, 
fruit-trees, etc., are trained to stakes, trellises, walls, 
etc. The training of vines and trees to espaliers 
(lattice-work) is much practiced in the old country. 
For the training of domestic animals, see name of the 
animal in its alphabetical place. For the training of 
children, see Children and Education. 

Transplanting, removing trees or other plants 
from one place to another, to continue^their growth in 
a new place. The principles to be observed with 
each plant are indicated in their proper places, but 
there are a few general principles to be observed 
which we note here. 

Nursery preparation for the successful removal of 


trees is made by several transplantings, shortening 
their roots from time to time, so as to limit the growth 
of single strong roots and increase and concentrate 
fibrous ones around the collar and the short main 
roots proceeding from it. In removing trees from the 
forest, either take them in winter with a large amount 
of frozen earth, or two or three years before removing 
cut around and confine the roots somewhat, partially 
or wholly cutting off the large downward roots. Re¬ 
peat and perfect the operation each year for the two 
or three years following, and the fourth year it can be 
safely removed without difficulty. Swamp trees have 
no roots extending down deep. Make the diameter 
of the ball of earth in the pro^xirtion of one foot for 
each inch of diameter in the stem of the tree at a 
foot above the collar. 

Prune closely at the time of transplanting, cutting 
away from their heads from one-fourth to one-half 
their weight, about in proportion to the waste of root, 
carefully shortening and opening them. All climb¬ 
ing shrubs will be benefited by being cut down to the 
ground, so that the growth of the plant will be entirely 
new. The same is true of most varieties of bushy 
shrubs, particularly the Azaleas, wild roses and the 
laurel (Kalmia), which, though an evergreen, is in this 
respect an exception to its class. This process, how¬ 
ever, is not to be rigidly applied to those plants we 
select for the sake of their stems already formed; but 
it will be found good for most kinds from the woods, 
and very often also for nursery plants, particularly if 
they have been over-forced, or are transplanted when 
in leaf and wilt upon your hands, or from any cause 
are weakened before being re-set. It also relieves us 
from the necessity of seeking for handsome plants, as 
they will grow naturally, and therefore prettily, when, 
having sufficient room, they grow anew. 

It is not the safest to remove evergreens in early 
spring. Transplant them either in winter, with the 
frozen earth about them, or be so prepared as to keep 
a large quantity of earth about their roots without dis¬ 
placing any of them; or, defer their removal until 
late in spring or early summer. 

From the time the roots are out of the ground to 
the time the young trees are set, keep the roots moist 
and out of the sun and dry wind. This is especially 
important with evergreens. Do not dig the holes till 
the trees are nearly ready to set, as the soil, when 
freshly dug, is in better condition. 

The spreading of the roots, filling in the soil, mulch¬ 
ing, etc., and transplanting large trees by aid of a 
two-wheeled cart, are fully illustrated on page 511. 

Traveling. It has been our aim to make these 
volumes as practical and useful to the farmer as pos¬ 
sible. They have been prepared for him and his 
family and are intended to embrace the treatment of 
every subject likely to be of interest or value to him 
in the pursuit of his noble calling; and we feel that 
some valuable remarks can be made upon the topic 
of traveling, embracing the theme of visiting cities, 
etc. It is well known that people from the country 
often experience embarrassment on going into a city. 

















1254 


TJ^A VELING. 


and also have more or less difficulty in finding persons 
whom they wish to see, or places they desire to visit, 
and also are often beset by confidence men and 
sharpen. It is therefore the intention of this article 
to furnish such information and suggestions as will 
enable the farmer to travel safely, and to the best ad¬ 
vantage, see the most and avoid the innumerable 
sharks and traps always found in cities awaiting the 
unwary. It is not expected that one who has been 
reared amid rural scenes, where the herds and flocks 
roam at will over large pastures, where the growing 
fields, the picturesque foliage of timber regions, or the 
barren expanse of wintry scenes only greet him, will 
know all the ways of city life. His business has only 
called him over the sparsely ti'aveled country roads, 
and occasionally to the country village. Never ham¬ 
pered or crowded, never dazzled with the gilt and 
glitter of the city or bewildered by the colossal and 
magnificent buildings, how is he to know the manner 
in which his fellow-beings live who are crowded to¬ 
gether by the hundreds of thousands 1 How is he to 
guard himself from the innumerable artifices, tricks 
and traps talented but unprincipled men are contin¬ 
ually setting for and practicing upon the unwary.? In 
every big city there are hundreds and even thousands 
of men and women, who live in luxury and plenty 
entirely off the men who visit the cities and are 
unaccustomed to the devices of these sharpers and 
swindlers. Knowing that most farmers visit cities 
occasionally, or contemplate such a trip, it is our 
desire, as above mentioned, to provide them with such 
information of all these things that they may be 
thoroughly fortified against the arts of swindlers of all 
kinds, as well as to know the best means of traveling, 
seeing sights, etc. 

Packing the Sachel. It is very important to 
have in your sachel everything you will need while 
away from home, and it is quite impossible to do this 
at a moment’s warning, without some method, and we 
know of no better one than the following; Take a 
card and write on it, at leisure, in a clear, distinct 
column, the name of every article which you will want 
while away from home. This may be done by taking 
a list of everything in your bag, and adding to it as 
any omission is discovered. Then, whenever you are 
about startingon a journey, glance along down this list 
and see whatyou want this lime. You may thus pack 
a bag and get ready at any time in five nnnutes,'and 
never forget an article. As a sample of such a list, we 
give the following, from which anything wanted is at 
once selected : 


Watch, R. R. Guide 

Match Box, Lunch, 

Pocket Compass, Collars, 

Spy Glass, Cravats, 

Door Fastener, Shirts, 

Thread and Needle, Stockings, 
Hair Brush, Gioves, 

Drinking Cup, Overshoes, 


Map, Shaving Tools, 
Money, 

Tracts, Cards, etc.. 
Paper, 

Ink, 

Pencils, 

Envelopes, 

Postage Stamps, etc. 


Then in starting or in changing cars, remember the 
three words, Overcoat, Sachel, Utnhrella." 

On the Train. We shall now take up the topic of 
traveling, which is byno means an unimportant feature 


of a visit to the city, or a journey anywhere. To 
ma,ke it as pleasant, as interesting, as free from 
fatigue and as rapid and safe as possible, should be 
the aim of every one. After determining what day 
you intend going you should find out the time at 
which your train leaves your station. You should 
then be there a sufficient time before the arrival of 
the train to get your ticket, have your baggage checked 
and everything ready for the trip. A rush for the 
train and hasty departure is sure to leave something 
behind or undone that will annoy you during all your 
trip. Another thing to guard against is getting on a 
way or mail train, if there are through express trains 
running over the road. Most railroads run slow trains, 
which not only run slow,but stop at every station, and 
also have their fast express trains which stop only at 
long intervals, and the rate of speed of which is much 
faster. 

One other thing to determine is, whether you wish 
to travel during the night or day, or to arrive in the 
city at night or morning. Where the journey can be 
made within 12 hours, business men, in order to save 
time, travel at night; but if one wishes to see the 
country through which he passes, he should aim to 
make the greater part of his journey, if it takes longer 
than 12 hours,_ during the day time. Should you 
arrive in the city in the evening you can repair to 
your hotel and have a good night’s rest, and be pre¬ 
pared for business or running around the next day. 

Should you desire to travel at night, or your journey 
is longer than can be made in one day, you will find 
a sleeping car attached to almost all night passenger 
trains. These afford the greatest ease and comfort to 
those who take berths in them. These cars are 
especially constructed to travel smoothly, and are pro¬ 
vided with everything that the traveler could wish to 
lighten the fatigue of a journey. Upon either side of 
these coaches is constructed a double row of berths, 
one over the other. The berths or bunks in these are 
known as upper and lower berths. These are large 
enough to accommodate two persons, and are provided 
with spring mattresses and all the bedding necessary 
for warmth_ and comfort. There is no difference as to 
the furnishing or comfort of the upper or lower berth, 
but for convenience in getting in and out the lower 
one is preferred. Those near the center of the car are 
preferable to those at the ends, over the wheels. 

During the night the porter will polish your boots, 
and on arriving in the suburbs of the city, and all the 
passengers are up and have made their toilet, he will 
visit you with a brush to dust your clothing. After 
this is completed he will expect pay for putting your 
boots in order. From ten to twenty-five cents will 
satisfy him. The inevitable colored porter is one of 
the fixtures of sleeping cars, and it is quite impossible 
to free yourself from giving him the expected change. 

Arrival in the City. The train having arrived 
at the city depot, you will have ample time to get off 
it. Do not attempt to alight as soon as the train enters 
the city, simply because it stops. It will likely do this 
several times before reaching the main depot. The 












TJ?A VELING. 


train-men will give you due notice when the train has 
reached the depot, and not until then; so retain your 
seat until you hear them announce the name of the 
city. 

If, while on the train, you have purchased an omni¬ 
bus ortransferticket, orone is attached to your railroad 
ticket, go to where the line of omnibuses are standing, 
show your ticket and you will be directed to the prop¬ 
er one. Upon nearing the city a gentleman usually 
passes through the train to supply omnibus (or “bus ”) 
tickets that will carry you to any hotel, and also take 
your baggage. This gentleman will take up your 
railroad baggage check and give you one of their own. 
These bus and baggage lines will transfer yourself and 
baggage to other railroad depots if you are passing 
through the city. Should this be the case, or should 
you have a trunk, it will be the better plan to have 
the transfer thus made, or be taken to the hotel. 

On arriving at the depot do not let the noisy hack- 
men, hotel and railroad men get you excited or impose 
upon you. If you know definitely where you want to 
go and do not wish to take a bus or hack, inquire of 
the depot or city policeman, and he will direct you. 
Should the distance be great he will likely direct you 
to the street-car line that passes nearest you and the 
place to which you desire to go. Do not have any¬ 
thing to do with strangers at the depot, or, indeed, as 
a rule, any place. Generally make your inquiries of 
policemen or in stores. Not that there are no honest, 
true-hearted people in cities, for as a matter of fact, 
the most noble of men, as well as the most depraved, 
dwell there; but remember that sharpers are ever 
watching the entrance of strangers into the city, and 
they are the most likely to put themselves in your way 
to direct you. 

At the Hotel. Having arrived at the hotel it is 
your first duty to place your name and residence upon 
the hotel register. The clerk will then assign you a 
room. If you have been traveling long and have had 
no opportunity of “washing up,” ask to be shown to 
your room, where you may make your toilet. If you 
have a lady with you, enter the hotel at the ladies’ 
entrance, go to the parlor or ladies’ waiting room, 
where you may leave her and go to the office, register 
your name and that of the lady, and have rooms as¬ 
signed. 

How TO Find a Place in a City. In all cities 
are issued annually city directories, containing the 
names of all men, and also of ladies who are engaged 
in business, or are widows, with the street and num¬ 
ber of their residence and place of business, and also 
statingtheir business or occupation. These directories 
are to be found in hotels, drug stores, _ banks, large 
stores and in many offices.. So, if you wish to find the 
residence of any one, stepinto any of the above places 
and consult a directory. Should the party have moved 
since th^ issue of the directory, by calling where he 
lived at that time his whereabouts can generally be 
obtained. 

Do not hesitate to inquire of policemen in reference 


1255 


to the location of buildings or streets, etc., you desire 
to find. It is their duty to answer all such questions, 
and when approached respectfully will seldom fail to 
give full and explicit information. You may make 
simple inquiries of any one and you will seldom be 
misled. Repeated inquiries will generally enable 
one to reach his destination safely, however secluded 
or out of the way it may be. Generally you will find 
the names of all streets upon the lamp posts, situated 
at the corner of each street. These are unerring guides 
and should be consulted. 

Confidence AIen. There are in all cities a miser¬ 
able class of men who live upon the credulity of the 
people from the rural districts—not alone farmers, but 
even business men of villages. These individuals are 
known as “confidence men,” because their plan is to 
■^'ork upon the confidence of their victims. They are 
sharp, oily-tongued, well-dressed rascals, and while 
plying their vocation avoid the police and the law. 
They are such experts in reading human nature that 
they seldom miss their man. Should they by mis¬ 
chance approach the wrong man they perceive the 
fact so quickly,and are so slick and-cunning, that they 
do not commit themselves. 

It is needless to say that these men should be 
avoided, like so many hyenas, as in fact all inquisi¬ 
tive strangers should be. As the plan adopted by 
these men are similar in all cities, and in general do 
not change, especially in the initiative steps, we will 
briefly give the mode they pursue, so that they may 
be the more certainly pointed out and avoided. 

First, they place themselves on some prominent 
street and watch for their victim. They easily “ spot” 
him, as a stranger in a city is easily pointed out by 
an expert. They approach him smilingly, extending 
their hand, say “Why, how do you do, Mr. Jones? 
When did you get in?” Jones does not happen to 
be the name of the man approached, who is somewhat 
surprised to be thus familiarly addressed, and immedi¬ 
ately says, “ My name isn’t Jones; ” or, “You are mis¬ 
taken; my name is Brown.” The confidence man 
will then look very much surprised and exclaim, “ In¬ 
deed, isn’t this Alexander Jones, of -, Iowa?” 

This remark generally, though unwittingly, draws from 
the rural resident the place of his residence, when, 
after slyly obtaining from him two or three other facts 
he desires for a cue, the confidence man, assuring him 
that he very much resembles his friend, Mr. Jones, 
will apologize for thus accosting him, and then walk 
away. This man has played his part, and done it suc¬ 
cessfully. It remains for another to do the victimiz¬ 
ing. The unsuspecting victim is satisfied with the 
explanation and passes on, and is soon buried in the 
throng and absorbed with the strange sights. 

He has been carefully watched, however, and ere 
long he is again escorted, by one who makes no mis¬ 
takes as to name, or place of residence, etc. This 
time the “ pal,” or companion of the former confidence 
man, who has been given the “ cues ” obtained, ap¬ 
proaches the farmer or gentleman from the country 
village, smilingly extends his hand, familiarly ad- 







T/?A VELING. 


1256 


dresses him by his proper name, inquires as to his 
health, when he came in, etc. The victim is perfectly 
confounded that he should meet one among strangers 
who knows him so well. He may reply that he does 
not remember him, and certainly does not know him, 
but the confidence man is equal to the emergency, 
and laughingly and familiarly asks him if he don’t 

remember ---, son of-, the 

village banker, or prominent merchant, as it may be. 
Now the farmer knows the man referred to quite well. 
He is an honored and wealthy citizen of his neighbor¬ 
hood, and he is glad to meet with his son, who has 
been away from home for some time, etc., as his story 
goes. Then, to still further gain the confidence of his 
victim, he inquires about several of the leading men 
of his village or neighborhood, men whom the farmer 
well knows. Why, he knows them perfectly well, and 
win speak as familiarly of them as a relative could. 

The names of these men are obtained from com¬ 
mercial reports, and were looked up after his residence 
was known. By this time the crooked man of the 
city has almost complete control over the rural resi¬ 
dent. It is a strange fact, but nevertheless true, that 
a person from home will be friendly and confidential 
with a man whom he never associated with or cared 
for when at home, should he chance to meet him in 
the city. Another strange fact is, that he will take up 
with and have confidence in an entire stranger 
of the city, if he was ever through his neighborhood 
or knows only the names of some of its prominent 
citizens. 

The “ confidence man ’’ having ingratiated himself 
with his victim, will then proceed with his game. He 
will offer his services to show his friend around the 
city. This i§ considered as a great kindness by the 
farmer, as he has a desire to “do the city,” and to 
have some one to point out and give tlie history of all 
places of interest, guide and protect him in the 
crowded streets. 

Thus far the proceedings with confidence men gen¬ 
erally are similar. After they have thus won the 
confidence of their victims they have various methods 
of entrapping them. These we cannot describe, as 
they are too numerous and diversified. Suffice it to 
say, however, when .once a man is thus in their 
clutches, they are sure to get his money. If not one 
way they will another: so, as a last resort, when they 
have failed to borrow money, have checks cashed, 
play faro and other games, entice them into lot¬ 
tery schemes, “ snide ” auction houses, etc., they will 
make their victim yield his purse by intimidation or 
by actual force. 

The only safe way is to avoid making up with 
strangers in cities. Never believe a man of business, 
or of leisure, either, for that matter, who is not an inti¬ 
mate friend of long standing, cares enough for you to 
waste his time showing you around for nothing. Be 
careful not to tell your name, place of residence and 
full history to any stranger. Give no one any cue to 
work on you. Turn a deaf ear to the oily-tongued 
stranger who professes to know you. In fact, let your 


be, “ have nothing to do with strangers in the 

city.” 

Hiring a Carriage. Should one desire to be 
driven over the city in a carriage, you may always find 
public hacks standing on certain streets or in certain 
locations. While the price for the use of them is regu¬ 
lated by the city, yet you should make a special bar¬ 
gain beforehand to be driven to certain places or for 
a stated length of time, else, knowing you do not belong 
in the city and would rather pay considerable more 
than have trouble with them, they will often charge 
you an exhorbitant price. 

Money, etc. Perhaps a word should be said in 
reference to the manner of carrying money when 
traveling. In the first place, no one is ever justified 
in carrying a large amount of money about his person. 
There is no need for any one to run such risk, both of 
loss of money and bodily injury. The larger portion 
of the money should be earned in the inside vest 
pocket, and should never be taken out on the street 
or in crowds. Sufficient change may be carried in 
the outside vest pocket or in the pantaloons |X)cket for 
small and frequent expenses. Never make a show 
of your money as some foolishly do, for then you 
are only inviting some one to rob you. 

On taking a trip to the city, if you have occasion to 
use a large amount of money, buy a draft from your 
nearest banker upon the city to which you are going 
if possible, payable to your order. No other person 
than yourself then will be able to draw the money on 
it; consequently if lost, or stolen, it cannot be cashed, 
and you do not lose what it represents at the bank. 
This, however, necessitates some difficulty iqxm your 
part, for you must then be identified at the bank u]X)n 
which you hold the draft. If you are not known by 
any one in the city you could not depend upon cash¬ 
ing it, for it is very difficult for one to identify him¬ 
self at the counter of a city bank. Should this be 
the case, however, take a letter of introduction from 
your village merchant to the wholesale house in that 
city with which he does business. This will introduce 
you to them, when they will in turn identify you at 
the bank, or draw the money for you. Generally you 
will find such city business men quite accommodat¬ 
ing, and will often put themselves to much trouble to 
please a country customer. While this mode of 
carrying money may entail more trouble, one thing is 
certain, it is much the’safest way. 

Some have money in small amounts, or postal 
money orders, or bank checks or drafts, sent to them 
from time to time and to the different points in their 
tour, as they may need funds. This is a safe method, 
but, depending on friends at home and the vicissitudes 
of mails, etc., the money or. postal order is sometimes 
too slow to arrive. 

Miscellaneous Hints. In pacing along some 
of the prominent streets of a city you will often hear 
through an open door an auctioneer hard at work 
crying off a v/atch, or a piece of jewelry, or it may be 
an oil painting. He claims he is offered only a few 



















TRA Y—TRELLIS. 


dollars for what is worth ten times the amount. 
However this may be, or why city authorities permit 
such places to run, let your motto be, to have noth¬ 
ing to do with them. Do not enter the door, for once 
you get into their web you will find it difficult to ex¬ 
tricate yourself. Of course, should you be in company 
with a friend long a resident of the city, you could 
safely go with him to these, as well as some other 
places to see the inside of city life, but do not at¬ 
tempt it alone. You may be never so smart, and in 
your own neighborhood a leader, etc., but remember 
these fellows, many of whom have brilliant intellects, 
do nothing else but study up schemes to entrap the 
uninitiated. 

Never buy jewelry or any kind of goods of men 
standing on the streets. These are of an inferior 
quality, and no cheaper than you could buy the same 
goods at responsible stores. 

Never be drawn into any kind of game, with cards 
or anything else, with strangers or new' acquaintances. 
These are only devices to rob you of your money. 

In visiting a theater, it is well to purchase your 
ticket early in the day, or even the day before, if you 
know where you want to go, that you may have a bet¬ 
ter choice of seats. 

The deportment while in theater, if with a lady, is 
given on page 403. If you go to any theater let it be 
a first-class one, and secure a good sitting. The au¬ 
ditorium of a theater is generally divided into par¬ 
quet, parquet circle, balcony and gallery. The first 
two are regarded as the best, except, perhaps, the 
first row or two in the balcony. 

In getting on a street car, if at the crossing of a 
street, always go to the further crossing in the direc¬ 
tion the car is going, as the car is not permitted to 
stop in the middle of the street crossing. Never go 
to the conductor with your fare ; let him come to you ; 
rest assured he will do that. If you wish to get off 
at any place you are not familiar with, tell him so 
when he calls for the fare. Should he then perchance 
carry you by, he will send you back on next car 
free. It is the better way never to step from the car 
until it stops; but should you do so, always Jump 
with the car, or facing the way the car is going. 

The places of interest in most cites to visit are 
parks, public buildings, theaters, museums, board of 
trade, large churches, monuments, some of the lead¬ 
ing stores, public libraries, principal manufactories, 
etc. Besides these each city will have some particular 
features or sights of interest peculiar to itself. A 
view of some of the magnificent private residences 
will often prove very interesting. It is well to pur¬ 
chase a “guide” to the city, which is a pamphlet, with 
map, being a directory of the streets, parks, etc., and 
describing the principal points of interest, and telling 
how to reach them. They generally cost 25 cents. 
Cheaper ones are to be had, but do not give so much ^ 
information. 

Tray, a small trough or wooden vessel, sometimes 
scooped out of a piece of timber and made hollow, 
for various domestic uses, as for making bread in. 


1257 


chopping meat, and the like. Also, a flat, broad ves¬ 
sel on which dishes, etc., are carried ; a waiter or 
salver. 

Treacle (tre'kl), a viscid, uncrystallizable syrup, 
which drains from the sugar-refiner’s molds; some¬ 
times called sugar-house molasses. The word “trea¬ 
cle,” however, is often used for molasses. Formerly 
the word denoted also a medical comix>und for the 
prevention and cure of bites of poisonous animals. 

Tread-Power, a machine on which an animal 
walks, to produce power for working purposes. It 
may be either an inclined disc wheel or a wooden 
slat belt; the latter is by far the most common at 
the present day. See page 844. 

Trees: See Forestry and the respective trees. 

To Measure the Height of a Tree. To do 
this there are several simple but interesting methods. 

1. Set up a straight, measured pole some distance 
from the tree, in ground which is on a level with the 
base (collar) of the tree; then place your eyes near 
the ground opposite the tree, and pass along until, 
in sighting, the top of the pole coincides with the top 
of the tree; measure the distance from your sighting 
point to the ix)le and to the tree, and then by simple 
proportion you can calculate the height of the tree, 
thus : As the distance from your eyes to the pole is 
to the height of the pole, so is the distance from your 
eyes to the base of the tree to the height of the tree. 
Example: Say the pole is 5 feet high, the distance 
from your sighting point on the ground to the stake 
when the top of the latter coincided with the top of 
the tree, 6 feet, and from the same sighting point to 
the base of the tree 96 feet; then 6:5: :96:8o. Eighty 
feet is the height of that tree. 

2. Measure the shadow (when the sun or moon 
shines) of a measured stake, and also the length of 
the shadow of the tree at the same time; then, by 
simple proportion as above, the answer is obtained. 
Thus, if an 8-foot pole casts a 5-foot shadow when 
the tree casts a shadow 60 feet in extent, then 5:8: : 
60:96. That tree is 96 feet high. 

3. Set a stake in the ground when the sun or moon 
is shining, and wait till its shadow is of the same 
length as itself; then the shadow of the tree will be 
of the same length as f/self. 

4. Make a quarter circle out of a thin board; sus¬ 
pend a plummet from the corner (what would be the 
center of the circle) of this piece, holding this corner 
up; walk back or forth with this in hand, taking sight 
along one of its straight edges to the top of the tree 
until the plumb-line hangs down mid-way of the arc 
(curved side); then your distance from the tree will 
be its height. 

Trefoil, literally, three-leaf; one of the names of 
clover, given on account of its having three leaflets 
to each leaf. 

Trellis, a frame of cross-barred work, or lattice- 
work, used for various purposes, as for screens or for 
supporting plants. 





1258 


TREMBLES— TUBEROSE. 


Trembles, milk-sickness. This is not milk-fever, 
but a poison from a certain weed, which affects 
cattle and man. See page 217. 

Trench Plow, a plow cutting deep furrows and 
bringing the sub-soil to the surface, as distinguished 
from a sub-soil plow, which only loosens the sub-soil 
and leaves it below the surface. 

Trevis or Break, a contrivance for confining 
horses or cattle for surgical operations or medical 
treatment. It consists mainly of four strong posts 
set in the ground and braced by stays. Rings, pad¬ 
ded bars, etc., are attached according to the needs of 
the case. 

^ Trichina (trick-i'na), a small worm that sometimes 
infests swine, and persons who eat the flesh of swine 
so infested. Its attack is generally fatal; see page 893. 

Trichiniasis (trik-i-ni'a-sis) or Trichinosis (trik- 
i-no sis), the disease produced by the trichina. No 
special remedy is known for this generally fatal dis- 
ease. The general fever which always accompanies 
tnchiniasis is, of course, to be mitigated by the same 
general processes which are adopted for other fevers. 

Trimming, of horses : see page 744. 

Tripe, the entrails; also, the large stomach 
(paunch) of ruminant animals, when prepared for food. 
To prepare it, sew it up, after it is turned jnside out* 
be careful to sew it up tight, that no lime get into it; 
now have a tub of lime-water, the consistency of good’ 
thick whitewash; let it remain in from 10 to 20 
minutes, or until when you take hold of it the dark 
outside skin will come off; then put it into clean 
water, changing three or four times to weaken the 
lime, that the hands be not injured by it; then with 
a dull knife scrape off all the dark surface, and con- 
tinue to soak and scrape several times, which removes 
all offensive substances and smell. After this let it 
soak 20 or 30 minutes in two or three hot waters 
scraping over each time; then pickle in salt and’ 
water 12 hours, and it is ready for cooking; boil from 
three to four hours, cut in strips to suit, and putitinto 
nice vinegar, with the various spices, as desired; re¬ 
newing the vinegar at the expiration of one week, is all 
that will be required further. 

Tripoli (trip'o-ly), an earthy substance originally 
brought from Tripoli, Africa, used in polishing stones 
and metals. It is principally silica, and consists al¬ 
most wholly of the cast shells of microscopic organ¬ 
isms. In using it, it is first reduced to a very fine, 
impalpable powder, like wheat flour to the touch. 

Trocar or Trochar, a surgical instrument for 
evacuating fluids or gas from cavities, as dropsy. See 
page 206. 

Troll (trole), to draw a hook along on the surface 
of the water for the purpose of catching fish. See 
page 468. The word has also other meanings. 

Trot, to move faster than in walking, as a horse 
or other quadruped, by lifting one fore-foot and the 


hind-foot of the opposite side at the same time. For 
trotting horses and speed in trotting, see pages 687 
and 1155. 

Trout, several species of fish. See page 466. 

Truck, a small wooden wheel, not bound with 
iron; a cylinder; a low carriage for removing heavy 
freight; barter, or small commodities; luggage. 

Truss, a bandage or apparatus used in cases of 
hernia, to keep up the reduced parts and prevent 
further protrusion, and for other purposes; also a 
frame of timbers for fastening or sustaining a beam or 
a roof, etc. 

Tuber, a fleshy, rounded stem or root, usuallv con¬ 
taining starchy matter, as the potato or arrow-root; a 
thickened root-stock or subterraneous portion of a 
stem. It is difficult to determine whether a tuber, in 
botanical terms, is a root, a stem or sui genesis. Irish 
IDOtatoes grow on subterranean stems, which are very 
different from the roots; but the sweet potato and 
Jerusalem artichoke seem to be more nearly roots. All 
tubers have eyes for the production of new plants. 
In anatomy, the w'ord denotes a knob or tubercle; a 
swelling or knot. 



T ub erase. 


Tubercle (tu ber-kl), in anatomy, a natural small 
projection; in pathology, a small mass of diseased 
matter, as a wart or other form of excrescence. Most 
notably this accompanies, in the lungs, a form of con¬ 
sumption, called hence “tubercular consumption.” A 
lung tubercle is at first hard, grayish or yellowish 
translucent or opaque, and afterward gradually 
softens, excites suppuration in its vicinity and seeks 
an outlet from the body. 

Tuberose (tube roze or tu ber-ose), a liliaceous 





























WILD TURKEY. 










































































TUG—TURKEY. 


1261 


plant with a tuberous root. The flower is beautiful 
and exquisitely fragrant It is not a rose, and the 
second pronunciation given above is therefore more 
probably the correct one. In florists’ catalogues often 
the scientific name is given ,—Polianthes tuberosa. 
This should not be confounded with Polyanthus. 

Tug, a trace, or drawing strap, of a harness. For 
a spring tug link, see page 638. 

Tug-wheel, a horizontal water wheel driven by 
the percussion of the stream against its floats, and not 
submerged in water. 

Tulip, a very popular early flower, of many vari¬ 
eties. 

Tulip-tree, a valuable, well-known timber tree, 
often wrongly called “ poplar,’, “ white-wood,” etc. 
It is common in the older States, but scarce in the 
West. 

Tumbling-rod, the rod which connects the motion 
of a horse-ix)wer with that of a thrashing or other 
machine. 

Tumor, a local and irregular enlargement in the 
root, stem, branch, bud or leaf of a plant. It arises 
in some instances from obstruction in the ascent of 
the sap, but in most in puncturing by insects in the 
deposition of their eggs. Some of the most common 
instances of it are clubs on the roots of cabbages, 
knots and bunches on the stem and branches of oaks 
and elms, and excrescences and galls on the buds and 
leaves of various common trees and shrubs. 

A tumor is also a chronic swelling or hard abscess 
on any part of an animal’s body. Some tumors are 
caused by bruises and others by accidents, and some 
by interior disturbance of the system, by a corrupted 
state of the fluids, by general debility of constitution, 
or by various kinds of atmospheric influence and 
agency; and many,which originate in widely different 
ways, have a widely different character, and require a 
widely different treatment. Tumors which are much 
inflamed, but do not tend to suppuration, should^ be 
treated with cooling applications, such as asoluiionof 
sugar of lead, or a lotion of Goulard’s extract in wa¬ 
ter; inflamed tumors which tend to suppuration should 
be accelerated toward a crisis by means of fomenta¬ 
tions and poultices; hard, indolent tumors, which are 
neither inflamed nor painful, but either simply incon¬ 
venient or precursory to some worse development, 
should be roused to activity by rubbings of stimulating 
liniments, iodine ointment, or even blistering oint¬ 
ment, and very hard or quite inert tumors of the 
nature of wens can be properly removed only by ex¬ 
cision. 

Tun, a large cask. See Ton. 

Turf, that upper stratum of earth and vegetable 
mold which is filled with the roots of grass and other 
small plants, so as to adhere and form a kind of mat; 
called also sward and sod. Figuratively, the race- 
ground. The word also denotes peat, a vegetable 
mold used as fuel. 


Turkey. This fowl, which, on account of the ex¬ 
cellent flavor of its flesh, is the entree par excellence 
on all festal occasions, especially Thanksgiving day 
and Christmas, seems to be of Mexican origin. The 
wild turkey of the United States is of a different 
species from our domestic turkey. 

The male wild turkey of the United States is three 
and a half to nearly four feet in length, measures al¬ 
most six feet in expansion of wings, and weighs 15 to 
40 pounds. The female is somewhat smaller. 

The habits of these birds in their native wilds are 
exceedingly curious. The males, called “ gobblers,” 
associate in parties from 10 to 100, and seek their 
food apart from the females, which either go about 
singly with their young, at that.time about two-thirds 
grown, or form troops with other females and their 
families, sometimes to the number of 70 or 80. These 
all avoid the old males, who attack and destroy the 
young whenever they can, by reiterated blows u]x»n 
the skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, 
and on foot, unless the dog or the hunter or a river 
on their line of march compels them to take wing. 
When about to cross a river, they select the highest 
eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in 
such positions they sometimes stay for a day or more, 
as if in consultation. The males upon such occasions 
gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary 
imixjrtance, as if to animate their companions; and 
the females and the young assume much of the same 
pompous manner, and spread their tails as they move 
silently around. Having mounted, at length, to the 
tops of the highest trees, the assembled multitude, at 
the signal note of their leader, wing their way to the 
opposite shore. The old and fat birds, contrary to 
what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even 
when the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the 
young and meager, and, of course, those of the weak, 
frequently fail them before they have completed their 
passage, when they drop in and are forced to swim 
for their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spread¬ 
ing their tails for support, closing their wings, stretch¬ 
ing out their neck, and striking out quickly and 
strongly with their feet. All, however, do not suc¬ 
ceed in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. 

The beginning of March is the pairing season, for 
a short time previous to which the females separate 
from their mates, and shun them, though the latter 
pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. The 
sexes roost apart, but at no great distance, so that 
when the female utters a call, every male within 
hearing responds, rolling note after note in the m6st 
rapid succession,—not as when spreading the tail and 
strutting near the hen, but in a voice resembling that 
of the tame turkey when he hears any unusual or 
frequently repeated noise. 

Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods from 
one end to the other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, 
resound with this remarkable voice of their wooing, 
uttered responsively from their roosting places. _ This 
is continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of 
the sun, they silently descend from their perches, and 









1262 


TURKEY. 


the males begin to strut for the purpose of winning 
the admiration of their mates. 

If the call of a female be given from the ground, 
the males in the vicinity fly toward the individual, 
and whether they perceive her or not, erect and 
spread their tails, throw the head backward, and 
distend the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and 
rustle their wings and body-feathers, at the same 
moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. While 
thus occupied they occasionally halt to look out for 
the female, and then resume their strutting and puff¬ 
ing, moving with as much rapidity as the nature of 
their gait will admit. During this ceremonious ap¬ 
proach, the males often encounter each other, and a 
desperate battle ensues, when the conflict is only 
terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished. 
The usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the 
conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, 
that roost near him, if not upon the same tree, until 
they begin to lay, when their habits are altered, with 
a view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, if 
he can get at them. These are usually from 9 to 
15 in number, sometimes 20, whitish and spotted 
with brown, like those of the domestic bird. The 
nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the 
ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the 
fallen top of a dead leafy tree, under a thicket of 
sumach or briers, or by the side of a log. Whenever 
the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, 
so as to screen it from observation. She is a very 
close sitter, and when she has chosen a spot will 
seldom leave it, to prevent its being discovered by 
a human intruder. Should she find, one of her eggs, 
however, sucked by a snake or other enemy, she 
abandons the nest forever. When the eggs are 
near hatching, she will not forsake her nest while life 
remains. 

The females are particularly attentive to their 
young, which are veiy^ sensitive to the effect of damp; 
and consequently wild turkeys are always scarce after 
a rainy season. The flesh of the wild turkey is much 
superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh 
of such of the latter as have been suffered to roam at 
large in the woods and in the plains is in no respect 
improved by this partially wild mode of life. 

To capture wild turkey, see page 631. 

Breeds. The principal breed of turkeys are the 
White, the Norfolk, black all over, the Cambridge, of 
all colors, the Bronzed (opposite page ), the Buff and 
the Narragansett, a metallic black. The comparative 
quality of these breeds are given in tabular fomi on 
page 5 28. _ 

The varieties of the domesticated turkey are not 
very distinct; and as to their relative value it is, 
perhaps, difficult to give any decisive opinion. Some 
suppose the White turkey is the most robust, and 
most easily fattened. Experience has, however, 
shown to the contrary. The pure white are very 
elegant creatures; and though very tender to rear, 
are not so much so as the white pea-fowl. Most 
birds, wild as well as tame, occasionally produce per¬ 


fectly white individuals, of more delicate constitution 
than their parents. The selection and pairing of such 
have probably been the meansof establishing and keep¬ 
ing up this breed. With all care they will now and 
then produce speckled birds and so show a tendency 
to return to the normal plumage. It is remarkable 
that, in specimens which are in other respects snow- 
white, the tuft of the breast remains coal-black, ap¬ 
pearing, in the hens, like a tail of ermine, and so 
showing as a great ornament. The head and carun¬ 
cles on the neck of the male are, when excited, of the 
same blue and scarlet hues. The bird is truly beau¬ 
tiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes of plumage 
thus relieved with small portions of black, blue and 
scarlet. They have one merit—they dress most 
temptingly white for market; but they are unsuited 
for miry, smoky or clayey situations, and show and 
thrive best where they have a range of clean, short 
pasture, on a light or chalky sub-soil. 

The bronze and copper-colored varieties are gen¬ 
erally under-sized, and are among the most difficult 
of all to rear; but their flesh is, certainly, very deli¬ 
cate, and perhaps more so than that of other kinds, 
—a circumstance, however, that may partly result from 
their far greater delicacy of cohstitution, and the con¬ 
sequent extra trouble devoted to their management. 

The brown and ash-gray are not particularly re¬ 
markable ; but the black are decidedly superior, in 
eveiy^ res^Dect, not only as regards greater hardiness, 
and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as ac¬ 
quiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very 
best and primest quality. Those of this color appear 
also to be far less removed than the others from the 
original wild stock. Fortunately, the black seems tc 
be the favorite color of nature ; and black turkeys are 
produced far more abundantly than those of any other 
hue. 

The “American Standard of Excellence” requires 
Bronze turkeys to weigh 25 pounds and 16 pounds, 
for the cock and hen, respectively; Narragansett 
turkeys must weigh 25 pounds and 15 |X)unds; White 
turkeyi, 20 pounds and 12 pounds; Buff turkeys, 20 
and 12 pounds; Black and Slate turkeys, 20 pounds 
and 12 pounds. 

Rearing Turkeys. Turkeys are too large birds for 
confinement; it is never necessary or beneficial to 
place them under glass; they are strong, hardy and 
robust, and require only an open shed to roost under, 
and a warm, sunny run about the barn or other farm 
buildings ; they will not endure confinement, not even 
when young, if long continued. 

The choice of a cock is very important, inasmuch 
as the sire gives the stamina of constitution, establish¬ 
ing size and ^yeight, and stamping the plumage with 
accuracy. It is important, also, to be particular as to 
the choice of hens; in fact both male and female 
should possess individual qualities of the highest order 
as is possible to obtain them. The sire should be large, 
in full vigor, free from any defect, with a haughty, erect 
carriage, standing nearly upright when wings are 
folded, the body balanced on stout legs and carried 
















BRONZED TURKEY. 



















































f 



TURKEY. 


1265 


well forward, with a round, full, plump bearded breast. 
The hen should also ix)ssess constitutional vigor, a 
neat trim form, a well balanced body, round full crop 
and plump breast. She should also have stout legs, 
be proud in movements, wings folded smoothly against 
the sides, and carriage upright, quick and active. The 
turkey cock is good for breeding at two years old, and 
the hen at one ydtir, but better at two. The cock 
will last for two years or more, when to prevent too 
close breeding he should be changed. The mating of 
such birds, when other conditions are favorable, is 
usually attended with good results. It would be well 
to encourage their familiarity so as to induce the hens 
to resort to and lay in the sheds or prepared nests about 
the premises, particularly in spring, else the danger is 
when they steal their nests far from home, their eggs 
become the prey of skunks and other enemies. Only 
one visit by the cock is necessary to fertilize all the 
eggs of the season; but the first 12 or 15 will have 
the best constitution. 

While turkey hens continue to lay, the first lot, say 
about seven, may be set under common hens and the 
turkey hen can cover and hatch the rest herself. 
When they are hatched it is not necessary they should 
be fed that day. Allow the yolk food taken into the 
stomach time to perform its natural office. Its chem¬ 
ical action purifies and enriches the blood, and 
cleanses the digestive channels. All eggs set should 
be marked, as the hen often lays several after com¬ 
mencing incubation. Turkey cocks that are inclined 
to destroy the eggs and chicks must be kept away. 
During incubation, the hen should be removed daily 
from her nest, to be fed, or to feed, or she will starve. 
See that she returns within 20 minutes. No one 
should visit the hatching-house or the nest of the 
sitting-hen except the regular attendant, else she will 
be frightened and be made to break some of the 
eggs. Chicks break from the eggs from the 26th to 
the 29th day of incubation. If the eggs are in a very 
dry place, they should be sprinkled with water once 
or twice a day. The second day before the hatching 
is expected, feed the hen plentifully, clean the nest, 
etc., leave a supply of food and water where she can 
reach it, and then do not disturb her until the chicks 
are out. Clear away the shells, but never take the 
chicks away, nor force them to eat. To teach the 
chicks to peck, have two chicks of the common fowl 
hatched at the same time with the brood, which may 
be placed with the young turkeys, and they will teach 
them. Give them water and milk by touching their 
beaks with it. 

Turkeys hatched and reared by the common hen 
are more quiet and home-like in their habits, but are 
never so large and valuable as the birds that hunt 
their living and gather the sweet, succulent grasses 
and insects that dwell in the meadow lands. This 
staying at home gives them a stunt from which they 
seldom recover. Daily exercise strengthens and 
spreads the limbs, and gives a broader expanse to 
the body which is not gained by mere food alone. 
For all their roving propensities, the turkey is a bird 


that seeks considerable ease and rest. The first 
move is to get out of sight and hearing of home; then 
at midday, or rather as soon as the sun comes out hot 
and scorching on a summer day, they draw up under 
the deep shade and rest until toward nightfall, while 
the home broods with the domestic hen have been on 
the move from the first rise of day, and continue ever 
on the alert until sunset. 

Turkeys require warm, dry weather, and young 
turkeys should always be kept out of cold rains. 
Their house should have a clean board floor. Broods 
to be wholly successful should never be out of the 
shell before the first of June, when they will be ready 
to meet the great harvest of insects that are afloat at 
this season. It will not answer to put a boy at the 
business of attending the flocks unless he be an apt 
one and has a fondness for the occupation or a strong 
interest therein. As a general thing people raise tur¬ 
keys at a loss because they are determined to raise 
them in their own way. Their wills are the strongest, 
and the birds suffer in flesh while the owners depre¬ 
ciate in pocket. The turkey’s way is the best, only 
we must teach, govern and control the natural habit 
in a quiet manner, and still not cross the desires of 
the mother to so great an extent as to cause a re¬ 
straint which she will not endure. 

The first food should be of the same nature as the 
yolk, as a sudden change might prove fatal. Next 
should be sour milk boiled to a curd and fed a little 
at a time and often. As they grow older the curd 
may be mixed with oatmeal or middlings for a variety. 
Beets, onions, dandelion tops, etc., cut fine and 
fed a little at a time will keep them in thrift. Give a 
little lime occasionally, to prevent diarrhoea. After 
they are four or fiVe weeks old, buckwheat, crushed 
corn, or other grains may be given. They should 
from the time of hatching be kept in a warm, dry and 
clean place and not be allowed to occupy the bare 
ground. For this purpose chaff, cut straw or dry 
sawdust will do. Let them out in the morning after 
the dew is off the grass, and put them in nights where 
it is dry and warm. 

See that your turkeys come home every night. At 
first, if you raise them with a turkey mother, you will 
have to hunt them up and drive them home, but if 
you feed regularly every morning and always at night 
they will soon learn to come home regularly as cows. 
After they have fully feathered, and have thrown out 
the red on their heads, which usually occurs at about 
three months, young turkeys are hardy, and may be 
allowed unlimited range at all times; and from this 
time on as long as the supply of insects lasts, they 
will thrive on two meals a day. Keep your turkeys 
growing right straight from the shell, and you will 
find that it will pay when pay-day comes. Some 
farmers, as soon as their young turkeys are feathered 
up, turn them out to get their own living the best 
way they can until a few weeks before Thanksgiving, 
and then stuff them for a few weeks, and wonder why 
they do not equal in weight those of their neighbor 
who has kept his turkeys growing all the time from 







1266 


TURMERIC— TURNIP. 


the day they were hatched. If, however, the market 
is to be later, say about Christmas, they must not be 
allowed any more liberty after they are to be fed for 
market, but rather kept confined as much as possible 
in darkness, letting in light whenever they are fed. 

A farmer frequently wants to know the fair price 
for turkeys alive, when the price is fixed by the 
butcher, or by the middleman, who buys for the large 
city market. New York and Chicago take turkeys 
simply bled and picked. The New England markets, 
with better taste, want the crop and entrails out. 
The average loss in dressing will be about one- 
fifteenth for the former markets, and about one-tenth 
for the Eastern markets, a little more for small, im¬ 
mature birds, and a little less for large, well-fattened 
turkeys. An old gobbler weighing 315^ pounds alive, 
after loss of blood and feathers weighs 29^ pounds, 
losing one-fifteenth; when ready for roasting, 2814 
pounds, a loss of about one-tenth. This bird, at 20 
cents a pound, would come to $5.70. Sold by live 
weight at 18 cents it would come to $5.63. This 
would leave only seven cents for butchering and 
dressing, which is below the cost. The difference, 
then, between live and dead weight in turkeys raised 
for the Eastern market is not over two cents a pound. 
Lively middlemen ask a deduction of three or four 
cents. The farmer may as well know that the differ¬ 
ence in value is only two cents, and claim it. 

To Boil a Turkey. Stuff a young turkey, weigh¬ 
ing 6 or 7 pounds, with bread, butter, salt, pepper, and 
minced parsley; skewer up the legs and wings as if 
to roast; flour a cloth, and pin around it. Boil it forty 
minutes, then set off the kettle and let it stand, close 
covered, half an hour more. The steam will cook it 
sufficiently. To be eaten with drawn butter and stewed 
oysters. 

To Roast a Turkey. Pluck the bird carefully 
and singe off the down with lighted paper, break the 
leg bone close to the foot and hang up the bird and 
draw out the strings from the thigh. Never cut the 
breast; make a slit down the back of the neck and 
take out the crop that way, then cut the neck bone 
close, and after the bird is stuffed the skin can be 
turned over the back and the crop will look full and 
round. Cut around the vent, making the opening as 
small as possible, and draw carefully, taking care that 
the gall bag and the intestine joining the gizzard 
are not broken. Open the gizzard and remove the 
contents and detach the liver from the gall blad¬ 
der. The liver, the gizzard and the heart, if used 
in the gravy, will need to be boiled an hour and 
a half, and chopped as fine as possible. Wash 
the turkey and wipe thorougly dry, inside and out; 
then fill the inside with stuffing, and either sew the 
skin of the neckoverthe back or fasten it with a small 
skewer. Sew up the fowl, fasten it upon a spit, and 
roast it before a moderate fire three hours. If more 
convenient, it is equally good when baked. Serve up 
with cranberry or apple or turnip sauce; squash, 
and a small Indian pudding,or dumplings, boiled hard. 


will make a tolerably good substitute for bread. 

Dressing for Turkey. Mix thoroughly a quart 
of stale bread, very finely grated; the grated rind of 
a lemon; quarter of an ounce of minced parsley and 
thyme,one part thyme, two parts parsley; and pepper 
and salt to season. Add to these one unbeaten egg 
and half a cup of butter; mix all well together and 
and moisten with hot water or milk. Other herbs 
than parsley or thyme may be used if preferred, and 
a little onion, finely minced, added if desired. 

To Select Turkeys. See page 966. 

Turmeric (tur'mer-ic), an East Indian plant, the 
root of which is used to dye a lively yellow color, and 
for medicine. It has a slight aromatic smell and a 
bitterish, slightly acrid taste. The name “ turmeric ” 
has also been applied to blood-root and yellow puc- 
coon. 



Turnip. This vegetable belongs to the mustard 
family of plants, and is therefore characterized by a 
large pro^xirtion of sulphurous and nitrogenous ele¬ 
ments of nutrition. The turnip is always both healthy 
and healthful, affording water which, in its physio¬ 
logical relations, is purer than any that comes from 
earth or sky. Over nine-tenths of the turnip is puri¬ 
fied, “organic” water, and all the nutriment which it con¬ 
tains (less thanone-tentb)is 
appropriated and assimila¬ 
ted by the animal organism, 
there being nothing dele¬ 
terious in it to stand in the 
way. It is therefore good 
food for both man and 
beast, although it is counted 
among the “heavy” arti- 
cles of diet for man, re¬ 
quiring strong digestive 
powers, and as food for 
milch cows it gives a dis¬ 
agreeable flavor to the milk. 

Cultivation. For an early crop sow as soon as 
the ground can be worked in the spring in shallow 
drills 14 inches apart; the ruta-baga 30 inches 
apart; if dry, give water; as the seed is very fine it 
should be covered but slightly except in very dry 
weather. Select a rich old pasture, or other light and 
if possible new soil, and manure with plaster and 
ashes, or phosphates; a sprinkling of these substances 
as the plants are just appearing above ground will 
also aid in keeping off insects; if, however, insects 
should eat off the young crop, sow again immediately, 
or give the matter entirely up for the season. The 
insects on the under side of the leaves are plant lice. 
Douche them with a strong suds of whale-oil soap, by 
the use of a syringe or swab. 

The crop may be sown at anytime after theweather 
becomes settled in the spring, but for stock feeding 
the last half of July will be best suited, both for the 
convenience of gathering and because the turnip fa¬ 
vors cool, moist weather, which the late fall months 


Fig. Early Flat Red 
Turnip. 











TURPENTINE— T YPHUS. 


1267 



Fig. 2. —Early White Egg 
Turnip. 


furnish. _ The ways that turnips can be sown and yet 
not require a special prepara¬ 
tion of the land are many. 

We know a farmer who, after 
the last hoeing of his potatoes, 
scatters the seed thinly along 
the rows, and when the pota¬ 
toes are dug the dirt is pulled 
back into the last hill, and 
the turnips are not disturbed. 

The fine soil that works down 
about them rather helps than 
injures them, and a big crop of 
turnips usually results. Sow¬ 
ing among the corn is another 
not objectionable method, for 
the turnips will not draw very 
much uix)n the soil until after 
the corn is cut up, and the after crop will prove a far 
more profitable one than planting pumpkins among 
the corn and far less injurious to the development of 
the ears. Among root crops, ruta-bagas hold a favor¬ 
able position, but cannot be sown broadcast with any 

certainty; and if labor is 
to be taken into account, 
the turnip is the crop re¬ 
quiring the least labor. If 
the turnip is to be fed to 
stock, it is not necessary to 
cut off the tops, especially 
if you have a root cellar 
where a low, even temper¬ 
ature can be kept, and the 
green relish of the leaves 
together with the bulb will 

Fig. 1.—Early Strap-leaved, cause them to be eagerly 

devoured. With turnips, fed tops and all to sheep, 
and a small additional quantity of fodder, either oats 
or corn, the amount of hay required for a flock of 
sheep will be very small. If farmers would make 
up their minds to give this root a trial, their superior 
feeding qualities would meet with prompt recognition. 

Of the early varieties, thin the plants to six inches 
apart and the ruta-bagas to one foot. For fall and 
winter use, the early kinds should be sowed the lat¬ 
ter part of July, just before a rain if possible, and the 
ruta-bagas the latter part of June, using from one to 
-one and a half pounds to the acre. Late turnips can 
be permitted to grow until the ground freezes in late 
autumn. As Swedish or Russian turnips and ruta¬ 
bagas are synonymous terms, we include their varie¬ 
ties in the following list: 

Varieties. Early Strap-Leaf. The best white 
turnip for table use. 

Early Red-Top. Sweet, mild, fine and rapid 
grower; very early and popular. 

Early Wite-Top. Differs from last only in color. 

Pomeranian White Globe. Fine, round, thick. 

Golden Stone. Yellow flesh, fine, handsome. 

Carter’s Stone or Stubble. Almost as early as 
White-Top, but much thicker; handsome. 



White Egg. A new variety, large, handsome and a 
good keeper. 

Improved Yellow Globe. Fine for family use or 
field culture. 

Yellow Aberdeen. One of the best for winter and 
spring use. 

Long White Cow-horn. Carrot-shaped, fine-grain¬ 
ed and sweet; matures quickly. 

Long Red Tankard. Productive; excellent for 
cattle. 

Jersey Navet. Long, growing entirely under ground, 
is very early, sweet and excellent for table use. 

Ruta-Bagas. Hardley’s Swede. One of the larg¬ 
est ; short-necked ; very fine. 

American Ruta-Baga. Popular every way. 

Large White French. A white ruta-baga. 

Sweet German. White, good; a first-rate keeper. 

Skirving’s Purple-top Ruta-Baga. The standard 
field variety. 

Sutton’s Champion. A favorite with stock breeders. 

To Cook Turnips. Peel off the outside; if you 
slice them they will boil sooner; when tender take 
them up and mash them with butter, or boil and 
serve them whole. 

Turpentine, an oily-resinous substance exuding 
naturally, or on incision, from pine, larch, fir, etc. 

Common Turpentine. The produce of the Pinus 
palusiris, pine trees of North Carolina and other 
States, also from Norway and the north of Europe. 

Oil of Turpentine. This is commonly called 
the spirits of turpentine, and is used very largely in 
horse and cattle diseases, both for internal adminis¬ 
tration and external application. 

Oil of turpentine is a powerful stimulant, diuretic 
and antispasmodic, and is therefore used in colic in 
the horse, in puerperal apoplexy in cows and in gen¬ 
eral debility in all animals. As an external embroca¬ 
tion, it is very efficient when combined with an equal 
portion of sweet oil, but very dangerous when applied 
alone to the skin of the horse. The horse will become 
restless and in some cases utterly unnaanageable. 

Dose. The doses of oil of turpentine for horses 
and cows are from one to two ounces, always mixed 
with its own bulk of oil, especially for horses. For 
dogs affected with tape-worm, half to one drachm is 
the dose, mixed with the yolk of an egg. 

Tweed, a light twilled cotton or woolen fabric 
used for summer clothing. 

Twill, a fabric woven with diagonal lines or ribs. 

Twitch, in the treatment of horses, is a stick with 
a looped cord at one end, made for the purpose of 
twisting up a horse’s nose or ear, to keep him quiet 
during the administration of medicine or a surgical 
operation. 

Typhoid (ti'foid), resembling typhus. See Fever. 

Typhus (ti'fus), a continuous fever, lasting usually 
from two to three weeks, and attended with great 
prostration and affection of the brain. 














u 


the milk-bag of a cow or other 
care, treatment, etc., are given 
J^^ain various connections in the articles Cow, 
Butter and Milking. 

Ulcfer, a sore discharging a corrosive pus. 

If It is found principally on the natural surfaces of 

I the body, while an abscess is a similar sore in an 
accidental cavity. There is nothing better for ulcers 
than to soak them well with warm water. A strong 
tea made of the narrow dock and taken internally, 
and used as a wash, is an excellent remedy for old 
ulcers. Some are cured by the application of astrin¬ 
gents. Either one of the following, made into 
ointment with hog’s lard or into washes, is also rec¬ 
ommended : Adder’s tongue, agrimony, archangel, 
smartweed, cuckoo pint, blue bottle, burdock, bryony, 
soapwort, celandine, centaury, chickweed, cinquefoil, 
comfrey root, mugwort, cudweed, dog grass, water 
dock, figwort, flax-weed, foxglove, glasswort, ground 
ivy, ground pine, tormentil, tansy, bugle, scurvy grass 
and nightshade. 

Treatment of Running Sores on the Legs. 
Wash them in brandy, and ap])ly elder leaves, chang¬ 
ing twice a day. This will dry up all the sores, though 
the legs were like a honey-comb. Or, poultice them 
with rotten apples. But take also a purge once or 
twice every week. 

Ulcers in the Mouth. If the ulcers are not of a 
syphilitic origin, a local wash of carbolic acid or per¬ 
manganate of potassa will speedily cure them,—say i 
part of acid or permanganate to loo of water. If 
they are, however, syphilitic, the wash of carbolic 
acid, perhaps 2 or 3 times as strong, in combination 
with internal treatment, will be found beneficial; the 
wash may be used 3 tmes a day. 

Umbilicus (um-bil'i-cus), a round cicatrix at the 
center of the abdominal region ; the navel. Umbili¬ 
cal cord, the navel-string. 

Umbles (um'blez), the entrails of a deer; hence, 
sometimes, entrails in general. Called also humbles 
and nombles (pronounced iium biz). 

Under draining. This is a term applied to any 
covered drains, in which the flow of water may be 
more or less continuous. These may be made of 
stone, brush, slabs, boards or any other material, but 
tile is by far the best. See Draining. 

Undershot, moved by water passing underneath: 
said of a water-wheel, and is the opposite of “ over¬ 
shot.” 


Underwriter, one who takes the risks of marine 
insurance. 

Universal Joint, a sort of double hinge connect¬ 
ing two rods at an angle, admitting motion in any 
direction. 

Uraemia, a corruption of the blood by the presence 
of urea, which is an element of urine; or, as we 
might say in brief, urine in the blood. 

Urea, as extracted from urine, is a pearly white 
substance, in transparent plates, inodorous and of a 
cool taste; it is very soluble in water or alcohol. It 
has been used as a diuretic. Uraemia results from 
some other disease, particularly of the kidneys. These 
fail to secrete the urine properly, and the latter is un¬ 
duly retained in the blood. Of course, then, the 
treatment consists in removing the primary malady. 
Sweating is the most important process in reducing 
uraemia, if not even of treating the disease which 
causes it. Lemonade is a good drink in these affec¬ 
tions, and the best medicines are probably cream of 
tartar and Epsom salts. 

Urethra (u-re’thra), the canal through which the 
urine passes out. Inflammation of the urethra is a 
very common disease, and is caused by acrid sub¬ 
stances in the food or drink, by much riding, by 
sexual abuse, etc. The most imjxirtant thing to do, 
therefore, is to abstain totally from all possible 
causes,—from everything that might do violence to 
the parts. On chemical theories many persons, even 
physicians, will advise taking something to sweeten 
the urine, as a diuretic potassic salt; some advise 
other things which affect the urine, while, indeed, al¬ 
most everything on the face of the earth will affect it. 
When you get over the trouble the credit of the cure 
will be claimed for the last drug you took. Don’t ex¬ 
periment with drugs. 

Urine. The diseases of the urinary system are 
many, and those which can be treated at home are given 
in these volumes, as Diabetes, inflammation of the 
Bladder, Kidneys, Urethra, etc. 

Diuretics are drugs which promote the secretion of 
urine. The best are these ; Sweet spirits of niter, i 
fluid-dram, in water; saltpeter, 10 to 30 grains, in 
powder or solution; acetate of [Xitash, i to 2 drams, 
in water; bi-carbonate of potash, 10grains to a dram ; 
cream of tartar, r to 3 drams; parsley root, 15 grains, 
in gelatin capsules; Indian hemp, i to 2 fluid-ounces 
of the decoction, twice daily; wild carrot, fleabane, 
buchu, dandelion, juniper berries, Spanish flies, copai¬ 
ba, etc. 

Usury, e.xcess of interest over the amount allowed 
by law. 


!•> 








V 



lACCINATION (vax-in-a'shun), the inocu- 
lation of a person or animal with vaccine vi¬ 


rus (the poisonous element of cow-pox) as a 
safeguard against small-pox, or its fatality in 
j,.- “Case of attack. We cannot go into a discussion 
vj here as to whether vaccination does ward off the 
( dreaded disease of small-pox, or whether the evils 
, or danger of introducing some other disease, as 
scrofula, is not greater than the benefit derived; for 
these are points upon which some differ. Suffice it 
to say, however, vaccination is practiced by most peo¬ 
ple. Formerly it was only performed on individuals 
at long intervals, even if at all after the first time, 
which is usually when a child; but at present, especi¬ 
ally in cities, many persons are vaccinated every year 
or two, and school children are rigidly inspected two 
or three times during the season. It is claimed that 
when the vaccination “ will take,” the subject was not 
exempt from small-pox, and therefore many persons are 
repeatedly vaccinated as a test. Often persons are 
vaccinated five or six times before the desired effect 
is reached. The exact reason for this is not easily ex¬ 
plained. 

The operation is usually performed upon the fleshy 
part of the left arm, between the shoulder and elbow. 
It may be done by pricking the skin with a lancet 
and inserting the virus, or cutting several little gashes 
just through the skin, so that blood will be easily 
squeezed out, but not run from the wound. The vi¬ 
rus is then bound to this or put on, and a piece of 
court plaster placed over the wound. When the virus 
from the cow is used, which is undoubtedly the best, 
the little point upon which it is put should be moist¬ 
ened and then rubbed over the wound until the virus 
is transferred from it to the flesh. After this the court 
plaster is placed over the wound, and care should be 
taken that it be not rubbed off. The third day after 
the operation the wound appears red and a little swell¬ 
ed. Upon the fifth day a little round or oval vesicle 
is seen, filled with a transparent fluid. Upon the eighth 
day the vesicle will have considerably enlarged. Its col¬ 
or is yellow or pearly, with a depression in the center. 
The skin around its base is reddened. This also ex¬ 
tends for some distance over the arm, and a little pain 
is felt. The shoulder joint is stiff and sore and a 
lump forms under the arm, which, for a time, will be 
slightly sore. At this time the scab begins to dry 
up and in from seven to ten days falls off, leaving a 
round scar marked with indentations. 

The vaccine matter to be employed must be good. 


and when one is suspicious of its purity, it should iwt 
be used. By far the best, and which is becoming in 
general use, is the points containing the virus from the 
cow. These must be fresh to be effective. In using 
virus from the arm of another, it should be only from 
a very healthy person, and quite young. This may 
be taken from the pustules between the sixth and 
eighth day after vaccination. The scab may be pre¬ 
served for a long time within a piece of beeswax, 
being thus hermetically sealed. 

Animal Vaccination. This theme is receiving 
some attention, and indeed is creating a deep interest 
in agriculture as well as medical circles, because of 
the prospect it affords of reducing cattle diseases to a 
minimum. Upon this subject Prof. Pasteur, of 
France, delivered a lecture before the medical con¬ 
gress in London in August, i88i. Sir James Paget, 
in thanking him in the name of the medical congress 
for his address, said that he had done for the lower 
animals what Jennerdid for the human race. France, 
says Prof. Pasteur, loses every year by splenic fever 
animals to the value of 20,000,000 francs. In the 
course of his remarks the eminent Frenchman said : 

“ I was asked to give a public demonstration of the 
results already mentioned. This experiment I may 
relate in a few words. Fifty sheep were placed at my 
disposal, of which 25 were vaccinated. A fortnight 
afterward the 50 sheep were inoculated with the most 
virulent anthracoid microbe. The 25 vaccinated 
sheep resisted the infection, while the 25 unvaccin¬ 
ated died of splenic fever within 50 hours. Since 
that time my energies were turned to meet the de¬ 
mands of farmers for supplies of this vaccine. In 
the space of 25 days we have vaccinated in the de¬ 
partments surrounding Paris more than 20,000 
sheep and a large number of cattle and horses. If I 
were not pressed for time I should bring to your 
notice two other kinds of virus, obtained by similar 
means. These experiments will be communicated 
by and by to the public. I cannot conclude without 
expressing the great pleasure I feel at the thought 
that it is as a member of an international medical 
congress assembled in England that I make known 
the most recent results of vaccination upon a disease 
more terrible, perhaps, for domestic animals than 
small-pox is for man. I have given to vaccination 
an extension which science, I hope, will accept as a 
homage paid to the merit and the immense services 
rendered by one of the greatest men of England. I 
refer to Tenner.” 







1270 


VALERIAN— VARIETY. 


Valerian, a European medicinal plant, the roots 
of which are used as a nerve stimulant and anti- 
spasmodic. Of the infusion the dose is ^ to 2 
ounces; of the tincture, i dram; of the fluid extract, 
to I dram. The ammoniated tincture is stimula¬ 
ting and antacid, and especially useful in hysterical 
cases. The val-erianate of zinc, i grain twice a day, 
is most valuable in nervous headache. American va¬ 
lerian is the yellow lady’s-slipper, which has similar 
effects, but is inferior to the above. 

Valise (va-lees'): see Sachel and page 1254, 

Valve, a lid for closing an aperture or passage, so 
as to open only in one direction. 

Vanilla, a plant of tropical America, the capsule 
of which affords the delicious extract so well known 
in cookery and confectionery. As a medicine, vanilla 
is supposed to possess powers analogous to valerian, 
while at the same time it is far more grateful. 

Vapor, the extenuated, gaseous form of a liquid 
or solid substance. Among the people the word 
generally denotes vapor of water, while among scien¬ 
tists a definitive phrase mustaccompany the word ; as, 
“the vapor of alcohol,” “the vapor of mercury,” “the 
vapor of iron,” “the vaiX)rof water,” etc. In a loose 
and popular sense the word “ vapor ” may denote any 
visible, diffused substance floating in the atmosphere, 
as smoke, fog, or the like. In the plural form, “ va¬ 
pors ” has been used in the sense of a nervous dis¬ 
ease which causes strange images to float before the 
mind, as hypochondria, depression of spirits, or the 
“ blues," dejection, spleen, hysteria, etc. 

Variety, in natural histor}'^, any form or condition 
of structure under a species which differs in its charac¬ 
teristics from those typical of the species, as in color, 
shape, size and the like, and which is capable of per¬ 
petuating itself for a period, or of being perpetuated 
by artificial means. A peculiarity, generally abnor¬ 
mal and not capable of perpetuation, is a “sport” and 
not a variety. Varieties differ from species in that any 
two, however unlike, will mutually propagate indefi¬ 
nitely, unless they are in their nature unfertile, as 
some varieties of rose and other cultivated plants; 
also, in being a result of climate, food or other ex¬ 
trinsic conditions or influences, but generally by a 
sudden development rather than a gradual one, and 
in tending in most cases to lose their distinctive pecu¬ 
liarities when the individuals are left to a state of 
nature, and especially if restored to the conditions 
which are natural to the typical individuals of the 
species. 

The old way of producing new varieties was by the 
selection of the best seedlings from year to year. 
For example, several thousand seeds of the best fruit 
of the best trees are sown, the next generation several 
thousand of the best of these, and the next the best 
of these again, and so on, accompanied by good cul¬ 
tivation. This method with trees is still practiced to 
some extent, especially in Europe. With garden 
vegetables and all those plants that have to be propa¬ 


gated by seeds only, this is still the only practicable 
method. New varieties of potatoes are originated in 
this way, and are brought to perfection by a few years’ 
propagation from the eyes of the tubers. Van Mons, 
of Holland, the originator of this method, found that 
pears, for instance, could be brought to perfection by 
this method in the fifth generation; other fruits in 
less time. Out of several thousand seeds planted, 
but one or two, on an average, will prove of superior 
quality. In some situations, under the care of some 
experimenters, there are occasionally several in a 
thousand; with others, not one in many thou¬ 
sands. Van Mons’theory was, we must subdue or 
enfeeble the original coarse luxuriance of the tree; 
and to aid this process, in transplanting young seed¬ 
lings, we should* cut off the tap-root and thereafter 
annually shorten the leading and side branches, plac¬ 
ing the plants also in a crowded situation. In select¬ 
ing the seeds, we should avoid those of old or grafted 
trees, and choose those of a tree which is perfecting 
its fruit rather than one which has finished its career 
of perfection. 

Seedling varieties, as well as seedlings from hybrids 
(see next paragraph), have a strong tendency "to re¬ 
vert to their original wild state; and were it not for 
our constant practice of selecting the best seed from 
year to year, all our improved trees and herbaceous 
plants would in a few years “ degenerate ” into their 
primeval wild condition. We use the term “degenerate” 
in an accommodated sense; for so far as concerns the 
plant only, its wild condition is its perfect condition, 
and what we call “improved” is improved only for 
the abnormal (relatively to the plant) purpose of pro¬ 
ducing fruit for us to eat. 

Cross-Breeding, or Hybridizing. This is the 
more rapid method of originating and perfecting new 
varieties, and is practicable with all those species of 
plants which we propagate otherwise than by seed, as 
grafting, layering, cuttings, etc. It consists of the 
following process: When the tree blooms which you 
intend to be the mother of the improved race, select 
a blossom or blossoms growing ujxm it not yet fully 
expanded; with a pair of scissors cut out and remove 
all the anthers; the next day or as soon as the blossom 
is quite expanded, collect with a camel’s-hair brush 
pollen from a full-blown flower of the variety you in¬ 
tend for the male parent, and apply it to the stigma, 
or point of the pistil, on the other tree. If the trees 
are exposed to bees or other honey insects, it will be 
necessary to cover the blossoms with a loose bag of 
thin gauze, or the insects may get ahead of you in the 
work of cross-fertilization. Watch the blossoms 
closely as they open, and bear in mind that the two 
essential points are, first, to extract the anthers care¬ 
fully before they have matured sufficiently to fertilize 
the pistil; and, secondly, to apply the pollen 
when it is in perfection (dry and powdery) and while 
the stigma is moist. A very little practice will enable 
the amateur to judge of this point. For example, if 
you have an early but insipid and worthless pear, and 
desire to raise from it a variety both early and of fine 







VARIOLOID— VASE. 


1271 


flavor, you should fertilize some of its pistils with the 
best flavored variety, of a little later maturity. Among 
the seedlings produced you may look for early pears 
of good quality, and at least for one or two varieties 
nearly or quite as early as the female parent and as 
delicious as the fruit of the other tree. 

It is necessary to cross several flowers at once on 
the same trees or plants, and then select the best 
resultant. 

It is not always by the first fruits of a seedling that 
it should be judged. Some of the finest varieties re¬ 
quire a considerable age before their best qualities 
develop themselves, as it is only when the tree has 
arrived at some degree of maturity that its secretions, 
either for flower or fruit, are perfectly elaborated. 

Ornamental plants are multiplied in their varieties 
by the same process as above described. 

There are certain limits to the improvement of 
plants by the first or seedling method, and to the crea¬ 
tion of new varieties by the second or hybridizing 
method. Some plants yield readily to “domestica¬ 
tion,” some yield not at all. What is strictly called a 
cross-bred plant or fruit is a sub-variety raised between 
two varieties of the same species. There are, how¬ 
ever, some species which are so nearly allied as to be 
capable of fertilizing each other. The offspring in 
this case is called a hybrid or a “mule,” and does not 
always produce perfect seeds. This power of hybrid¬ 
izing appears to be much more common in plants than 
in animals. The crossing must be between closely 
allied species. 

The common practice of selecting the seeds of the 
cucumber or melon nearof^t the root for propagation, 
encourages earliness only, while it tends to diminish 
the size. The best plan, with reference to garden 
vegetables, is to let all the seeds or fruit on a good 
plant go on to maturity, and then select from the 
best. 

New varieties are sometimes originated by simple 
transference to a new climate, and sometimes by dis¬ 
ease. The latter are of no importance, and the for¬ 
mer are adapted only to the new climate. 

Varioloid, (va'ri-o-loid), modified small-pox. The 
“ modification ” is said to be caused generally by pre¬ 
vious vaccination or inoculation. The symptoms are 
the same as those of small-pox, but not so violent, 
the issue not so fatal, and the treatment should be 
about the same, except that special measures to prevent 
pitting are not required. 

Varnish, any vegetablegumoroil which will harden 
on exposure to the atmosphere and become impervious 
to water, as copal, linseed oil, etc. Varnishes maybe 
conveniently divided into two kinds,—spirit and oil 
varnishes. Concentrated alcohol is used as the sol¬ 
vent of the former, and fixed or volatile oils, or mix¬ 
tures of the two, for the»latter. It is often dissolved 
in the alcohol to increase its solvent power. The 
essential oil chiefly employed as a solvent is turpen¬ 
tine, which should be pure and colorless. Pale dry¬ 
ing linseed oil is the fixed oil generally used for var¬ 


nishes, but poppy and nut oil are also occasionally 
employed. Among the substances employed in the 
manufacture of varnishes are turpentine, copal, mas- 
tich, lac (or “ shellac ”), elemi, dammar, sandarach, 
anime and amber, to impart body and luster; benzoin, 
to impart scent; gamboge, turmeric, saffron, an not to 
and Socotrine aloes, to give a yellow color; dragon’s 
blood, to give a red tinge ; asphaltum to give a black 
color and body; India rubber, to impart body, tough¬ 
ness and elasticity. 

It is not expected that farmers should make their 
own varnishes. It is much cheaper for them to pur¬ 
chase of the druggist, or other dealer in paints, oils 
and varnishes, or of a cabinet or carriage maker, or of 
a painter. Tell him the exact purpose for which you 
want it, and insist on having the materials fresh from 
their air-tight reservoirs, so that the varnish will dry 
readily and thoroughly and be durable. In laying on 
the varnish, do not work it with the brush as you 
would paint, but lay it on with as few strokes as ix)s- 
sible, even with one stroke, if you can thus make it 
even. Considerable care will be required in the mix¬ 
ing and laying on, to secure evenness and smoothness. 
It should not be left in heaps, as it were, in places, so 
that it will run, nor should the brush be passed over 
it after it begins to “ set,” as that roughens it. It sets 
perceptibly within a second or two, according to the 
kind of mixture. 

Cruder compositions, of tar, asphaltum, lampblack, 
with linseed oil, for covering farm implements, are 
often called varnish. For varnishes for harness, see 
page 639. 

Brushes for applying varnish should be cared for 
with the utmost pains. A good way to keep them is 
to suspend them by the handles in a covered can, 
keeping the points at least half an inch from the bot¬ 
tom and apart from each other. The can should be 
filled with a slow-drying vamish up to a line about a 
sixteenth of an inch above the bristles or hair. The 
can should then be kept in a close cupboard, or in a 
box fitted for the purpose. For keeping the brush 
over one night or two, however, water will be good 
enough, in place of the varnish. As wiping a brush 
on a sharp edge of tin will gradually split the bristles, 
cause them to turn backward, and eventually ruin 
the brush, the top of the can should have a wire 
soldered on and the edge of the tin turned over, or 
wire substituted in some way for the sharp tin edge. 
In taking brushes from the can, prepare them for use 
by working them out in varnish, and before replacing 
them cleanse the handles and binding with turpentine. 
Finishing brushes, however, should not be cleansed 
with turpentine, except in extreme cases. 

Vase, a vessel, of various forms and materials, for 
domestic purposes, and anciently for sacrificial uses; 
especially, a vessel of antique or elegant pattern for 
ornaments; also, a solid piece of ornamental marble 
representing in form an ancient vase. At crockery 
and notion stores may be found an almost infinite 
variety of vases for ornamentation of homes. 









1272 


VEAL— VENEER. 


Veal, the flesh of calves prepared for food. How 
to dress veal is described on page 963, and how to 
judge it, on page 965. To prepare calf’s head and 
liver, see page 66. To cook veal, we select the fol¬ 
lowing recipes: 

Roast Veal. Make a dressing of bread crumbs, 
chopped thyme and parsley; a little pepper and salt, 
one egg and a little butter. If too dry moisten with a 
little hot water. Fake a loin of veal, make an incis¬ 
ion in the flap and fill it with the stuffing; secure it 
with small skewers and dredge the veal with a little 
flour, slightly salted. Bake in a moderate oven and 
baste often, at first with a little salt and water, and 
afterward with the drippings in the pan. When done, 
skim the gravy and thicken with a little brown flour.’ 
The breast and shoulder are nice cooked in the same 
manner; ask your butcher to make incisions for the 
stuffing. Serve with tomato sauce. ' 

Browned Veal, Put a piece of butter in a cover¬ 
ed pan and place into it about three pounds of veal. 
Choose thick end of shoulder or loin; brown well for 
at least 20 minutes, sprinkle over a little flour and 
add some warm water, just to make a little gravy. 
Add also four slices of lemon, some mace, a little nut¬ 
meg, salt and whole pepper-corns. Place two pieces 
of bacon on the top of the meat, close up tight, and 
let gently simmer for three-quarters of an hour more. 
This dish must not boil fast. Take out the meat and 
strain the gravy over it. Trim with lemon. 

Veal Cutlets. Let the cutlet be about half an 
inch thick. Chop some sweet herbs very fine; mix 
them well with the bread crumbs. Brush the cutlets 
over with the yolk of an egg, then cover them with 
the bread crumbs and chopped herbs ; fry them light¬ 
ly in butter, turning them when required. Take them 
out when done. 

Another: Take slices from the broad end of the 
leg. Fry three or four pieces of salt pork and take 
them out; wipe the slices of veal dry; put them into 
the hot fat and fry them a nice brown. Serve with 
horse-radish. 

Knuckle of Veal. Cut in small, thick slices, sea¬ 
son with a little salt and pepper, flour lightly and fry 
it to a pale brown; then lay it in a saucepan and cover 
with water. Skim well. Simmer gently for two hours 
and a half, then thicken the gravy with a little flour 
and add a piece of butter, and salt to taste. Add a 
little catsup if desired. 

Veal Pot-pie. Take the neck, the shank or the 
breast-neck of veal; boil them long enough to skim 
off all the froth. Butter the pot or try out some slices 
of salt pork; lay in the meat, with salt, pepper and 
flour; pour in enough of the water in which the veal 
was boiled to cover it; let it simmer about an hour 
and a half. Make a crust about 20 minutes before 
you are ready for dinner, with baking powder, as for 
biscuit; cut three slits in it, and put it over t’he top 
of the pot; let it boil every minute for ten minutes. 
Dish it immediately before the crust falls. 


Vegetable, in science, is any plant, from the tree 
down to the microscopic organism, which grows by 
the assimilation of inorganic matter; in the culinary art 
and in dietetics, the wcyd generally denotes those 
plants of which we eat the leaves, stems or roots, as 
cabbage, asparagus and sweet potato. In this sense 
it is understood that all vegetable articles of food are 
distinguished into “fruits, grains and vegetables.” 
Melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomatoes, the fruit of 
the egg-plant, etc., might be denominated vegetable 
fruits, and peas and beans, vegetable grains. 

In the proper places throughout this Encyclopedia 
are described at full length the raising, preserving, 
cooking, etc., of each vegetable. 

Vegetable Oyster, salsify. See page 1093, 

Vehicle (ve'hi-cl), any kind of carriage, cart, 
wagon or sleigh, considered as a thing in which goods 
or persons are carried. 

Vein (vain), a blood canal in animal bodies, lead¬ 
ing toward the heart. The blood in them is of a 
darker color than the arterial blood, and is not thrust 
along by pulsations, like the latter. 

Velvet. This is certainly one of the richest of the 
silken fabrics. Its origin is not known, but it has been 
made in Europe for centuries. At first, its manufac¬ 
ture was confined to Italy, where, and also in Genoa, 
It was carried to great perfection. The inanufactiue 
then reached France, and afterward England. The 
name comes from the French which is derived 

from vein, covered with hair. Velvet is distinguished 
from ever>' other kind of cioth by the soft pile on the 
surface, from which its great beauty results. It has 
this pile in addition to the usual warp and weft which 
it has in common with plain fabrics. The pile is oc¬ 
casioned by the insertion of short pieces of silk 
thread doubled under the weft, and which stand up¬ 
right on its upper surface in such a multitude, and so 
crowded together, as entirely to conceal the interlac¬ 
ings of the warp and weft. 

How TO Clean White Velvet. If cut or un¬ 
sewed velvet, take light bread crumbs that are per¬ 
fectly free from grease; spread your velvet smoothly 
on a stand or table, and rub the crumbs over it all 

one way. Uncut velvet cannot be cleaned in this 
way. 

To Raise the Pile on Velvet. Hold the velvet 
over a basin of hot water with the lining of the dress 
next to the water. ^ The pile will soon rise. Or, heat 
an iron and cover it with a damp cloth, and hold it 
under the velvet on the wrong side. The steam will 

penetrate the velvet, and the pile can be raised with 
a brush. 

Velveteen, an imitation of velvet in cotton. It is 
of various colors and much used for the same pur¬ 
poses as velvet, being much cheaper. 

Velvet-Leaf, Indian Mallow, which see, page 864. 

Veneer (ve-neer) to overlay or plate with a thin 
layer of wood or other material for outer finish or 











VENISON— VINGAR. 


1273 


decoration; as, to veneer a piece of furniture with 
mahogany or white w'alnut. 

Venison (ven'i-zn or ven'zn), the flesh of game 
animals, especially the deer; used only in the latter 
sense in this country. It is prepared for the table as 
beef is prepared, but the following recipes are espe¬ 
cially excellent: 

Roasted Venison. A leg of venison should be 
roasted for an hour and a half if eaten on blazers; 
if on hot plates, three hours. The dry skin should be 
taken off before roasting with the fingers, not with a 
knife. The spit should be turned very often ; when 
half done it should be basted with flour, butter and 
red wine, very frequently until done. 

A Saddle of Venison. A saddle of venison is 
much the best piece of the deer. It requires but half 
the time to roast this that it does the leg, for it is a 
much thinner piece. Dressed in the same manner 
as the leg. 

A Venison Steak. Cut steaks from the leg an 
inch or three-quarters of an inch thick, broil them 
about five minutes; season with pepper, salt and 
butter. A cupful of the roast venison gravy, very 
hot, is nice poured over it; or half a cup of red wine, 
and half a cup of current jelly, thickened with a 
little flour and butter, boiled up and turned over the 
steak. It should be served very hot. 

Ventilation, renewing the air of an apartment, 
hall, building or other enclosed place. See Hygiene, 
Residence, Barn, etc. 

Veranda, a kind of open portico, formed by ex¬ 
tending a sloping roof beyond the main building. 

Verbena, one of the most popular flowers, both in 
the house and in the garden. There are several spe¬ 
cies and a great multitude of varieties. Several wild 
species prevail in this country, and are known as 
“ vervain,” a corruption of the word “ verbena.” The 
vervains are uninteresting weeds. In some localities 
they hybridize thoroughly. A “ rust,” caused by a 
microscopic insect, sometimes attacks verbenas, petu¬ 
nias, heliotropes, etc., and may be remedied either by 
water heated to 120'’ Fahr., or by syringing with a 
solution of half a pint of coal oil in two or three 
gallons of water. 

Verdigris, (ver'di-grees), the bi-basic acetate of 
copper, a green, greasy substance formed on copper 
or brass vessels by contact with vegetable acids. It 
is poisonous, and has been employed as a medicine, 
as indeed has almost every other poisonous and filthy 
substance in existence, or that could be made by the 
art of man. Impure verdigris is sometimes used for a 
green paint. For treatment of one w’ho is poisoned by 
it, see Vitriol. 

Verjuice, the sour juice of crab-apples, of unripe 
grapes, apples, etc.; also, a kind of vinegar made from 
such juice. 

Vermicelli (ver-mi-sel'ly) the flour of a hard, 
small-grained wheat made into dough, and forced 


through cylinders or pipes till it takes a slender, 
worm-like form. It is used chiefly in soups. 

Vermifuge, expelling worms, that is, from the in¬ 
testinal canal; said of medicines, as wormseed, tansy, 
pink-root and senna, male fern, pumpkin seed, cow- 
hage, santonica, etc. See Worms. 

Vermin, a mischievous animal; especially, noxious 
little annimals, including insects, as rats, mice, squir¬ 
rels, minks, weasels, worms, flies, larves, lice, etc. See 
respective insects and animals, and the animal or ob¬ 
ject infested, and remedies, pages 887 and 892. 

Vertebra (ver'te-bra; plural, vertebrae), a joint of 
the back-bone. “Vertebral column,” the back-bone. 
“ Cervical vertebrae,” the bones of the neck,—7 in 
number, in man ; the next 12 vertebrae are the “ dor¬ 
sal ;” the next 5 are the “ lumbar,” in the region of 
the loins ; and the last two, in the adult, are the sa¬ 
crum and os coccygis. 

Vertigo (ver'ti-go), swimming of the head; giddi¬ 
ness ; dizziness. See Giddiness, page 5 70, and Head¬ 
ache, page 650. 

Vesicle (ves'i-cl), a bladder-like vessel; a mem¬ 
branous cavity or watery pimple; a cyst; a cell. 
Vesicular eruptions characterize several contagious 
fevers and skin diseases. 

Vetch, the name of several species of wild bean¬ 
like plants, good for fodder. Some species are culti¬ 
vated in Europe. 

Veterinarian (vet-er-in-a'ri-an), one skilled in the 
diseases of horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, etc. 

Vial, a small bottle. “ Phial ” (pronounced fi'al) 
is an old form of this word. 

Vices, of horses. See page 7 20. 

Vine, a climbing or trailing plant. When unqual¬ 
ified the word denotes the grape-vine alone. 

Vine-chafer, an insect infesting the grape. See 
article Grape, and page 886. 

Vinegar, literally, sour wine; in present usage, a 
fermented solution of sugar. This fermentation is 
called “ acetous,” to distinguish it from the first stage 
of decomjxisition, called “alcoholic fermentation.” 
A mixture of the natural acids contained in sour fruits 
and acetic acid, which is the base of vinegar, is su¬ 
perior to any pure vinegar as a condiment, though it 
may not make as good a preservative. It is likely 
that natural vegetable acids, citric and malic, for in¬ 
stance, will in the near future largely take the place of 
vinegar for table use. 

Many otherwise intelligent persons are apparently 
entirely ignorant of the principles involved in 
the manufacture of vinegar from the substances 
farmers generally convert into it. They have cider, 
wine, or other fruit juices, and they desire to make 
vinegar out of them. They have noticed that these 
substances are sometimes converted into vinegar 
without apparent trouble, and they do not take 













1274 


F/JVE YAjRD— Vise us. 


the trouble to examine into the conditions most 
favorable for effecting the desired change. They 
sometimes leave cider in close barrels in a cool cellar 
during several years and wonder that it does not 
change into sharp vinegar, as they have known the 
same substance to do in the possession of other peo¬ 
ple. I’hey are presumedly ignorant of the fact that 
quite a high temperature and the presence of a large 
amount of air are necessary to change cider into 
vinegar. The sweetish alcohol which the cider or 
wine contains needs to receive an additional amount 
of oxygen from the air in order to become changed 
into vinegar. A man once kept two barrels of cider 
in the cellar two years, and it would not make vine¬ 
gar. A friend told him to let it run through the open 
air. He did so, and in three days he had the strong¬ 
est kind of vinegar. 

The sourness of vinegar is ordinarily due to acetic 
acid, the latter constituting four to five per cent, of 
good vinegar Vinegar made from wine contains also 
a little tartaric acid, and a minute quantity of acetic 
ether, which gives it a pleasant aroma. That made 
from cider contains also a small proportion of malic 
acid. 

^ To Make Vinegar from Cider. The better the 
cider or other liquid that is exposed to the atmos¬ 
phere, and the higher the temperature, provided it is 
not so high as to cause rapid evaporation, the quicker 
will the desired change take place. Cider kept in full, 
tight barrels and stored in a cool cellar may become 
converted into a tolerably strong vinegar, but a very 
long time will be required to bring about the change. 
If a vent is left in the barrel, or the bung is out, and 
some of the contents of the barrel is occasionally 
drawn out, the change will be much more rapid. If 
the barrel is removed from the cellar and occasionally 
moved from side to side, the conversion of the con¬ 
tents into vinegar will be much more speedy. 

In all large establishments for making vinegar there 
are arrangements whereby the material is exposed 
over a large surface or a large amount of air is made 
to pass through the material. The temperature of the 
room where the operations are carried on is kept at 
the point most favorable for the union of oxygen with 
the alcohol of the liquid. It is not economical, how¬ 
ever, to procure apparatus of this kind in cases where 
only a few barrels, or a single barrel, of cider or other 
material _ are to be converted into vinegar. It is 
cheaper in such a case to allow the operation to go 
on slower, and to dispense with the use of apparatus 
that costs considerable money and occupies a consid¬ 
erable space. In the opinion of many, vinegar made 
by the slow process gives a somewhat better flavor 
and is less likely to become cloudy than that made 
by any of the quick processes. A shed open on the 
south side furnishes a favorable place for generating 
vinegar. The generating barrels in a building or on 
the open ground should rest on supports raised at 
least a foot from the surface of the earth. They 
should not be more than two-thirds filled, as by leav¬ 
ing considerable space above the liquid there is a 


larger surface exposed to the action of the air. The 
bungs should be taken out of the vessels, and to pre¬ 
vent insects from entering them the holes should be 
covered with wire gauze or netting. If holes are 
bored in the ends of the barrels near the chine, that 
IS, on a line with the bung, more air will enter, and 
the process of conversion into vinegar will go on 
faster. 

If a few quarts of hot, strong vinegar be poured 
into a barrel and well shaken about before it is filled 
with cider, it will aid the generating process. The oc¬ 
casional addition of a small amount ofstrong vinegar 
to the contents of the barrel will favor the change 
into vinegar. The French, who are celebrated for 
making fine vinegar by the slow process, practice 
drawing off a portion of the contents of one vessel 
that has become quite sour and adding it to a barrel 
whose contents is still tolerably sweet. 

From Brown Sugar. To ten gallons of rain-water 
add worth of sugar; add one quart of good vin¬ 
egar to this, and set it in a warm place. In three or 
four weeks you will have first-class vinegar. 

From Molasses. To eight gallons of clear rain¬ 
water, add three quarts of molasses; turn the mix¬ 
ture into a clean, tight cask, shake it well two or three 
times, and add three spoonfuls of good yeast, or two 
yeast cakes; place the cask in a warm place, and 
in ten or fifteen days add a sheet of common wrap- 
ping paper, smeared with molasses and torn into 
narrow strips, and you will have good vinegar. The 
paper is necessary to form the “ mother,” or life, of 
the vinegar. ’ 

From Acetic Acid and Molasses. Acetic acid 
4 lbs., molasses, i gal.; put them into a 4 ®-S^llou 
cask, and fill it up with rain-water; shake it up and 
let it stand from one to three weeks, and the result is 
good vinegar. If this does not make it as sharp as 
you like, add a little more molasses. 

From Honey. Put into warm water honey enough 
to make it a little sweeter than coffee is sweetened at 
table; tie a cloth over the top of the vessel and place 
on a bench out of doors in the sun; in four to six 
weeks it will be sharp vinegar. 

From Potatoes. Boil potatoes, drain off water, 
add one pound sugar, two and one-half gallons 
of water, and a little hop yeast or whisky. It is sour 
in a short time. 

Some claim that all that is necessary to make good 
vinegar is sweetened water, hot weather, frequent stir¬ 
ring, and air. 

Vineyard (vin'yard), a yard for raising grapes. 

Vinous (vi'nus), containing wine, or the aroma of 
wine. 

Virus (vi rus), in modern medical science, a mor¬ 
bid poison, as the specific contagion of small-pox, 
syphilis, etc. 

Viscus (plural, vis'ce-ra), one of the organs con¬ 
tained in the great cavities of the body; anyone of 
the contents of the cranium, thorax or abdomen ; in 

















VISE— VOMITING. 


the plural especially applied to the intestines and 
other organs in the abdomen. 

Vise, an aparatus for griping and holding things, 
closed by a screw. A cut of a convenient anvil and 
vise together is given on page 15. 

Vitriol, a soluble sulphate of either of the metals; 
also, sulphuric acid, popularly so-called. “Blue 
vitriol,” or “bluestone,” is the sulphate of copper; 
“white vitriol,” the sulphate of zinc; “green vitriol,” 
copperas, or the green photo-sulphate of iron; “ red 
vitriol,” or “vitriol of Mars,” the flesh-colored sulphate 
of iron ; cobalt vitriol is also called “red vitriol.” The 
“oil of vitriol ” is sulphuric acid, so-called because it 
makes no noise when poured from one vessel into 
another. 

Poisoning from Blue Vitriol. The effects are, 
an acid, rough, disagreeable taste in the mouth; a dry, 
parched tongue, with sense of strangling in the 
throat; coppery eructations; frequent spitting; nau¬ 
sea ; frequent desire and effort to vomit, or copious 
vomiting; severe darting pains in the stomach; 
griping; frequent purging; belly swolen and pain¬ 
ful; skin hot, and violent burning thirst; breathing 
difficult; intense headache and giddiness, followed 
by cold sweats, cramps in the legs, convulsions, and 
death. Give white of eggs mixed with water (12 to 
one pint), to be given in wine-glassfuls every two 
minutes; or give sugar and water, or iron filings mixed 
with water, or very strong coffee, accompanied by 
small and repeated doses of castor oil. Other anti¬ 


1275 


dotes are bark, alkalies, gall nuts. Treatment: If 
there is much pain in the belly or stomach, apply 
leeches. Give large draughts of milk and water to 
encourage vomiting. 

Poisoning from White Vitriol. The effects are, 
an astringent taste, sensation of choking, nausea, 
vomiting, purging, pain and burning in the throat and 
stomach, difficult breathing, pallor and coldness of the 
surface, pinched face, cramps of the extremities, but, 
with the exception of the chloride of zinc, seldom 
death. For the two first give copious draughts of milk, 
and white of eggs and water, mucilage, and olive oil; 
for the third, carbonateof soda, and warm water in fre¬ 
quent draughts, with the same as for the other com¬ 
pounds. Treatment: Relieve urgent symptoms by 
leeching and fomentations, and for the vomiting give 
castor oil. For the chloride, use frictions and warmth. 

Vomiting, To Allay. Take sips of hot water, 
coffee, tea, or of any other hot drink which the patent 
likes best. 

To Produce. Take salt and tepid water, as much 
as the patient can drink; or lukewarm water, a pint 
or more, accompanied, if necessary, by tickling the 
fauces (inside of the throat) with the finger or a 
feather; or tincture of lobelia, a dram of a solution 
of t\vo ounces to the pint; wine of ipecacuanha 
(r ounce to the pint), to ounce; tartar emetic, 
I grain; alum, i to 2 teaspoonfuls of the pow'der 
(especially good in croup); white vitriol, 30 grains; 
blue vitriol, 3 to 5 grains. 











w 



iron on coals. 

To Make Waffles. Take one quart of sour milk, 
TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WEEK, COMPUTED 


three eggs, a little salt, flour enough to make a thick 
batter; rub a piece of butter in the flour the size of 
an egg before stirring it in, or the waffles will be tough ; 
beat the eggs separately, stirring the whites in the 
last thing; one teaspoon of soda, and they are ready 
for the waffle-irons—to be eaten with butter or sugar, 
or anything else that will suit the taste. The irons 
must be buttered or greased with lard. 

Wages. Below we give tables for computing 
wages by the week and month. 

ON A BASIS OF TEN HOURS LABOR PER DAY. 


H’rs. 

$1.00 

fi.50 

$2.00 

$2.50 

$3.00 

$3-50 

4.00 

$4.50 

$5.00 

$5-50 


01 

01 

oiH 

02 

02% 

03 

03/i 

03% 

04% 

04% 

1 

01?^ 

02% 

03 Vs 

04/4 

05 

06 

06% 

07U 

08% 

09% 

2 

03 K 

05 

ob% 

08% 

10 


13/4 

IS 

I6?4 

18% 

3 

05 

07 M 

10 

12% 

15 

17^ 

20 

22% 

25 

27% 

4 

o6Ji 

10 

i 3>4 

16% 

20 

23^4 

26% 

30 

33/4 

36% 

5 

08 

12}^ 

16% 

21 

25 

2954 

33/4 

37/4 

41K 

46 

6 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

7 

11^ 

17/4 

23/4 

^gVs 

35 

41 

46% 

52% 

58 X 

64%8 

8 

13M 

20 

26K 

33/4 

40 

46% 

53/4 

60 

66% 

73/4 

9 

15 

22'^ 

30 

37^4 

45 

52% 

60 

67^4 

75 

82% 

Days. 











I 


25 

33^4 

41% 

50 

58% 

66% 

75 

8354 

91% 

2 

33/4 

50 

66^ 

83K 

I 00 

I 16% 

t 33/4 

150 

I 66% 

I 83% 

3 

50 

75 

I 00 

I 25 

I 50 

I 75 

2 00 

2 25 

2 50 

2 75 

4 


I 00 

I 33/4 

I 66 % 

2 00 

2 33^ 

2 66 % 

3 00 

3 33^ 

3 66% 

5 

83^4 

t 25 

I 66 % 

2 o85i 

2 50 

2 91% 

3 33/4 

3 75 

4 16% 

4 58% 

6 

I 00 

I 50 

2 00 

2 50 

3 00 

3 SO 

4 00 

4 50 

5 00 

5 50 


.00 

$6.50 

$7.00 

$8.00 

$6.00 

$10. 

$11. 

$12. 

05 

05/4 

06 

06% 

07% 

08% 

09 

10 

10 

H 

ii ?4 

13% 

15 

16% 

18% 

20 

20 

21% 

23% 

26% 

30 

33% 

36% 

40 

30 

32% 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

40 

43^4 

46% 

53/4 

60 

66% 

7334 

80 

50 

54/4 

58% 

66% 

75 

83% 

9 i ?4 

I 00 

(0 

65 

70 

80 

90 

1 00 

I 10 

I 20 

70 

76 

81% 

93 ^ 

105 

1 16% 

I 28% 

I 40 

80 

86% 

93/4 

I 06% 

I 20 

I 33/4 

I 46% 

I 60 

90 

97/4 

I 05 

I 20 

I 35 

I 50 

I 6s 

I 80 

00 

I 08% 

I 16% 

I 33/4 

I 50 

I 66% 

I 83% 

2 00 

Oo 

2 16% 

2 33/4 

2 66% 

3 00 

3 33^4 

3 66% 

4 00 

00 

3 25 

3 5 ° 

4 00 

4 50 

5 00 

5 50 

6 00 

00 

4 33K 

4 66% 

5 33^ 

6 00 

6 66% 

7 3334 

8 00 

00 

5 41% 

5 83% 

6 66 % 

7 5° 

8 3334 

9 16% 

10 00 

00 

6 50 

7 00 

y 00 

9 00 

10 00 

II 00 

12 00 


LUC .up muict.ommns snow me rate per week, While the figures in the columns indicate the amount per hour or 
per day. Thus if it is desired to find the amount per hour when working for $6 per week, we commence with the figure i, in the left h^nd column 
under the head of hours, and trace towards the right till we reach the column headed by $6, where we find lo cents, the equivalent of one houUs 
labor at $6 per week- In like manner we find the price of several hours, one day, or several days. ^ 

TABLE OF WAGES BY THE MONTH, SHOWING THE .\MOUNT OF WAGES FOR ANY NUMBER OF DAYS FROM 

I TO 26, AT ANY PRICE PER MONTH FROM $3 TO $28. 


Q 


23 

24 

25 


> 

$3- 

$4, 

1 

1 

$6. 

1 

1 

1 

00 

$9. 

j$io. 

$11. 

$12. 

$13- 

$14. 

$ 

15- 

$16. 

[.. 


12 


15 


19 


23 


27 


31 


35 


38 

42 

46 

50 


54 


58 


62 

2 . . 


23 


31 


39 


46 


54 


62 


69 


77 

85 

92 

I 00 

I 

08 

I 

15 

I 

23 

3-- 


35 


46 


57 


69 


81 


92 

I 

04 

I 

15 

I 27 

I 38 

I 50 

I 

62 

I 

73 

I 

8s 



46 


62 


77 


95 

I 

07 

I 

23 

I 

38 

I 

54 

1 69 

I 8s 

2 00 

2 

15 

2 

31 

2 

46 



58 


77 


96 

I 

15 

I 

34 

1 

54 

I 

73 

I 

92 

2 12 

2 31 

2 50 

2 

69 

2 

88 

3 

08 

i.. 


69 


83 

I 

15 

I 

38 

I 

62 

I 

85 

2 

08 

2 

31 

2 54 

2 77 

3 00 

3 

23 

3 46 

3 

69 

7 -- 


81 

I 

07 

I 

34 

I 

62 

I 

88 

2 

15 

2 

42 

2 

69 

2 96 

3 23 

3 50 

3 

77 

4 

04 

4 

31 

i . . 


92 

I 

23 

I 

54 

I 

64 

2 

15 

2 

46 

2 

77 

3 

08 

3 38 

3 69 

4 00 

4 

31 

4 

62 

4 

92 


I 

04 

I 

38 

I 

73 

2 

07 

2 

42 

2 

77 

3 

12 

3 

46 

3 81 

4 15 

4 50 

4 

86 

5 

^9 

5 

S4 

3. . 

I 

15 

I 

54 

I 

92 

2 

31 

2 

69 

3 

08 

3 

46 

3 

85 

4 23 

4 62 

5 00 

5 

38 

5 

77 

6 

TS 

[ . . 

I 

27 

I 

69 

2 

12 

2 

54 

2 

96 

3 

38 

3 

Si 

4 

23 

4 65 

5 08 

^ 50 

5 

92 

6 

35 

6 

77 

>. . 

I 

38 

I 

84 

2 

31 

2 

77 

3 

23 

3 

69 

4 

15 

4 

62 

5 08 

5 54 

6 00 

6 46 

6 

92 

7 

38 


I 

50 

2 

00 

2 

5° 

3 

00 

3 

50 

4 

00 

4 

50 

5 

00 

5 50 

6 00 

6 so 

7 

00 

7 

50 

8 

00 

I- 

I 

62 

2 

15 

2 

69 

3 

23 

3 

77 

4 

31 

4 

85 

5 

38 

5 92 

6 46 

7 00 

7 

54 

8 

08 

8 

62 


I 

73 

2 

31 

2 

88 

3 

46 

4 

04 

4 

62 

5 

19 

5 

77 

6 35 

6 92 

7 50 

8 

08 

9 

05 

0 

23 

). . 

I 

85 

2 

46 

3 

08 

3 

69 

4 

31 

4 

92 

5 

54 

6 

16 

6 77 

7 38 

8 00 

8 

62 

9 

23 

0 

85 

r .. 

I 

96 

2 

61 

3 

27 

3 

92 

4 

58 

5 

23 

5 

88 

6 

54 

7 19 

7 8s 

8 so 

0 

15 

9 

81 

10 

46 

1.. 

2 

08 

2 

77 

3 

46 

4 

IS 

4 

84 

5 

54 

6 

23 

6 

92 

7 62 

8 31 

9 00 

9 69 

10 

38 

II 

08 


2 

19 

2 

93 

3 

62 

4 

38 

5 

11 

5 

85 

6 

58 

7 

31 

8 04 

8 77 

9 50 

10 

23 

10 

96 

II 

60 

).. 

2 

31 

3 

07 

3 

84 

4 

61 

5 

38 

6 

15 

6 

92 

7 

69 

8 46 

9 23 

lo 00 

10 

77 

11 

54 

12 

3T 


2 

42 

3 

23 

4 

04 

4 

84 

5 

65 

6 

46 

7 

27 

8 

08 

8 88 

9 69 

0 

10 

0 

II 

SI 

12 

12 

12 

92 


2 

54 

3 

38 

4 

23 

5 

07 

5 

92 

6 

77 

7 

61 

8 

46 

9 31 

10 15 

II 00 

11 

85 

12 

69 

13 

54 

• • 

2 

65 

3 

54 

4 

42 

5 

31 

6 

19 

7 

08 

7 

96 

8 

85 

9 73 

10 62 

II50 

12 

38 

11 

27 

14 

15 

• • 

2 

77 

3 

69 

4 

61 

5 

54 

6 

46 

7 

38 

8 

31 

9 

2.J 

10 15 

II 08 

12 00 

12 

02 

13 Sc 

14 

77 


2 

89 

3 

84 

4 

81 

5 

77 

6 

73 

7 

69 

8 

65 

9 

62 

10 58 

II 54 

12 so 

13 46 

14 

42 

15 

38 

).. 

3 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

6 

00 

7 

00 

8 

00 

2. 

00 

10 

00 

II 00 

12 00 

13 00 i 

14 

00 

1500 

16 

00 


$17. 


66 

1 96 

2 62 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 
7 


27 

92 

58 
23 
85 

54 

19 
85 

8 50 

9 '5 
9 81 

10 46 

11 12 

11 77 

12 42 

13 08 

13 73 

14 38 

15 04 
•5 69 
t6 35 
17 00 


$18. 


10 38 

11 08 

11 77 

12 46 

t 3 15 

13 85 

14 54 

t5 23 
t 5 92 
16 62 

t 7 31 

18 00 


$19. 

$20. 

$22. 

$24. 

$26. 

$28. 


73 


77 


84 


92 

I 

00 

I 

08 

I 

46 

I 

54 

I 

70 

I 

84 

2 

00 

2 

IS 

2 

19 

2 

31 

2 

54 

2 

74 

3 

00 

3 

23 

2 

92 

3 

08 

3 

38 

3 

70 

4 

00 

4 

31 

3 

6s 

3 

8s 

4 

24 

4 

62 

5 

00 

5 

38 

4 

38 

4 

62 

5 

08 

5 

54 

6 

00 

6 

46 

5 

I2 

5 

38 

5 

92 

6 

46 

7 

00 

7 

54 

5 

85 

6 

16 

6 

76 

7 

38 

8 

00 

8 

62 

6 

58 

6 

92 

7 

62 

8 

30 

9 

00 

9 

69 

7 

31 

7 

69 

8 

46 

9 

24 

10 

00 

10 

77 

8 

04 

8 

46 

9 

30 

lo 

16 

II 

00 

II 

85 

8 

77 

9 

23 

10 

16 

II 

08 

12 

00 

12 

92 

9 

so 

10 

00 

11 

00 

12 

00 

13 

00 

14 

00 

10 

23 

10 

77 

II 

84 

12 

92 

14 

00 

15 

08 

lo 

96 

11 

54 

12 

70 

13 

84 

15 

00 

16 

15 

11 

69 

12 

31 

13 

54 

14 

74 

16 

00 

17 

23 

12 

42 

13 

08 

14 

38 

15 

70 

17 

00 

18 

31 

13 

15 

13 

85 

15 

24 

16 

62 

18 

00 


38 

13 

88 

14 

62 

16 

08 

17 

54 

19 

00 

20 

46 

14 

62 

IS 

38 

16 

92 

18 

46 

20 

00 

21 

54 

IS 

35 

16 

16 

17 

76 

19 

38 

21 

00 

22 

6r 

16 

08 

16 

92 

18 

62 

20 

30 

22 

00 

23 

69 

16 

81 

17 

69 

19 

46 

21 

24 

23 

00 

24 

77 

17 

54 

18 

46 

20 

30 

22 

16 

24 

00 

25 

8s 

18 

27 

19 

23 

21 

16 

23 

08 

25 

00 

26 

92 

19 

00 

20 

00 

22 

00 

24 

00 

26 

00 

28 

00 


a.7C V ^ V. .u r rr c imucate me aays 01 me month, there being 26 working days in the month, while the fieures 

at the top giies the wages by the month. To find the amount for any given number of days, trace to the right from the number of da\ s in the^first 

tn fi Tih that will be the amount of wages for the given number of days. For examplf 

‘^.tie '.3 '^“'■k at $16 per month; Find 13 in the column of days and trace to the right until you come to the column 

headed by $16, where we find $8, being the proper amount of wages for 13 days at $16 per month. Parts of days are computed by divid ng the wages 
for one day, as shown at the top of the column which indicates the monthly wages paid. Wages other than those indicated are found hf rombinfnJ 
the amounts in the table. For instance, if for $30 a month just combine the $20 and $10 columns, or take three times the $10 column, etc. ^ 








































































































IVAGOiV. 


1277 


Wagon. In the article Carriage we have treated 
of the various parts of such vehicles and the quality 
of material and workmanship that should be used and 
employed in their construction. These remarks in 
many respects equally apply to the wagon. It is there- 



Fig. I. —Farm Wagon. 


fore unnecessary to repeat such observations here. 
Every farmer should have a good, easy-running wagon 
and keep it at all times in fine order. The time thus 



Fig. 2. —Circle Holder or Post. 


saved in doing his teaming, to say nothing of th." 
easy draft and comfort of an easy-going vehicle, will 
more than compensate him for the little extra care 
and attention required to keep it in proper condition. 
Besides some very extensive wagon manufactories 

here and there over 
the countryq these ve¬ 
hicles are constructed 
to a greater or less ex¬ 
tent in almost every 
village in the land. 
There have been some 
improvements of dif¬ 
ferent parts during the 
past few years, but the 
general design is to 
combine lightness, and 
consequently easy run¬ 
ning, with strength. 
Among other improve¬ 
ments that have been 
made is the Morten- 
sen’s circle-holder, or 
post, as shown by Fig. 
2, which explains itself 
Among the numerous 
locks, or breaks, that 



Fig. 3. —Lock with Whip Socket. 


have been invented, perhaps the one shown by Fig. 
3, Hurlbut’s patent, is the best. 


Gauge. The width of wagons in this country vary 
all the way from four feet, eight inches, to five feet, 
two inches, each section having some one gauge which 
prevails there. In clayey countries, where the roads 
are constantly inclined to work into hard ruts, it is 
very necessary that a teamster, in purchasing a wagon, 
should select one having the gauge which prevails in 
his community ; and when intending to take a long 
journey with a wagon, it is of real importance to as¬ 
certain, if possible, what gauge prevails along his 
route, and obtain a wagon adapted to it. It would be 
a good thing to have but one gauge for the whole 
continent of America. 

Capacity of Wagon Beds. Where the capacity 
of the wagon-beds is not indicated on the bed it may 
be found by the following rules: 

If the opposite sides are parallel, multi ply the length 
inside in inches, by the breadth inside in inches, and 
that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide 
the product by 2150.42 (the number of cubic inches 
in a bushel), and the quotient will be the capacity in 
bushels. 

Should the head and tail boards, or either of them, 
be set in beveling, add the top and bottom lengths 
together and divide by 2 for the mean length, and pro¬ 
ceed by the foregoing rule. Should the sides be slop¬ 
ing, add the top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 
for the mean width, and proceed by the foregoing 
rule. 

Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide 
the product by 1728 (the number of cubic inches in 
a cubic foot), instead of 2150.42, and the quotient 
will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Tire. Teamsters and farmers generally prefer to 
1 have a blacksniith tighten their wagon tires; but 
when this task is undertaken by themselves, they 
must take care not to enlarge the fellies too much, 
else they will too much dish, and therefore weaken, 
the wheel. All tires should be bolted on, with eight 
bolts to the wheel. As soon as a tire is seen to be¬ 
come loose when on the road, it should be temporarily 
wedged with numerous thin pieces of wood, until an 
opjxrrtunity is obtained for more permanent repairs. 

Tires three or four inches broad are advocated by 
many intelligent persons for use on clay roads. 

Seat. Spring seats generally go with new wagons 
from the manufactories, but by ill usage or otherwise 
they often become almost or quite worthless. The 
cheapest and best home-made spring seat we have 
seen is made by placing two or three thin but strong 
boards over one another, with cross-pieces between 
screwed on as far from being opposite one another as 
possible. 

To Grease Wagons. But few people are aware 
that they do wagons and carriages more injury by 
greasing too plentifully than in almost any other way. 

A well made wheel will endure common wear from 
ten to twenty-five years, if care is taken to use the 
right kind and proper amount of grease; but if this 
matter is not attended to, they will be used up in five 











































WAGON-SHEDS— WALES. 


1278 


or six years. Lard should never be used on a wagon, 
for it will penetrate the hub and work its way out 
around the tenons of the spokes, and spoil the wheel, 
rallow is the best lubricator for wood axletrees, and 
castor oil for iron. Just enough grease should be 
apjJied to the spindle of a wagon to give it a light 
coating; this is better than more, for the surplus put 
on will work out at the ends, and be forced by the 
shoulder bands and nut washers into the hub around 
the outside of the boxes. To oil an iron axletree, 
first wipe the spindle clean with a cloth wet with 
spirits of turpentine, and then apply a few drops of 
castor oil near the shoulder and end. One teaspoon¬ 
ful is sufficient for the whole. 

Wagons are in market made with an oil tube in the 
a.xletree, near the base of each spindle and communi¬ 
cating with it, into which oil or soft grease can be de¬ 
posited, as a source of supply during the use of the 
wagon. The tube has a little cap, to keep out the 
dirt, and this can be readily taken off and put on, as 
it is spiral, like those of kerosene cans. This con- 
tnvance is the same in principle as rules amongst all 
machinery, and is a great convenience, as it saves the 
trouble of taking off the wheels. 

Wagon Jack, Many teamsters are so negligent 
as to have no convenience for raising the axles when 
the wheel is to be taken off, but resort to a rail and 
stick. 1 wo boards, one fixed by a notch or hinge as a 
lever upon the other, need not weigh but three or 
four pounds, and should always be at hand. It is as 
simple to make as a figure-4 trigger for a quail trap. 
There should, of course, be adjustments, one for each 
axle; and the outer end of the lever board, or stick, 
can be held down by a cord extending from it down 
to the foot of the perpendicular board. By a little 
skill the two boards or pieces may be so adjusted 
together that the axle can be thrown a little over the 
end of the perpendicular board, toward you, so that it 
will hold itself without any cord. In this case, one 
piece should have a curve at the end to hold the axle- 
tree. 

Wagon-Sheds. In the article on Barn, the de¬ 
signs of many of the buildings include wagon and 
carnage sheds, to which we refer the reader, but we 
desire to make a few observations of especial charac¬ 
ter in this connection. Every farm should be pro¬ 
vided with a wagon-shed. This may be a plain 
building, but should be closely boarded and lined, 
and always kept well shingled. The size will depend 
upon the number of wagons and carts which are used 
on the farm. The ground-floor should be reasonably 
tight, and the floor over the wagons should be lined 
so as to prevent the entrance of dust into the lower 
room. Many sheds are left open in front, but we 
think it better to have doors. Certainly the sheds in 
which the nice wagons, carriages and robes are kept 
(which should always be separated by a close parti¬ 
tion from the rest of the building) should have doors 
which can be locked, and in which things can be 
safely kept. This building should be raised but little 


above the surface of the ground, as it would be hard 
work to draw in the wagons if it were much higher 
than the land around it. 

For a small farm a building 36 feet long, and 28 
feet wide, with a partition running through it length¬ 
wise two feet one side of the center, will answer very 
well. This will give one room 36x16 feet, which will 
be enough for 5 wagons or carriages, with room to pass 
between them in getting in and out, and another room 
36x12 feet, which can be used for the storage of the 
mowing-machine, hay-tedder, horse-rake, plows, har¬ 
rows, shovels, and other tools. It is best to have a 
partition dividing each of these rooms. In one corner 
a room 14 feet wide, inside of the posts, may be done 
off for the best wagon and top-carriage. This should 
be at least eight and a half feet high, so that it will 
take in a high carriage without letting down the top. 
If it is desired to save all possible expense, the other 
rooms, in which tools and wagons are kept, may be 
left open in front, but it is much better that the whole 
building should be enclosed. The height of these 
rooms need not exceed seven feet, and should not fall 
much below that figure._ If such a building contains 
more room than is desired for the purposes named, 
the remainder may be utilized for a horse-stall. 

The posts for this building should be 13 feet long. 
This is because the ground size proposed needs this 
height, in order to make a well-proportioned building, 
and also because the cost will be but a trifle more 
than it \vould if short posts were used, while the loft 
which will be found very useful, cannot be secured of 
suitable size without posts of about this length. 

Wainscot, a wooden lining or boarding of the walls 
of apartments, made in panels. Imitation of such 
work^ by painting or calcimining is also called “wain¬ 
scot,” or “wainscoting,” at the present day,—some¬ 
times improperly called “ dado. ” 

Waistcoat, old name for vest: still in use in Eng¬ 
land. In this country the word “waistcoat” is some¬ 
times used for an under-garment; as, a “ flannel 
waistcoat.” 

Waiter, one who waits upon, as at table; a server 
or salver; a vessel on which something is carried, as 
dishes of victuals. A “dumbwaiter” is a box drawn 
from one room to another by cords and pulleys, for the 
conveyance of small articles. 

Waive, a law term signifying to relinquish volun¬ 
tarily a right in court which one may enforce. Much 
of the cost of a lawsuit is often saved by “ waiving 
process,”—that is, not demanding that notices and 
preliminary processes be served, but going at once in¬ 
to an investigation of the merits of the case. 

Wakefulness, To Cure : see under the sub-head 
of Sleep, page 855. 

Walks. In gardens, both flower and vegetable, and 
in lawns, walks should be as few in number as con¬ 
venience will permit, and these should all be curving. 
Wavy outlines are more graceful than angular ones or 
mere checker work. See Landscape Gardening. 
















WALL-E YE— WAR T. 


1279 


Lawn and garden walks may be made by digging a 
trench 18 inches deep, filling it within six or eight 
inches of the top with stones, and the remainder 
with clean gravel. But the following receipts for 
walks in yards and lawns are more elaborate: 

To Make Gravel Walks. The bottom should 
be laid with lime rubbish, large flint stones, or any 
other hard matter, for eight or ten inches, to keep 
weeds from growing through, and over this the gravel 
is to be laid six or eight inches thick. This should be 
laid rounding up in the middle, by which means the 
larger stones will run off to the sides, and may be 
raked away; for the gravel should never be screened 
before it is laid on. It is a common mistake to lay 
these walks too round, which not only makes them 
uneasy to walk upon, but takes off from their appar¬ 
ent breadth. One inch in five feet is a sufficient 
proportion for the rise in the middle; so that a walk 
20 feet wide should be four inches higher at the 
middle than at the edges, and so in proportion. As 
soon as the gravel is laid, it should be raked, and the 
large stones thrown back again; then the whole 
should be rolled both lengthwise and crosswise; and 
the person who draws the roller should wear shoes 
without heels, that he may make no holes, because 
holes made in a new walk are not easily remedied. 
The walk should always be rolled three or four times 
after very hard showers, which will bind them more 
firmly than could be accomplished by any other 
method. 

Concrete Gravel Walk. Dig away the earth to 
the depth of about five inches, then lay a bottom of 
pebbles, ramming them well down with a paving 
rammer. Sweep them off as clean as possible with a 
broom, and cover the surface thinly with hot coal tar. 
Now put on a coat of smaller gravel (the first bed of 
pebbles should be as large as goose eggs), previously 
dipped in hot coal tar, drained, and rolled in coal 
ashes, with an intermixture of fine gravel, and roll it 
down as thoroughly as possible. Let the roller run 
slowly, and let a boy follow it with a hoe to scrape off 
all adhering gravel. Next put on a coat of fine gravel 
or sand, and coal tar, with some coal ashes, to com¬ 
plete the surface, and roll again as thoroughly as 
possible; the more rolling the better. It will take 
some weeks to harden, but makes a splendid hard 
surface, which sheds water like a roof. Do not use 
too much tar. It is only necessary to use enough to 
make the ingredients cohere under pressure, and a 
little is better than too much. Such a surface will 
last in a farm-yard a great while. 

To Keep Walks Clean. The growth of weeds, 
grass, moss and worms, may be prevented by apply¬ 
ing with a watering pot a weak solution of carbolic 
acid; it may not be stronger than a gill of the pure 
acid to a barrel of water. Coarse salt is also good. 
Moss and other small vegetation are best swept off by 
a wire broom; but such brooms, immediately after 
use, must be cleaned, dried and oiled, to keep them 
from rusting. 

So 


Wall-Eye, an eye in which the iris is of a very 
light gray or whitish color. 

Wall-Paper. The green coloring in wall-paper is 
poisonous, and paper containing it should never be 
used. ' Sanitarians, in fact, declaim against the use 
of any and all wall-paper; but as such material is 
the cheapest method of ornamental finish of walls, it 
will continue in popular favor for some time. 

When good papering is wanted, a skilled paper- 
hanger must be employed; otherwise “ home talent” 
may be sufficient. To make paper stick to white¬ 
washed walls, make a sizing of common glue and 
water, of the consistency of linseed oil, and put that 
first over the surface with a brush. 

Walnut. There are only two species of walnut in 
in America,—the Black and the White; the latter 
is called also Butternut. In England the term “wal¬ 
nut” comprises the hickory-nuts. The uses and 
value of the walnuts are well known. See Forestry. 

Warblers, a large class of small singing birds, 
abundant in America. 

Warbles, a disease of cattle, the product of the 
ox fly. See Gadfly. 

Ward Robe, a small room where clothes are kept, 
or a portable closet for hanging up clothes; also, wear¬ 
ing apparel in general, or all the wearing apparel be¬ 
longing to one person. 

Warp, in wearing, the threads which are extended 
lengthwise in the loom, and crossed by the woof. 

Wart, a small, hard tumor on the skin formed by 
an enlargement of its vascular papillae and a thicken¬ 
ing of the epidermis which covers them. 

To give all the different receipts that have been 
recommended for removing warts, and to describe the 
niodus opermidi adopted by many in the process, 
would take a goodly sized volume. Almost every 
neighborhood has had its good old grandmother, who 
in some mysterious way, in a certain time of the 
moon, would remove the warts from the hands of the 
children of the vicinity. How this was done, or 
what the moon had to do with it, or why they always 
insisted upon going through a certain mysterious cere¬ 
mony, we never knew; but generally in a short time 
afterwards the wart was missing. We give below a 
few simple but far more tangible recipes for remov¬ 
ing these pests, as people of the present day seem to 
be wanting sufficient faith to practice any of the mys¬ 
terious arts of stealing meat or a dishcloth and burying 
it or going to the old grandmother. 

1. Anoint freely with castor oil before retiring each 
evening, for two or three weeks. 

2. Dissolve as much common washing soda as the 
water will take up, and wash the warts with this for a 
minute or two, and let them dry without wiping. This 
repeated is said to destroy the largest wart. 

3. Tie a thread around their base and let remain 
till they come off. Tighten it a little from day to day. 

4. Procure a wild turnip out of the woods, cut a 










I28o 


IVASHER— IVA TER ME LON. 


piece of it off and rub the inside of it on the wart a few 
times, and in a short time the wart will be gone and 
will not leave any scar at all. If the wart is large 
and raw it will be a little sore. 

5 - Have a piece of thick paper with a hole cut 
in it the size of the wart. Put this over the wart and 
every morning let fall a drop or two of the strongest 
acetic acid through the hole upon the wart. If this 
does not succeed, oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) drop¬ 
ped in the same way may. 

6. Pare them down until the blood comes slightly 
and then rub with lunar caustic. This will cause 
some pain, but it is said to be a sure cure. 

7. AVash the warts with the juice of milkweed, or 
celandine; or bruise these weeds on the wart. 

8. Make a little roll of spider’s web, lay it on the 
wart, set it on fire, and let it burn down on the wart. 
This is said to be a certain cure. 

Washer, in mechanics, a circular piece of metal 
or leather placed below a screw head or nut, or within 
a linch-pin, for protection. 

Washing Clothes. See Laundry. 

Watch Dog. There is no particular breed of dogs 
by this name, but the best watch dogs are the New¬ 
foundland, Mastiff and Bull-dog. See page 317. 

Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen, eight 
parts by weight of tlie former to one of the latter. 
Absolutely pure water has an insipid, metallic taste. 
From 75 to 95 percent, of all organic bodies (animals 
and plants) is water; but water, with the organic mat¬ 
ter diffused through it as plants do the work, is more 
welcome to the physical economy of all vegetarian 
animals, including man, than is chemically pure wa¬ 
ter. See section on Water and Bathing, commencing 
on page 851, in article on Hygiene; and with refer¬ 
ence to the laundry, see page 927 ; for watering stock, 
see respective animals. To purify water, see Filter 
and Cistern. There are many other methods, how¬ 
ever, of purifying water, as the use of fresh charcoal 
alone, of alum, simple boiling, etc.; and water- in 
cisterns may be purified by a little permanganate of 
ixitash, or by placing minnows therein to devour all 
the insects, etc. 

Water-Closet, a privy. See Privy. 

Water-Course, any rivulet, brook, slough or river, 
as a stream of water through the land and formed by 
nature. Land contiguous to streams is often washed 
away until serious loss occurs. This can be easily 
averted by the use of crib or pile breakwaters. The 
logs, which may be of any convenient length, are 
laid up and held in their places by notches, the 
whole being bound by the use of strong limbs with 
projecting knots and branches, placed in jxisition to 
hold the upper logs before the stone is thrown in. 
Cribs should rest on brush placed top up-stream, and 
projecting somewhat into the stream beyond the crib’s 
corner. The object in placing the tops up-stream is 
that they may catch the sediment and other floating 


substances on and near the bottom, and prevent 
washing under the crib, and eventually, perhaps, 
spoiling it, or making repairs necessary. The cribs 
should be placed at an angle of about 45° to the 
bank, the outer end being further down stream and 
on the longer side of the bend and mainly above it. 
Several may be needed. A breakwater of piles does 
equally well, but since a pile-driver costs money, 
stone cribs are usually preferred. They are cheapest 
if stone is plenty in the vicinity. If piles are used, 
they must be strongly planked on the up-stream side. 
The cribs will last longest. By this method land 
may be reclaimed by filling in below the breakwater. 

Water-Cress, a mustard-like plant growing wild 
in wet places throughout the country; sometimes cul¬ 
tivated for an early salad. 

Water-Cure, or Hydropathy, literally, treatment 
of the sick by the use of water. The system of 
practice formerly characterized as “water cure,” or 
hydropathy, was largely hygienic, and at the present 
day is exclusively so, and has therefore assumed the 
latter name. See page 858. 

Watermelon. This luscious vegetable-fruit when 
healthy, ripe and eaten properly, is a first-class article 
of diet, or drink we might say. Its culture is precise¬ 
ly the same as that of the muskmelon. Its dietetic 
qualities are treated on page 548. 

Varieties. Mountain Sweet. An old standard 
variety; one of the best still. 

Mountain Sprout. Long, striped, with scarlet flesh; 
standard. 

Phinney’s. Hardy, vigorous and productive as 
any; early; flesh red. 

Ice Cream, True White-Seeded. Very early and 
popular; superior. 



Ice-Cream Watermelon, 


Jackson or Strawberry. Delicious; seeds white, 
tipped with red. 

Gipsy. Large and productive. 

Black Spanish. Dark green; flesh red, sweet and 
rich. 

Long Island. An old standard variety. 

New Orange. Rind peels off like an orange; fine 
quality. 

Landreth’s Boss. An excellent variety. 

Apple-Pie. Good only for making pies; grows ex¬ 
cessively large. 

Citron. For preserves only. 






















WA TER.PROOF— WE A THER. 


1281 


Water-Proof, impervious to water; said of roofs, 
garments and other coverings. 

To Make Cloth Water-Proof, dissolve half 
pound of common soap in a gallon of boiling soft wa¬ 
ter and soak the cloth in it over night. Wring out, 
and soak ten hours in a solution of ten ounces of 
alum in a gallon of water. Wring out again, rinse in 
clear water, and thoroughly dry it. 

To Water-Proof Linen, Canvas, etc. Three 
baths are prepared as follows: The first, by dissolv¬ 
ing I part neutral sulphate of alumina (concentrated 
alum cake) in 10 parts cold water. For the second, 
boil I part light resin, i part soda crystals and 10 
parts water, till the soda is dissolved; add ^ part 
common salt, to separate the water and collect the 
soap; dissolve this soap with an equal amount of 
good palm-oil soap in 30 parts water. This soap bath 
must be used hot. The third bath consists of water 
only. Soak the fabric thoroughly in the first, or alum 
bath; next pass it through the soap bath; and lastly, 
rinse in the water. 

Water-Sprout, a rank, rapidly growing, succuk: 
but fruitless sprout issuing from diseased fn h 
trees; called also “ glutton.” 

Wattle, the fleshy excrescence that grows under 
the throat of a cock or turkey, or a like substance on 
a fish. 

Wax, a fatty, solid substance produced by bees. 
In the article Beeswax the process for making and 
refining is described, and also that of waxing floors. 
In the article Canning the recipe for making sealing- 
wax is given, and grafting wax is given under its own 
head. 

Weasel, a slender-bodied quadruped, well known 
for its love of the |X)iiltry yard. To the weasel family 
belong the mink, skunk, marten, sable, ermine, ferret, 
glutton, otter, wolverine and polecat. 

Weather. Men, in all conditions of society, are 
led by motives of necessity or comfort to study the 
indications of the weather in the different appear¬ 
ances of the skies. The mariner, the shepherd, the 
farmer, the hunter, have the strongest motives to ex¬ 
amine closely every vaiying appearance which may 
precede more important changes. The result of these 
observations forms a body of maxims in which facts 
are often stated correctly, but mixed with erroneous 
deductions and superstitious notions, such as the cre¬ 
dulity of ignorant people always renders them ready 
to adopt. Hence the disposition to refer the ordinary 
changes of the weather to the influence of the moon, 
and even the stars, and to look for signs of approach¬ 
ing convulsions, even in the moral world, in horrid 
comets and strange meteors. The progress of science, 
which tends to separate the casual precursors from 
the real causes of phenomena, refutes these false rea¬ 
sonings, dissipates the empty terrors to which they 
give rise, and aims, by more patient, long continued 
and wide extended observations, to deduce the general 


rules by which the phenomena of the atmosphere ap¬ 
pear to be regulated. 

The value of a meteorological roister depends on 
the accuracy with which it is kept: These observa¬ 
tions are taken by experienced Government officials 
stationed at certain places, and their re^xrrtsare posted 
daily in almost every postoffice within the United 
States. Indeed, these meteorological reports are relied 
upon throughout the country, and especially valuable 
are they to the commerce of the Great Lakes. 

Signs of Rain or Storm. Nearly all the “ super¬ 
stitious” “signs of rain” which have descended to us 
from the dark ages probably had their origin in the 
simple fact that just before a storm the atmosphere is 
such that nearly all animals act differently from their 
usual manner; and these actions were set down sep¬ 
arately and disconnectedly, regarded with a sort of 
superstition, covered over with the creed of the obser¬ 
vers, and thus woven together into a sort of system. 

While there can be no credence given to the 
thousands of signs as above referred to, yet there are 
indications of changes of the weather that are based 
upon natural laws, which, if we understand, may 
often be great a help by forecasting the change. We 
quote the following observations on such changes 
from Prof. Henry G. Vennor; 

“ WHien the whole sky is covered with clouds, their 
further formation and increase in bulk and density is 
indicated by their descent to a lower level, and their 
decrease by their ascent. Accordingly, when clouds 
begin to sit down upon the tops of hills, it prognosti¬ 
cates rain; and when they begin to rise above the 
hills, it prognosticates dry weather. 

“ Mist extending upward from the surface of the 
earth on a summer morning foretells a dry, warm day. 
The country people call such a mist ‘ heat,’ meaning 
thereby that it bespeaks a hot day. Such mists result 
from coldness, induced upon the earth’s surface by 
the radiation of caloric during night, being propagat¬ 
ed upward to the atmosphere in sufficient intensity to 
produce atmospheric over-saturation, and the precip¬ 
itation of moisture in the forms of dew and mist. This 
only happens during calm, starry, cloudless nights, 
which are usually the concomitants, and among the 
most certain prognosticators, of dry, settled weather. 

‘GVhen clouds are observed to break up into frag¬ 
ments and gradually to dissolve by evaporation, it in¬ 
dicates that the region of the atmosphere in which 
they float is under-saturated with moisture, and prog¬ 
nosticates dry weather. These clouds are called 
‘cotton-ball’ clouds by sailors, for they resemblelarge 
masses of cotton. On the contrary, after a continu¬ 
ance of dry weather, when clouds are observed to 
form, or, when previously formed, are observed to in¬ 
crease in bulk and density, and also when small, 
detached clouds unite together and form larger clouds, 
it indicates that the causes immediately instrumental 
in the formation of clouds are in operation, and prog¬ 
nosticate that wet weather will soon follow.” 

Many persons are so wanting in their habits of ob¬ 
servation, that if even a small cloud cuts off the sun- 















1282 


JF£A THER-BOAJ^n. 


shine for a few moments, they think it a sign of rain. 
They never look up to the sky to see what the nature 
of tlie clouds mawbe or to observe the general direc¬ 
tion of the wind.^ Objects on the ground, as houses, 
groves, etc., will cause the wind to dodge about in all 
directions; and such persons often come into the 
house and report that the “ wind ” blows first one way 
and then another 5 that they “ never saw such 
weather, and “ there s no telling what is coming.” 

During the season of thunder-storms, if you see 
slowly coming up from the southwest white mare’s-tail 
clouds, and soon reaching high over-head, and the air 
is particularly sultry, know that those high-fliers, are 
connected with a thunder-cloud approaching you. 

Weekly Cycle. One of the first principles to ob¬ 
serve in weather phenomena is the fact that a cycle 
of change is completed each week, say from six to 
eight days; that is, it requires three or four days to 
work up a storm, and about as much more time to 
deliver it and become settled. Therefore, if it is fair 
weather to-day, it will probably be fair a week from 
to-day, with a storm or atmospheric disturbance be¬ 
tween no^y and then. Of this we can be confident 
if to-day is about the middle one of the fair term (of 
three da3's). By this simple fact alone such weather 
prophets as Prof. Tice, of St. Louis, Mo., and Mr. 
Vennor, of Montreal, Canada, foretell the weather 
for years ahead and make up their almanacs accord¬ 
ingly. Therefore, if for example we have a rainy 
Sunday to-day, in a given section of the countiy-, 
accidentally according to their almanacs, we have the 
next Sunday a rainy one, too, and so on for several 
in succession. Most persons have often noticed a 
succession of fair Sundays throughout a stormy season, 
or of rainy Sundays when most of the intervening 
time was fair. 

Just as often, however, the weather is the re¬ 
verse of those “ professors ’ ” almanacs ; and when it 
commences the opposite, it will, according to the 
weekly cycle just referred to, continue so for a number 
of weeks. Their weather almanacs are calculated 
for a limited, but indefinite territory, which fact they 
fail sufficiently to announce. Who does not know 
that at any one time, for more than half the year, it 
is raining or snowing in ten to a hundred places at 
once in the United States, and that an almanac 
prophesying rain at that time will be correct for those 
ten to a hundred places, and incorrect for all the rest 
of the country? 

Trade Wind. For all that portion of the United 
States lying east of the Missouri river, Kansas, etc., 
and north of the Gulf States, the prevailing current 
is from the southwest. By looking up to the highest 
clouds, one will notice them going northeast. This 
current is scarcely ever interrupted. Therefore all 
our rain or snow is really brought from the southwest, 
however it may strike the earth in falling. The ground 
current, during the thunderless rains and snows of 
fall, winter and spring, is generally opposite the trade 
wind, or upper current, and the rain or snow accord¬ 
ingly strikes buildings, etc., on the east side. When 


an easterly wind (apparently) “ brings up a storm,” 
one will at first notice the clouds to be heaviest in the 
southwest. 

The upper current brings the moisture mainly from 
the Gulf of Mexico, circling around over the plains 
east of the Cordilleras; and on reaching an under¬ 
current from the East, which is colder, the moisture 
of the lower side of this upper current is condensed 
into rain or snow. 

While the trade-wind brings us our summer showers 
as well as our rains and snows of fall, winter and 
spring, the former, being very limited in area, are not 
preceded by an easterly wind but for a short time; it 
IS proportional, however, to the extent of the rain 
area. In this case the condensation is not caused by 
easterly counter-currents, but by descent of westerly 
or northwesterly currents. 

Tornadoes. See page 1252. 

Equinoctial Storms. Although the equinoxes 
are March 21 and Sept. 22, equinoctial storms are 
those which are occasioned by a change of season,— 
those of spring by the breaking up of winter and those 
of autumn by the ending of summer. In the spring 
the warm zone reaches this latitude, fights old Boreas 
with storms for a few weeks and obtains complete 
possession of the country in May; in autumn it is 
Boreas’ turn to take posession. The collision of 
these two zones of cold and heat produces the tedious 
rains of March and November; but these rains do 
not by any means come all in these months; their 
range is over a whole season of about three months. 

CLEARrNG Off. This takes place by a west or 
northwest wind, which, being both cold and 
walks off with the storm-cloud southeastward. 

A thunder-storm, being small in area, clears off in a 
few minutes or an hour or two; but the equinoctials, 
which cover nearly all the country, require 24 hours or 
more to get away. We will, therefore, after a heavy 
eastern rain, have a west wind carrying heavy clouds 
over U3 a whole day, in the work of clearing the sky. 
Some of these clouds from the west, or ridges of 
cloud, wll often be heavy enough to yield some rain. 
Often, in May and the summer months, some hours 
after a thunder-storm, an extraordinarily dark but 
rainless cloud will suddenly come up from the north¬ 
west. They appear frightful, and come up with a 
swift current, but they always pass over with veiy^ lit¬ 
tle wind upon the ground. 

By thoroughly understanding the foregoing facts, 
and observing closely for several years, with written 
statistical memoranda, one will be able to foretell the 
weather with 90 to 95 per cent, success for all practical 
purposes, the time covered by his prophecy varying 
from a few minutes to months, according to the area 
taken into view and the aspects considered. 

Weather-Board, a board extending from the 
ridge to the eaves, and forming a close junction 
between the shingling of a roof and the side of the 
building beneath, usually at the ends where there is 
no cornice. “Weather-boarding” is the nailing of 
















I VBA THER-COCK— WELLS. 


1283 


boards uix)n a building, each one above lapping over 
one below, so as to exclude dust, rain and snow. 

Weather-Cock, and Weather-Vane, anything so 
adjusted as to turn with the wind, to show its 
direction. 

Weather-Strips, strips of wood or metal, generally 
bordered with rubber or cloth, and attached to the 
base of doors, to keep out the rain, snow and cold 
wind. 

Weave. Ahorse is said to “ weave ” when he per¬ 
petually moves his head from one side of the manger 
to the other, like a wild beast in his den. It is caused 
by an irritable nervous system. 

Wedding: see page 407. 

Weeds, herbs which are in the way of more useful 
plants. The motto of practice with regard to all weeds 
is this : Kill all annuals as soon after the seeds have 
sprouted as possible, when they can be destroyed 
hundreds at a stroke; and as to perennials which 
have obtained a foot-hold, keep their leaves plowed 
or hoed under until their roots die. Don’t allow a 
single leaf a half-day’s breathing spell in the air. This 
motto condenses all that can be said on the subject, 
and all farmers well know the processes for carrying it 
into execution. For special remedies for Canada this¬ 
tle and some other large weeds, see Thistle and 
Witch Grass. 

Weeping Trees, those whose boughs hang grace¬ 
fully downward, as the weeping willow, weeping 
birch, etc. 

Weevil, a snouted beetle; a curculio. See Insects 
and the respective plants infested. 

Weft, the threads which cross the cloth from edge 
to edge as it is woven ; the woof. 

Weights. Nearly every household has an arith¬ 
metic, containing tables of weights, with instructions 
how to use them. We, however, add the standard 
weights of a number of articles not contained in all 
text books. 

The gross ton of 2,240 pounds was formerly in com¬ 
mon use, but at present seldom used except by the 
United States custom houses and at the Pennsylvania 
coal mines. 

A sack of wool is 308 pounds, or 22 stones. A pack 
of wool is 17 stones and 2 pounds, or 240 pounds, a 
pack load for a horse. 

k truss of hay is, new, 60 pounds; old, 50 pounds ; 
straw 40 pounds. A load of hay is 36 trusses. A 
bale of hay is 300 pounds. 

A firkin of butter was formerly 56 pounds, but it is 
now packed in firkins of from 40 to 100 pounds. 

A bale of cotton is 400 pounds, but in different 
States it is put up in different sized bales, varying 
from 280 to 720 pounds. Sea Island cotton is put up 
in sacks of 300 pounds. 

A barrel of flour is 196 pounds; of pork, 200 pounds. 


Weight of various substances per cubic foot : 


POUNDS. 


POUNDS. 

Cast iron. 

450 

Common soil, com- 


Water. 

62 

pact, about. 

.. 124 

White pine, season- 


Clav “ . 

• - 135 

ed, about...... 

30 

52 

Brick “ . 

T 2 C 

White oak, about. 

Stone “ . 


Loose earth “ 

95 



A ton of sand is 25 cubic feet; of earth, 18; and 
of clay, 17. 

Eighteen cubic feet of gravel or earth, before dig¬ 
ging, make 27 cubic feet when dug. The bulk is in¬ 
creased one and a half times. 

For a simpler system of weights than the one in 
vogue, see Metric System. For weight of the different 
commodities per bushel, see Bushel. 

Weir (weer), a fence of stakes or twigs set in a 
stream for taking fish; also a dam, either for taking 
fish or for running a mill. 

Weld, or Dyer’s Weed, a plant grown in the old 
country for dyer’s use, but not yet introduced into the 
United States as an industry. It is employed in 
dyeing cotton, woolen, mohair, silk and linen with yel¬ 
low. Blue cloths are rendered green by being dipped 
in a decoction of it; and the yellow color of the paint 
called Dutch pink, is obtained from this plant. It is 
an imperfect biennial, and the crop is gathered by 
pulling up the entire plant. 

Weld, to join metals by beating them together when 
heated and partially fused. To weld iron, see p. 898. 

Wells. To the farmer the theme of procuring a 
supply of water is one of great importance, for plenty 
of pure water is absolutely necessary to comfort and 
health. Where never-failing springs abound and the 
water not too strongly impregnated with mineral, of 
course they answer every purpose of the well, and 
often furnish the best of water; h' these are found 
only at long intervals. 

Location. In sinking wells upon the farm, great 
care should be taken to locate them where they will 
not receive the drainage of filth from the barnyard 
or other deposit of refuse. Special care should be 
taken in the location of the well from which the sup¬ 
ply of water for the house is procured. In villages 
depending upon wells for water, it is not always pos¬ 
sible to select the location for a well that meets en¬ 
tirely with approval, as the space is restricted, and the 
ground may not lie advantageously. In such a case 
the top loam should be removed down to the firm 
clay, and the space be filled with clay high enough 
above the surrounding surface to insure that all sur¬ 
face filth will be drained away from, and not into, the 
well. 

But on the farm there is not usually any excuse for 
locating the well, for either house or stable use, where 
surface contaminations can enter. Nitrogenous com¬ 
pounds are evolved from decaying animal and veg¬ 
etable substances near the surface, and these find 
their way into the water of wells. These salts are 














1284 


IVETHltR— IVHEA T. 


detrimental, and, being very soluble, easily pass, held 
by water in solution, through the surface loam along 
.the top of the clay; or,if the soil be sajrdy, the pollu¬ 
ted water penetrates deep down, entering the well 
through the lower strata. Strange as it may appear, 
the instances of contaminated wells are frequent in 
the country, as is shown by authenticated reports. 
The adulteration of food is condemned, while this 
may be done with substances that are nearly inert, 
and measurably harmless, but at the same time the 
water supply is allowed to receive gross impurities— 
poisons that are dangerous to health in the house as 
well as in the stable. 

Care should be taken also that wells be never lo¬ 
cated near a cellar or closet. Nor should any sink- 
drain or any other drain be allowed to pass near 
them. Typhoid and malarial fevers are often due to 
sewerage in wells. 

Depth. In reference to the depth to which the 
well should be dug, we wish to say that they should 
certainly be put down to a sufficient depth when first 
digging, to furnish a constant supply of water; for if 
they strike springs that are intermittent they will often 
fail, and that too, at just those times when they are 
most needed. When there is water enough every¬ 
where else these wells yield an abundant supply; 
But let a dry time come, so that the wells are really 
needed, and they will very soon fail. It is a very com¬ 
mon fault with wells that they are not sunk deep 
enough. It is considerable work to dig a well, and 
the farmer does not want to do any more of it than 
is necessary. For this he cannot be blamed, but he 
should remember that while digging a well is the time 
all the work on it should be done. It is not nearly 
as expensive going to a great depth then as it is after 
the well has been tried and found too shallow. We 
have known some cases in which wells have been 
lowered after having been in use for years. Of course, 
it is better to do this if they fail in dry seasons than 
to try to get along with them as they are, but it is far 
the best way to make them right at first. A very dry 
time should be selected in which to dig a well. When 
the ground is full of water the labor of digging is 
greatly increased, and there is but little hope of se¬ 
curing a good well. If weak springs are struck they 
should be disregarded and the well sunk to where a 
strong and constant flow of water can be obtained. 

Another very common fault with wells is that they 
are made too small. It is less work to dig a small well 
than a large one, but it is not nearly as good after it is 
dug, A small well is difficult to clean when it needs 
such an operation, and it will not hold nearly as much 
water as a large one. Very few farmers are aware of 
the difference in the capacity of large and small wells. 

A well three and a half feet in diameter will hold 59.- 
981 gallons of water for every ten inches in depth, 
while a well six feet in diameter will hold 176.253 
gallons for the same depth. As a general riHe, there 
should be one well for the house and another for the 
barn. 


Drive Wells. They are made by simply driving 
down a stout iron tube. These ate cheap and sub¬ 
stantial, and never become foul. The principal ob¬ 
jection is the impregnation of the water wdth a little 
iron. In regions where boulders or rock abound be¬ 
neath the soil, it is not advisable to undertake to 
“ drive a well.” One Green a few years ago secured 
a patent on this system of procuring water, and since 
has been going over the country demanding large 
royalty from those who had previously made them. In 
the summer of 1882, however. Judge Wallace, sitting 
in Chamber, at Syracuse, N.Y., denied one of Green’s 
applications for an injunction to restrain the use of this 
well, on the ground of prior use. 

Artesian Wells. Boring the earth to obtain water 
has, ot late, been practiced with great success, not 
only in this country but in Europe, and in many 
other parts of the world; and it is found to be a very 
great saving of expense. In consequence, many 
places are now supplied with this useful fluid where 
formerly it was entirely wanting. The operation is 
extremely simple. It consists in fixing a bit and 
cup alternately to long iron rods screw'ed upon 
each other, which are run by steam power or 
horse power. The operation is usually begun by 
digging a well six or eight feet deep, in the center of 
which the boring instrument is placed. The nature 
of this instrument depends iqx)n that of the stratum 
to be penetrated, and it is changed accordingly when 
a stratum of a different degree of hardness is reached. 

Borings are now made to the depth of several 
hundred feet, which supply a plentiful stream of water. 
If the original source from which the water comes be 
higher than the surface of the ground where the bor¬ 
ing is made, the water will overflow ; but if the source 
be at a lower level than the boring, then the water 
will not rise to the surface of the ground, and it will 
be necessary to dig a wel' to the deptn to which the 
spring will rise; and this well serves as a reservoir to 
contain the water, which must be raised to the surface 
by a pump. 

These wells sometimes furnish the purest water, 
and sometimes water that is rank with mineral ingre¬ 
dients. They are very costly in the first outlay, but 
they often prove also the most remunerative. Local 
circumstances determine this matter. 

Tubing. The day of walled wells should pass 
quickly by; and ever>^ well not otherwise tubed should 
be tubed with tiling, manufactured for the purpose. 
See page 1244. 

Wether, a castrated ram. 

What-not, akindof stand having shelvesfor books, 
ornaments and the like: a piece of furniture both of 
great utility and of ornament. 

Wheat. The wheat plant is essentially a native of 
the temperate zones, lying between the parallels of 25 
and 60 degrees of latitude. In the northern hemi¬ 
sphere the native habitat of wheat occupies a vast ex¬ 
tent of territory in all the four great divisions of the 
earth. In Asia, the chief wheat-growing countries are 



















ir/f£A T. 


1285 


those lying between the. Black Sea on the north and 
the heads of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea on the 
south, embracing Armenia and Palestine, the cradle 
of the human race, Egypt and the countries 'border¬ 
ing on the Mediterranean: also England. In 
America, the wheat districts are of boundless extent, a 
large portion of which still await the hand of man 
to bring them into cultivation. The valleys of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, Missouri and Ohio alone, if brought into 
cultivation, are probably capable of supporting a 
population equal to a half of all the inhabitants of 
the world. 

Soil. Either clay, marly or sandy loam, if limy 
and well prepared, is good for wheat. Lime is an im¬ 
portant aid to the full and certain growth of wheat, 
checking its exuberance of straw and its liability to 
rust, and so steadily aiding to fill out the grain. A 
rich, mellow turf or clover lay is a good bed for it, or 
land which has been well manured and cleanly cul¬ 
tivated with roots or corn the preceding season. Fresh 
barnyard manure, if applied directly to the wheat 
crop, is objectionable, not only from its containing 
many foreign seeds, but also from its tendency to ex¬ 
cite a rapid growth of weak straw, thus causing the 
grain both to lodge and rust. The same objection lies 
against sowing it on rich alluvial or vegetable soils; 
but in each the addition of lime or ashes or both will 
correct these evils. Gypsum and ashes together make 
a first-rate fertilizing mixture. A dressing of charcoal 
has in many instances been found an adequate pre¬ 
ventive. Depth of soil is also indispensable to large 
crops. The wheat plant has two sets of roots, the 
first springing from the seed and penetrating down¬ 
wards, while the second push themselves laterally 
near the surface of the ground from the first joint. 
They are thus enabled to extract their food from every 
part of the soil. Underdraining contributes greatly 
to the increase of crops, and surface drainage is ab¬ 
solutely essential. On heavy clay lands wheat is pe¬ 
culiarly liable to winter-kill unless they are well 
drained. This is owing to successive freezing and 
thawing, by which the roots, by “ heaving,” are either 
broken or thrown out. When winter-killing is exten¬ 
sive the worst spots may be sown with spring wheat. 
Although this will diminish the marketable value of 
the crop, it will be about as good for domestic use as 
when all is of one kind of grain. 

Preparation of the Ground. The approved 
practice of good farmers is to plow only once for wheat. 
It used to be a common remark among shrewd, prac¬ 
tical farmers that good wheat was rarely grown where 
land had been plowed to kill the thistles. To use 
their phrase, “it killed the nature of the land ”—not 
a very accurate or scientific explanation of the result, 
but certainly a most expressive one. Stated more ac¬ 
curately, this excessive plowing reduced land to so 
fine a tilth that it held too much moisture. Hence in 
winter and spring the soil became compacted by the 
particles running together in a more or less thin mud. 
The frost hove out the roots of winter grain on all 
such land, while as soon as dry weather came the sur¬ 


face formed into a crust, which gradually hardened 
downward through the summer. It is little wonder 
that good crops of wheat could not be grown, unless 
in exceptional seasons, by such methods as these. The 
bad effect of excessive plowing in breaking up the nat¬ 
ural water courses through the soil is now quite gener¬ 
ally conceded. One deep plowing does not have this 
result, for unless the soil is entirely bare of vegetation 
the decay of the sod beneath the furrow tends to es¬ 
tablish other water courses in place of those which 
the plow has interrupted. 

Where stubble ground is plowed for wheat the same 
general principles hold good as for summer fallows. 
Half the failures of wheat on oat or barley stubble 
come from a second plowing, or such deep cultivation 
as to amount to the same thing. It is the common 
experience of farmers that stubble ground got in hast¬ 
ily and roughly gives better wheat than with more 
careful culture—often better than the pet summer fal¬ 
low. This would not be so were not the labor so gen¬ 
erally misdirected. Plow as early as possible. Work 
as much as ix)ssible with drag and roller, and, if you 
cultivate, go shallow, to disturb the decaying stubble 
as little as possible. By always cultivating shallow, 
and using the drag and roller as much as possible, a 
stubble ground can be made very nearly equal to the 
best summer fallow, and better far than the average 
of those which are thought to be most thoroughly 
(and deeply) cultivated. 

Now, we will suppose a man plants a field with corn 
in the spring and raises a heavy crop, which takes a 
large percentage of the properties of the soil necessary 
for the production of wheat. The following spring he 
sows the same field with oats, and, if fortunate, har¬ 
vests a good crop of oats, which, of course, makes 
another heavy draft on the soil. After this he plows 
his oat-stubble ground and sows it with wheat, hav¬ 
ing the very erroneous idea that it is in better condi¬ 
tion for a wheat crop than a summer fallow. Well, 
what is the result? The next harvest will tell. If it 
is a good piece of land and all things are favorable, he 
may get from 10 to 15 bushels to the acre, and in 
addition to this he will get his land pretty badly run. 

Next, we will suppose another man sets out with a 
determination to raise a crop of wheat and not make 
his land much the jxDorer for it. He believes in sum¬ 
mer-fallowing. He selects a piece of clover sod the 
second year after seeding. In the month of June, 
when the clover is in full bloom, he goes in with his 
plow and a good heavy team and turns under a good 
growth of clover, about nine or ten inches deep. After 
this he keeps the top thoroughly pulverized to the 
depth of five or six inches, using first a common 
drag or harrow to level the surface; after this a 
wheel cultivator, with the aid of the sun and rain, is 
all that will be necessary until it is time for seeding, 
which is about the ninth day of September, when he 
takes his drill and sows about one and one-half bush¬ 
els to the acre. In the spring following, in the month 
of March, he sows on the same field about 15 pounds 
of clover seed and roo pounds of plaster to the acre; 















12 86 


T. 


and what is the result of his experience? As in the 
former case, let the harvest time answer. Well, har¬ 
vest time comes, and if all things are favorable he 
finds that he has to harvest about 30, from that to 40, 
bushels to the acre. He also finds that he has his 
land thoroughly subdued with a good thick coat of 
clover on, and just as good, if not better, than it was 
when he commenced. 

Turn as good a sod as possible under the furrow 
and afterward work altogether upon the surface. 
Work the ground often, for the more frequently it is 
stirred the shallower it can be cultivated, killing all 
weeds at the first rather than letting them take root, 
making deeper cultivation necessary. The old-fash¬ 
ion harrow, or drag, is one of the very best implements 
ever put into a summer fallow, and it would be a good 
thing if all fallows could be cultivated by that alone. 
The drag compacts the soil and rarely if ever scratches 
more than two or two and a half inches deep. The 
deep cultivation sometimes given by horse cultivators 
going down and turning up the soil four or five or 
more inches is little less injurious than the old-fash¬ 
ioned method of cross-plowing. We know too well 
why this deep cultivation is practiced. Weeds are 
allowed to grow in summer fallows until nothing but 
deep plowing will uproot them. Even then it is bet¬ 
ter to make the cultivator teeth sharp, so as to cut off 
obstinate roots, and then keep it no more than three 
inches deep. If the fallow is dragged once a week 
with a well-sharpened tooth-drag, it will cut off or 
break off thistle roots more perfectly than less frequent 
but deeper cultivation would do. 

Next to a drag the roller is the best implement to 
use in preparing a seed bed for wheat, and for much 
the same reason. It compacts the soil and helps to 
make a fine tilth but shallow seed bed. The drag 
alone rakes the clods of earth on the surface, leaving 
it rough and uneven. This is not an advantage, as 
many have hastily guessed from a few experiments. 
Land left looking rough and full of hard clods of earth 
generally produce better wheat than where the sur¬ 
face is mellow and smooth. The reason is that these 
rough clods on the surface show frequent use of the 
drag; while the mellow, smooth surface shows more 
frequent use of the cultivator. Break these surface 
clods still more by going over after each dragging 
with a cultivator or clod-crusher, which will compact 
the soil but leave the surface in better tilth for a seed 
bed, and the wheat will be still better. The drill 
will bring up enough clods to the surface to protect 
the wheat all that is possible, and these ridges left by 
the drill should be left as nearly perfect as possible. 

A mellow seed bed, but a shallow one, is the result to 
be aimed at. With this mellow seed bed secured, we 
do not care how hard and unpromising the soil beneath 
may be. Winter frosts will mellow it sufficiently for 
the roots of wheat the second season, and if we could 
prevent it we would never have a wheat plant strike 
its roots deeper than three or four inches in the fall. 
Lateral extension of the root to hold the surface soil 
in a solid body to rise and fall together is what is 


wanted. With such a mat of roots as this, even the 
severest winter within our remembrance did not de¬ 
stroy nor greatly injure some fields of wheat, while 
others, apparently nearly as thrifty in the fall, but 
whose roots struck downward, were almost entirely 
winter killed. This lateral growth of roots is en¬ 
couraged by keeping the under soil hard, and also by 
surface manuring and the use of commercial manures 
drilled in with the seed. In no other way can we ac¬ 
count for the remarkable effects of light applications 
of superphosphate on wheat. 

Sowing. A simple way of selecting good seed 
wheat is to throw the grain to some distance on the 
floor, and taking only such grains as reach the farthest. 
These grains are the plumpest and heaviest. By the 
use of sieves the largest grains will be selected; but 
rather than sow chess or very poor wheat, it will pay 
to pick over the seed by hand during the winter. 
Previous to sowing, a strong brine should be made of 
salt and soft water, and in this the grain should be 
\yashed for five minutes, taking care to skim off all 
light and foreign seeds. If the grain be smutty, this 
washing should be repeated in another strong brine, 
when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with 
one-twelfth its bulk of fresh, pulverized quicklime. 
This kills all smut, kills th*e weed-seeds and aids in 
rapid and early growth. When the seed is not smutty 
it may be prepared by soaking or sprinkling it with 
stale urine and afterwards mixing it with lime. This 
alone will prevent smut to some extent. 

On well pulverized, ordinary soils, about five pecks 
of seed are sown to the acre; while rough land, clay 
soils and such as are very' fertile require six to eight. 
The larger the grain, the greater the measure required, 
as" the ground will take a certain number of grains 
whether they be large or small. Some kinds of wheat 
should be sowed heavier than others. As a rule, a 
larger quantity of seed produces an earlier growth of 
lighter straw and head, but does not increase the 
aggregate crop. The tendency of wheat to “tiller," or 
send out new shoots for future stalks, enables one to 
sow less to the acre by planting early, as the more 
time the crop has to grow in cool, moist weather, the 
more shoots it will send out to cover all the ground. 
Winter wheat, when sown very early, tillers in the 
autumn. The usual time for sowing in our Northern 
States is from the loth to the 20th of September. If 
sown earlier, it is liable to attack from the Hessian 
fly, and if later, it does not have time to root as well, 
and is in more danger of being thrown out by frost or 
of winter killing. 

Wheat may be sown broadcast or in drills, the latter 
being much the better way. Roll the ground, and 
clean out the water furrows. These furrows and 
drains should also be cleaned out, if needed, later in 
fall and in the spring. In Northern Europe it has 
been found a preventive against winter-killing on 
strong clays, to sow the wheat in the bottom of each 
furrow, six inches deep, and cover it with the succeed¬ 
ing one. The grain thus planted comes up as soon 
as in the fields sown broadcast and harrowed, grows 

















WHEA T. 


1287 

- ' ' — — _ — - - ^ - — 


more vigorously, withstands the winters and produces 
large crops. Indeed, lightly plowing in wheat will 
produce a surer, larger and better crop than sowing 
broadcast and harrowing. But the best drills now in 
use cover the seed sufficiently for protection. Har¬ 
rowing in the spring, although it destroys a few 
“stools,” causes a more copious and rapid tillering and 
a better growth of grain, so that the labor is abun¬ 
dantly remunerative. On light soils,rolling the wheat 
both in fall and spring is highly advantageous. Whqn 
the growth is luxuriant, decided benefit has attended 
feeding off the wheat when the ground is frozen. 
This, however, should be cautiously done, and only by 
light animals. 1 

Wheat, and nearly all seeds, are found to be more 
productive when they are taken from a soil inferior 
to the one intended for sowing; and it is claimed 
that what is produced both in a warmer and 
colder climate will mature earlier. It is not essential 
that the fullest, largest grain be sown; and it is said 
that seed somewhat shrunken is more certain to give a 
good yield than the choicest seed. Grain designed 
for seed should be well ripened before harvesting. 

Soils that are peculiarly adapted to wheat-growing 
should be sown with the finest varieties, which are of 
a more delicate character. In any given section 
of the country, experiment alone will determine 
the best varieties for that locality. 

For drills, see article on that subject, page 357, 

An experiment has been made in this country, 
with the following results; Of fifty grains 
deposited at the depth of eight inches only 
two came up, and these formed no heads; at seven 
inches one-fourth came up, but formed no heads. Ten 
of the fifty came up when covered five inches deep, | 
but had defective heads. At four inches covering 
there were a few perfect heads, but most were defect¬ 
ive. Of those covered three inches all came up; but 
the best yield was from those covered only two inches 
deep. The condition of the soil as to moisture is not 
stated, nor the state of the season, but we should infer { 
it was moist,or those planted three inches would have 
been better than those at two. The same experimcn- j 
ter says he prefers to cover his wheat one inch and j 
never more than two. 

It is said by persons who have taken the trouble to 
compute it, that the average number of ears of wheat 
on an acre of ground is about i,2oo,ooo,and this with¬ 
out reference to the quantity of seed. With thin 
seeding the stools thicken considerably, and with 
thick seeding they are thinned very much. This 
number would give about thirty heads to the square 
foot. 

Chess AND Other Weeds. Chess seed often abounds 
in wheat unnoticed, as its appearance resembles that 
of wheat, especially poor wheat. It is consequently 
often sown with seed wheat that is considered clean. 
When the wheat is winter-killed, the chess has an op¬ 
portunity to take its place. Its seed may germin¬ 
ate in a decomposed wheat grain, and its roots seem 
to be the same as those of the wheat itself; and this 


fact has led some persons to believe that “ wheat may 
turn to chess,” Also, degenerate wheat grains, re¬ 
sembling chess seeds, are sometimes found in wheat 
heads ; and this is another fact which has led to the 
same belief. In procuring seed wheat, if it is not 
already clean, it should be carefully picked over by 
hand during the leisure hours of winter. 

Cockle seed is often present in wheat, and is even 
more difficult to be separated from it than chess seed. 
The weed is known by a showy red flower, and it is 
slowly making its way westward. 

Probably the best plan is to raise seed wheat in a 
field which is entirely clear of chess, cockle, smart- 
weed, etc. Those communities which are free of these 
pests can follow the business of raising seed wheat, to 
supply the market in that line. 

Diseases. The principal diseases of wheat are 
smut and rust, both fungoid. 

vSw?//should be removed by washing the seed wheat 
two or three times in strong brine and intimately mix¬ 
ing and coating the seed with quicklime. Take care 
to prevent a too long soaking in water or brine, as the 
swelling and germination of the grain should not be 
started before it is planted. Smut shows itself in the 
growing wheat by taking possession of the grains, fill¬ 
ing them with a mushy, black substance without alter¬ 
ing their size or proportions. On pressing the grain 
it bursts easily. It is sometimes called “bunt.” 

Rust is a reddish coating on the straw (that 
is, the growing wheat-stems), and is particularly bad 

in “ muggy ” close, 
hot, showeiy weath¬ 
er. There is no 
remedy for this 
trouble, but it may 
be somewhat miti¬ 
gated by harvesting 
at once. General 
preventives may 
be found in select¬ 
ing hardy varieties, 
Fig 1.—Wheat jfast. magnified. elcvated land and 
saline manures, as salt, lime, gypsum and charcoal. 
Fresh animal manures on wheat ground ratherincline 
to create and aggravate diseases in the grain. 

Insects. Several insects are very damaging to 
wheat, worse at some times and places than others. 
Small fields have sometimes been freed from the ma¬ 
rauders by smudges in the evening along the windward 
side. The best thing to do, however, is to prevent the 
invasion of such enemies by selecting hardy varieties 
and inducing an early and vigorous growth. But late 
sowing best avoids the army worm. The Diehl vari¬ 
ety is the best for early August sowing, and Clawson 
for late. Ashes and (piicklime kill insects so far as 
they come into actual contact with them ; but an ap¬ 
plication sufficiently abundant to kill off all the injuri¬ 
ous insects would also kill the wheat. All insect 
enemies are migratory and come and go at their will; 
and all the remedies applied at the time of their 





















1288 


T. 



natural departure obtain more than their share of 
credit. 

Army Worm. The young caterpillars come forth 
from the tiny eggs during the last days of June. They 

are an inch and a half in 
length when fully grown, 
black, striped with yellow 
and closely resemble a 
common cut-worm. They 
have six true legs and ten 
false ones. In general 
they are not noticed unless 
they appear in. great num¬ 
bers and are about half 
grown. At this time their 

Army Worm. (Leucania ^od is SWept aWay aS by 

unipunctata.) Larva, pupa and moth. nre, and they migrate like 
vast armies; hence their name. In four weeks of 
gluttony they accomplish their growth and descend 
into the earth about two inches to pupate. 

In about three weeks (in August) the moths come 
forth to mate and lay their loo to 200 eggs. The 
moth is not very showy. It is an indistinct yellowish 
brown, with a central white spot and oblique rows of 
black dots on the primary wings. The back wings 
are dusky. It flies only at night, and is attracted by 
lights and sweets. They lay their eggs on grasses and 
the growing grains near the ground, in late summer. 

The reason the army worm comes in vast numbers 
and only at intervals, is because their natural enemies, 
other predatory insects, become scarce. \Vhen the 
army worm becomes numerous, these other insects, 
which feed upon their eggs, also become numerous, on 
account of this increase of their natural food, and they 
in turn destroy the army worm. 

The only remedy man can employ against this in¬ 
sect is to plow a deep furrow or a ditch around the 
field betimes, which will catch the caterpillars in 
their march and detain them for a time, and 
where, with a little straw or dry trash, one can burn 
them up. It is best to have the side of the ditch next to 
the grain smooth and perpendicular, so the worms can¬ 
not crawl up. If the army threatens to be a largeone, 
the ditch should be deep, so that it will not fill up 
with the van and the rear pass over them into the field. 

Chinch Bug. This is the most mischievous insect 



Fig. 3. —Chinch Bug, (Blissus leucopterus ) andeggs tar¬ 
sus ; larva after first molt; y", lar/a after second molt; pupa ; hy 
leg ; /, the beak or tubular mouth. 

of all, considering its numbers and its constant pres¬ 



ence. There are two broods in a season, the second 
brood hibernating; the latter, appearing again in the 
spring, makes it appear as if there were three broods 

each year. The first brood 
appears in mid-summer, and 
the second in the fall. Near¬ 
ly every imaginable remedy has 
been tried, but nothing has proved 
reliable. Much cold rain des¬ 
troys them to a great extent, 
and several species of lady-bird 
(pages 887-8) are their ene¬ 
mies ; and it is said that piles 
of fodder, grass and straw and 
shocks of corn etc., are harbors 
for them and, if allowed to re- 
Woy.-Chinch Bug,m-A.z- main, encourage their preserva- 
r.;Sa..?i:r.h=''S?in non and propagation. 

the cut. 

Hessian Fly. There are two broods of this insect. 
The first deposits its eggs from 
early in April till the end of 
May, and the second appears 
in August and September. The 
eggs are laid on the leaves of 
the wheat, and the young mag- ( 
gots, which hatch’ in about four 
days, soon find their way to the 
base of the leaf, remaining be¬ 
tween it and the stem near the 
roots. It appeared in this 
country during the Revolution¬ 
ary war, when hireling Hessian 

soldiers were employed by thei^‘°- .5 — Fiy. (Ce- 

n 1 • i 1 • cidomyia destructor.) 

Rntish against the colonies; 

and it was named as though introduced by those sol¬ 
diers. The preventive measures have been sum¬ 
marized as follows; 



1. It is advised to sow a part of the wheat early, 
and if affected by the fly, to put in the rest of the seed 
after September 20th, which will in most cases save 
the crop. By destroying the first brood the second 
will not appear. 

2. Partially affected wheat may be saved by the 
use of fertilizers and careful cultivation, and if winter 
wheat, the fields may be recuperated in the spring. 

3. It is stated that many of the eggs and larvse 
may be destroyed by pasturing with sheep and close 
cropping of winter wheat in November or early in 
December. 

4. It is advised to sow hardy varieties of wheat, 
especially those which tiller vigorously,—Diehl and 
Black Mediterranean for early August sowing and 
Clawson for late. 

5. Lime, soot and salt are named as special rem¬ 
edies, and it is also recommended to rake off the 
stubble; but too close cutting and burning of the stub¬ 
ble may result in harm by destroying the useful para¬ 
sites, of which there are several species. Plaster and 
other fertilizers, to produce a strong stock, so that 
there will be enough to feed the fly and produce good 


























JVB'/'A T. 


1289 


wheat also. Indeed, it is claimed that nine-tenths 
of all the flies hatched are destroyed by these minute 
parasites. 

6. Rolling and harrowing kills many of the larvae, 
and some farmers rely upon this means alone. 

Wheat Midge. This is a species of the same 
genus as the Hessian fly. It is not so numerous as 
formerly, having been diminished by its insect ene¬ 
mies. It is of an orange color, and so small as to es¬ 
cape notice. It appears in June. The eggs are laid 
on the chaff of the wheat head, next the grain, where 
the little orange-colored maggots soon appear, and by 
sucking the grain destroy it. The remedies recom¬ 
mended are: Get the variety of grain which is least 
subject to its attacks, and then sow fall wheat so early 
and spring wheat so late that the former may mature 
too early and the latter too late to be injured by it. 

H. 4 RVESTING. To make the whitest flour, wheat 
should be cut immediately after the lower part of the 
stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in a state 
of dough, easily compressible between the thumb and 
finger. If cut early, a longer time will be required for 
curing before threshing or storing. But for good qual¬ 
ity of flour and economy, the cutting should be de¬ 
layed as long as is possible, not to waste any in 
handling. Some varieties of wheat have a light and 
open chaff, and obviously require cutting earlier than 
others. Instead of'cutting wheat too early, and let¬ 
ting it remain for days, or even weeks, in the shock, at 
the risk of wind and rain, it would be better to allow 
it to stand longer before cutting, and when cut secure 
it as promptly and as perfectly as possible. Wheat is 
better to dry thoroughly in the straw, either in the 
barn or in the stack, before threshing; there is then 
little danger of its becoming musty. Farmers need 
not regret that this climate is not dry enough to pro¬ 
duce the very highest quality of wheat. They do not 
want to sacrifice too much of quantity for extra qual¬ 
ity, nor do they wish to sacrifice other agricultural 
products in order to raise exceptionally good wheat. 
As every person who will have a practical interest in 
the reading of this article has probably had more ex¬ 
perience and knowledge in the use of reapers than it 
is possible for us to give him in print, we need say no 
more on this jxjint; and indeed the same may be said 
of farming machinery in general. 

When stored in the straw, the grain should be so 
placed as to prevent heating or molding. Unless 
very dry before stacking or carrjung into the barn, it 
should be laid on scaffolds where there is a free circu¬ 
lation of air; or, when in large stacks, put in a cen¬ 
tral ventilating shaft. The latter can be made by 
placing a large bundle perpendicularly in the center 
and drawing it up as the stack advances. Additional 
security would be given by similar openings horizon¬ 
tally, at suitable intervals, so as to admit air all through 
it. If stacked in ricks, have them north and south, 
so that they will dry equally on both sides. To keep 
mice and rats out of the stack, build it_ iqx^n posts 
which are capped by a piece of waste tin or sheet 


iron. Weevil can be limited to some extent by thor¬ 
ough cleanliness of the premises. In general, barn 
storage is better than out-door stacking, as it is easier 
there to ventilate and make whatever alterations are 
necessary to preserve the grain in good condition, and 
it can be kept indefinitely until the thresher can be 
had. 

Threshing. While threshing “from the field,” 
without stacking, saves considerable labor in one sense 
of the word, it is often impossible to economize the 
time and thresh all day from “ dewy morn ’till dewy 
eve,” as the proprietors of the machine feel obliged 
to do, without putting a great deal through too wet. 
Besides, all wheat, after harvesting, will have its sweat; 
and if it is threshed from the field immediately after 
harvesting, it will sweat in the bin and become musty; 
and it is said that even if it is immediately milled, its 
flour will become musty or sour. For machines, see 
article Threshing. 

The straw and chaff of wheat should never be 
wasted. When the straw is clean and of good qual¬ 
ity, it is good fodder for live stock during the winter, 
especially in time of scarcity, and is always valuable 
for this object when cut and mixed with meal or roots. 
It is also of great use for bedding for cattle and for 
innumerable other purposes. Finally, what is not 
otherwise used should be scattered over cultivated 
ground and plowed in. See Straw. 

Storing and Marketing. Some farmers store in 
mills and dejxits. This we consider a very bad prac¬ 
tice, Wheat stored in a mill will sometimes bring a 
higher price in a depot or in some other mill, and 
wheat stored in a depot very often will pay better to 
sell in the home market than it will to ship. Wheat 
stored is at the mercy of one man, or market, while 
if his wheat was in his own granarj' he could take ad¬ 
vantage of all the markets, and sometimes of the 
markets of several villages. Every farmer ought to 
endeavor to be forehanded enough so as not to be 
compelled to sell his wheat at any particular time. 

Varieties. The varieties of wheat are much more 
numerous than of any other description of grain, the 
result, no doubt, of the greater range of climates in 
which it has been cultivated. There are more than 
30 varieties of wheat, and several hundred sub-var¬ 
ieties. But the latter term is probably often made to 
include merely such varieties as would be made in 
one season by a difference of locality or cultivation, or 
both. From a consideration of the ordinary modes in 
which nature operates, both in the animal and vegeta¬ 
ble kingdoms, the strong probability is that all varie¬ 
ties of wheat are sprung from one parent stock, 
and that the differences now observable are the effects 
produced by climates, soil, and cultivation; for the 
differences which exist among varieties of the human 
race itself are even greater than those which prevail 
amongst well defined classes of wheat. Thus, all 
varieties of wheat may be arranged under one generic 
head, Triticuin. 

The bearded varieties are now very generally given 













1290 


WHEEL— WHETSTONE. 


up, partly, we. presume, because those in cultivation 
were found too late in ripening, and partly because 
they are much more disagreeable to handle in binding 
and shocking. The attacks of the fly in autumn have 
precluded the earlier sowing formerly practiced (in 
this latitude, about the first week in September), until 
about the 20th of September, and to prevent injury 
from rust the grain must ripen as early as possible. 
The varieties are thus narrowed to a few beardless 
early sorts, of which the white are preferred by millers, 
though the amber and red varieties seem to be hardier 
in unfavorable locations. Varieties known as the 
Red, May and White, may have been very popular 
and very generally sown until the last few years,since 
which time there has been much complaint of their 
deterioration. The varieties known as Alabama, 
Walker or Lima, have proved very satisfactory the 
last few years. The Tappahannock in certain local¬ 
ities, especially in timbered lands, has succeeded ex¬ 
cellently. The Genesee, Mediterranean and Blue, 
Stem are varieties frequently commended by growers 
in many parts of the country. Butin all these names, 
there is really a vagueness and uncertainty that 
makes the mention of them carry no definite idea. 
There are a smooth white and a smooth red variety 
under the names of Blue Stem, and two Tappahan- 
nocks, and so on. It is even claimed by some that 
the now popular sorts are old ones re-named. 

Spring and winter varieties can be interchanged by 
change of climate and cultivation. 

Winter Wheat. In Western New York the Im- ! 
proved Flint is one of the best varieties, the grain be- ^ 
ing plump and white, and yielding a large proportion 
of choice flour. It is not easily shattered out of the 
head in harvesting. The White May of Virginia is 
still a good bearer and very heavy; it escapes rust by 
ripening early. The Wheatland Red produces well 
and ripens early. The Kentucky White-bearded, j 
Hutchinson or Canadian Flint is very popular in 
AVestern New York, being hardy and productive, with 
a short, plump berry, weighing 64 |X)unds to the 
bushel; it does not tiller as well as some other varie¬ 
ties, and it shells easily. The White Provence is a 
favorite in some localities, being specially adapted to 
the finest calcareous wheat soils. The Blue Stem, in¬ 
cluding the Smooth White and the Smooth Red sub- 
varieties, has been known to resist smut and rust in 
sections of the country where all other kinds were 
affected. The Mediterranean is a coarse wheat with 
a thick skin, yielding a dark flour. It resists rust 
and the fly, is a good bearer, and may be profitably 
grown where other choice kinds fail. The Egyptian, 
Smyrna, Reed, Many-Spiked, or Wild-Goose wheat is 
also a hardy variety, with a thick, heavy straw, which 
prevents its lodging. The Clawson, a new variety, is 
the most productive of all in Michigan. Throughout 
the West the Diehl and Fultz are very popular. 
Midge-proof, Amber, and other new sorts promise 
well. The Fife is the celebrated Minnesota wheat. 
The Prussian or Judkin looks like Fife, but the head 
is longer. It is a soft wheat with a very bright straw. 


Spring Wheat. The Black Sea wheat is one of the 
most popular kinds at present cultivated. There are 
two sub varieties, the Red and the White or Silver- 
Chaff, both of which are bearded; the former is gen¬ 
erally preferred. They are soft-strawed and liable to 
fall down. The Siberian, another valuable variety, 
produces a full, fine grain, is hardy and a good 
bearer. The Italian has been very iX)pular, but is 
now giving place to new varieties. Other varieties, 
good for certain sections, are Sandomirka (a new 
Polish kind). Gold Medal, Red Mammoth, White 
Michigan, Oran, Odessa, April, Arnautka, Bismarck, 
Chamberlin, etc.; but some of these names may be 
synonyms for others. 

New varieties of wheat are created by hybridizing, 
that is, impregnating the female flowers on one plant 
byr the pollen from the male organ of another. By 
this means a product worthy of propagation is now 
and then brought forth. Observation will sometimes 
detect a new variety of wheat in the field, the result 
of accidental crossing. Propagation of new varieties 
may be done with incredible rapidity by dividing the 
plant. In one year, in England, one grain was made 
to produce 386,840. 

Wheel. A friction wheel is one which comes 
between the principal journal and the box, to dimin¬ 
ish friction. Grindstones are often hung on friction 
wheels. 

Wheelbarrow. The common wheelbarrow, with 
movable side-boards, as here illustrated, is confessed¬ 
ly the best for general pur¬ 
poses about the garden and 
yard. Dirt barrows are sim¬ 
ply of boards bent down into 
dish form and fastened, on the 
Garden Barron. barrow frame. For 

wheeling filled barrels of wa¬ 
ter, slops, liquid manure, vegetables, etc., it is best to 
have a two-wheeled cart with a frame coming down 
near the ground in front, to hold the barrel. Like a 
truck, the foot of this frame or platform can be run 
under a heavy barrel or box, by merely tipping the 
latter a little to let the platform under. 

Wheezing. See Roaring, page 824. 

Whetstone. It requires considerable study and 
practice to become able to select at a hardware store 
just such whetstones as one needs. There are stones 
composed of good, rapidly cutting grit, and there are 
others so fine as to be fit only for polishing, and are no 
better for the purpose than a soft brick. 

To face oil-stones, take a piece of iron with an even 
mce (it ought to be planed); on this plate scatter a 
little emery of fine sand, about as fine as No. OA 
sand-paper, add a little water and rub the face of the 
stone, renewing the sand or emery and water as the 
progress of the work may recjuire, finishing with an 
addition of water without emery or sand. The task 
need occupy but five or ten minutes’ time. 

Kerosene is the liest oil for whetsones; but on Ar- 





















] — WHITE WASH. 


1291 


kansas stones soap is best. Rub a piece of toilet soap 
with a little water over the surface of the stone until a 
thick lather is formed, and then allow this to dry. 
When to be used in whetting, a few drops of water 
will moisten the soap and place the stone in proper 
condition for use at once. See also Hone. 

Whey, the watery part of milk, separated from the 
richer portion in the process of making cheese. The 
thicker part, thus coagulated, is called “curd.” For 
“whey strainer,” see page 226. 

Whifidetree, or Whippletree, the cross-bar to 
which the traces are attached, in the hitching of a 
horse to a vehicle or load; called also “single-tree,’ 
and “ swing-tree.” The larger cross-bar in the rear 
of these, to even them, is called “ double-tree ” and 
“evener.” The iron bands on a single-tree or 
double-tree, with attachments for hitching, are called 
“ clips.” 

Stay-chains are ordinarily used to keep the team 
even abreast; but a better plan has been invented, 
consisting of a single rod on each side, extending 
from the tongue back of the evener to the ends of the 
latter, where they connect with a bolt sliding in a slot 
longitudinal with the evener, and to which the single¬ 
trees are attached. When one horse starts too far 
forward, the rod on his side draws the bolt, to which 
his single-tree is attached, toward the tongue, thus 
giving him shorter leverage and therefore more of the 
load. The idea is, that, if a horse feels the weight of 
the load coming upon him promptly and with increas¬ 
ing force, as if from a spiral spring, he will be more 
apt to keep his place than when he feels no increase 
of draft until he has reached a certain distance. 

Various devices in single-tree clips have been in¬ 
vented for greater convenience and safety in hitching, 
and some even for safety in cases of horses running 
away, which are not necessary for us to describe 
here. Every teamster, on seeing the apparatus itself, 
must judge for himself what he shall choose. Many 
of these devices are, in fact, of eqifal value, and there 
is no choice between them. 

For plowing in orchards, it is important to have the 
outer clips rounding or covered with something elas¬ 
tic, as cloth or leather, to prevent barking the trees. 

For three-horse eveners, see page 362. 

Whip-saw, a large saw, worked by a man at one 
end, with a wooden spring at the other. 

Whisk, a small brush; a culinary instrument for 
beating eggs, etc. 

Whisky, a strong spirit distilled from the fermented 
mash of corn, barley, wheat, or other grains. 

Whistling, or roaring, in horses: see page 824. 

White Lead, carbonate of lead, used in painting and 
for many other purposes. 

White Swelling, a formidable scrofulous swelling 
of some joint, generally of the knee or hip joint. 
Treatment, same as for scrofula. 


White Vitriol, sulphate of zinc. See Vitriol. 

Whitewash. Besides the directions and recipes 
given in the articles Calcimining and Painting, we 
wish to add the following recipes for making white¬ 
wash for both inside and outside use. 

To Mix Whitewash. Pour boiling water on un¬ 
slacked lime, and stir it occasionally while it is slack¬ 
ing, as it will make the paste smoother. To i peck 
of lime add a quart of salt and ^ ounce of indigo dis¬ 
solved in water, or the same quantity of Prussian blue 
finely powdered; add water to make it the proper 
thickness to put on a wall. i pound soap will give 
gloss. 

An Excellent Whitewash. Take half a bushel 
of unslacked lime, and slack it with boiling water, 
cover it during the process. Strain it and add a peck 
of salt dissolved in warm water, three pounds of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste put in boiling hot, 
half a pound of Spanish whiting and a pound of clear 
glue dissolved in warm water; mix and let it stand 
two or three days. Keep in a kettle, and put on as 
hot as possible with a bVush. 

A Durable Whitewash. For one barrel of color 
wash, half a bushel white lime, three pecks hydraulic 
cement, ten poqnds umber, ten pounds ochre, one 
ix)und Venetian red, quarter pound lampblack. 
Slack the lime; cut the lampblack with vinegar; mix 
well together; add the cement and fill the barrel with 
water. Let it stand twelve hours before using, and 
stir frequently while putting it on. This is not white, 
but of a light stone color, without the unpleasant glare 
of white. The color may be changed by adding more 
or less of the colors named, or other colors. This 
wash covers well, needing only one coat, and is super¬ 
ior to anything known, excepting oil paint. A rough 
board barn washed with this has been known to look 
well for five years, and even longer, without renewing. 
The cement hardens, but on a rough surface will not 
scale. 

Brilliant Whitewash. Take half a bushel of 
unslacked lime, slack it with boiling water, cover it 
during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the 
liquid through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a 
peck of salt, previously well dissolved in water; 3 
pounds of ground rice, boiled to a thin paste, and 
stirred in boiling hot; half a pound of ^xiwdered 
Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean glue, which has 
been previously dissolved by soaking it well; and 
then hang it well over a slow fire, in a small kettle 
with a large one filled with water. Add 5 gallons of 
hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand 
a few days covered from the dirt. It should be put 
on right hot; for this purpose it can be kept in a ket¬ 
tle on a portable furnace. It is said that about a 
pint of this mixture will cover a square yard upon the 
outside of a house if properly applied. Brushes more 
or less small may be used according to the neatness 
of the job required. It answers as well as oil paint 
for wood, brick or stone, and is cheaper. It retains 
its brilliancy for many years. There is nothing of the 








1292 


WHITLO W— WINDMILLS. 


kind that will compare with it, either for inside or out¬ 
side walls. Coloring matter may be put in, and made 
of any shade you like. Spanish brown stirred in will 
make it a red or pink, more or less deep according to' 
the quantity. A delicate tinge of this is very pretty for 
inside walls. 

Durable Whitewash. Before putting in the lime, 
which should be unslacked, into the water, satu¬ 
rate the water with a little salt. This will make a 
wash that cannot be rubbed off, nor crack, and is very 
lasting. 


Whitlow, felon: see page 440. 

Whooping-cough: see Hooping-cough, page 670. 

Whortleberry: see Huckleberry. 

Will, is the legal declaration of a man’s inten¬ 
tions which he wills to be performed after his death. 
It is either written or verbal. There is no form 
prescribed by law. Any language which clearly ex¬ 
presses the intention of the testator is sufficient. Any 
person, married or single, male* or female, of sound 
mind and of sufficient discretion, liberty and free will, 
may devise his separate property or any interest 
he may have in any other. Wills should be signed 
in the presence of two witnesses. 

Willow. About a score of species of willow are 
found native in the Northern States. Their principal 
use is to bind embankments and sand dunes, border 
streams, cover wet places in the form of copses, and 
one or two species to make baskets. The white wil¬ 
low was recommended many years ago for live fences 
in the wet grounds of the West, but the experiment 
proved worthless. To kill willows, cut them close to 
the ground in February or March to encourage the 
wood growth, and then cut again about the middle of 
the succeeding August. If any sprout after that keep 
them cut back and the roots must perish. 


Winch, a bent handle or right-angled lever, for 
turning a wheel or grindstone, or producing rotary 
motion for other purposes. 


Wind. The velocities of the various winds, as 
named, are as follows: 


1. Very light breeze. 

2. Gentle breeze. 

3. Fresh breeze. 

4. Strong wind. 

5. High wind. 

6. Gale. 

7. Strong gale. 

8. Violent gale. 

9. Hurricane.. 

10. Most violent hurricane. 

See also Tornadoes, and Weather. 


Miles per hour. 


4 

12 

25 

35 

45 

60 

75 

90 

100 


Wind Galls, soft but elastic swellings on the bone. 
See page 839. 

Windlass, a revolving beam, worked with a crank, 
for raising heavy weights by a rope or chain. 


Windmills. Windmills have been known for many 
centuries, but their simple and rude construction has 
required constant care in regulating to perform their 
required work, or prevent disasters from storms. Small 

windmills with 
fixed sails, if not 
more than four 
feet in diameter, 
and Strougly 
made, may be 
used for pump- 
i n g water on 
farms, without 
any self-regulat¬ 
ing contrivance. 


If much larger, 
they should be 
supplied with a 
s e 1 f - governor, 
and a simple ar- 
rangem en t to 
make them so, is 
to counterpoise 
by a weight the 
force employed 
to bring the sails 
against the wind. 
When the wind 
is moderate, the 



Fig. I. —Enterprise Windviill. 


weight bears down and forces the windmill into a 
position to receive its full force; when it becomes 
more violent, the weight is lifted by it, and the wind¬ 
mill swings around with its edge against the wind, 
and its motion is thus lessened, or entirely arrested. 
Of this construction is the Eclipse windmill. In a 
third-class, of which the Halladay mill is a prominent 
representative, the circle of fans remains facing the 
wind at all times,but their degree of angle to the wind 
is regulated by centrifugal force, and the greater the 
velocity of wind, the more nearly the fans are turned 
edgewise to the current. 

The wind which sweeps overhead in every part of 
the country, possesses in the aggregate an immense 
amount of power, a force equal to many thousand 
.horses being exerted everywhere, without being brought 
into practical use. Wind power has some special ad¬ 
vantages. Water power exists in certain localities 
only; wind blows over the whole face of the earth. 
Wind may be employed in places where other kinds 
of power are not to be had, and more especially on 
broad level plains. In the Western States it has 
proved of great value. Its only drawback is the ex¬ 
treme irregularity of its currents. Hence the ingenu¬ 
ity of inventors in providing means to meet this 
difficulty by self-regulating contrivances. 

The most useful wind is one that moves at the rate 
of about fifteen miles per hour, and at any velocity 
between eight and twenty miles it does good work. 

Among the most prominent of windmill makers in 
the United States are the following, with a statement 
of some of the chief characteristics of their mills: 






























WINDMILLS 


1293 


Mast, Foos 6c Co., Springfield, Ohio, manufacture 
the “ Iron Turbine Wind Engine,” the wheel and vanes 
of which are made of sheet-iron. It has what is 
termed a “ solid wheel.” It is self-regulating, turning 
edgewise to hard gales, and is made from 8 to 14 feet 
in diameter. 

E. Stover & Brother, Freeport, 111 ., make another 


miles an hour, possesses a force of about 25-hos6e 
power. 

Halladay’s windmill has been in use more than 20 
years. It is a steady-running, self-regulating wind¬ 
mill, admitting of a diameter of 60 feet, which, with a 
wind of 15 miles an hour, has 40-horse power. The 
power varies from one-half-horse power for the small- 



Fig. 2 .—Tut 

solid-wheel wind engine, operating as a self-regulator 
in a similar manner, with details of construction to 
give it efficiency. 

The Eclipse Windmill Company, of Beloit, Wiscon¬ 
sin, manufacture a solid-wheel windmill, which is 
regulated by turning the whole wheel edgewise to the 
wind in strong gales. There are several sizes, from 8 
to 45 feet in diameter; the latter size, with wind 15 


ine IVindmill. 

est (eight feet in diameter) to 40-horse power for the 
largest, with wind 15 miles an hour. 

The Challenge Mill Company, of Batavia, Ill., con¬ 
struct an efficient windmill, which is made self-regu¬ 
lating by the combined action of centrifugal force and 
of the pressure of the wind. A movable weight on a 
regulating lever (within reach of a person on the 
ground) can be adjusted to hold the mill against a re- 


















































































































































1294 


WINDOIV— IVINE. 


sistance effecting from lo to 40 revolutions in a min¬ 
ute, and no increased velocity of the wind will change 
the speed of the mill. 

The Sandwich Enterprise Company, Sandwich, Ill., 
make the Enterprise Windmill (Fig. i), which is 
claimed to have a perfect automatic regulator. 

Besides these there are Leffel’s Improved Iron 
Windmill, made at Springfield, O., Nichols Centennial 
Windmill, made at Batavia, III, etc. 

Window. A window not properly made or taken 
care of is the source of considerable trouble. 

Sash-Supporter. The cheap five-cent spiral 
springs generally used as sash-suppoiters are unreli¬ 
able. They often give way, and occasion one, in 
raising or lowering the window, to meet with some ac- 
dent, as the mashing or cutting of a finger, or a hand, 
breaking of a pane of glass, etc. On the other hand, 
there are costly ones which are but little better, as 
they require the use of one hand to hold them while 
the other is engaged in raising or lowering, and the 
sash sometimes slips from one’s hold and goes down 
with a “ slam,” frequently causing the same accidents 
as with the cheap catch. There are sash-supporters 
in market, costing 10 to 25 cents, which will hold a 
sash tight at any point you may happen to let go, 
whether purposely or accidentally. They also hold 
the sash tight when it is fully down, so that the wind 
cannot rattle it. What is called the Simmons sash- 
supporter is one of this kind. A simple strip of spring 
steel, slightly bent and secured on the edge of sash 
frame bearing against the jamb or casing, is cheaper, 
operates as well,^ but is probably not so durable. Sus¬ 
pending windows by weights, with pulley and cord, is 
popular, but is costly, and in case of breakage of the 
cord, difficult to repair; neither does this plan hold 
the sash tight to prevent the wind from rattling it. 

“Double-glass” windows are those which have 
two panes of glass in each place, with a half or quar¬ 
ter inch of air confined between them. This method 
preserves the warmth in the room and is a great sav¬ 
ing of expense in fuel. Single-glass windows cool off 
the air in a room more rapidly than any person would 
suspect, unless he should actually test the matter. 

Imbedding. Glass should always be “imbedded,” 
in windows. This means that the rabbet is first filled 
with putty and then the pane is pressed in carefully. 
This holds the glass more firmly, and the panes are 
not so easily broken. 

Ventilation. The upper sash should always be 
made to let down, and to b§ let down easily; for ven¬ 
tilation through the top of the window is more im¬ 
portant than through the lower portion. 

Curtain. The common custom of suspending 
curtains from the top of the window interferes with 
the best ventilation and lighting as well as renders 
the general appearance of the room gloomy. It is 
better for the eyes and adds more to cheerfulness to 
have the light come in from as high a point as possi¬ 
ble. Therefore the window curtain should be sus¬ 


pended to a cross-piece or bar, made ornamental if 
desired, at one end of which is a spring, so that it can 
be set in between the jambs at any point below the 
top of the window. The very idea of curtaining a 
window, in the first place, is to conceal from outward 
observation ; and since high windows have come into 
vogue there is no sense in cutting off your sky-light. 
Only the lower part needs curtaining, except from the 
standpoint of custom. 

To Clean Window Glass, see page 571. 

Window Gardening, see Floriculture, especially 
page 484. 

Windrow (win'ro), a ridge of hay raked up in a 
meadow. 

Wind-Sucking: see Crib-Biting, page 772. 

Wine. In making domestic wines the process em¬ 
ployed is essentially the same as that used in the pro¬ 
duction of foreign wines. It is better to gather the 
fruit in fine weather, and not till it is mature, a state 
that is indicated by its flavor when tasted. If it is 
used when it is unripe, the wine will be harsh, dis¬ 
agreeable, and unwholesome, and a large quantity of 
sugar and spirit will be required to render it palatable. 
The frequent practice of using unripe gooseberries 
for making wine arises from a total ignorance of the 
science of wine-making. On the other hand, if the 
fruit is used when it is too ripe, the wine will be in¬ 
ferior and deficient in flavor. After the fruit has been 
gathered, it should be picked over, and all that is un¬ 
ripe or damaged carefully separated from the ripe and 
perfect. It should be next placed in a tub and well 
bruised. Raisins are usually allowed to soak 24 
hours before they are bruised, or they can be minced 
and bruised in the dry state. The bruised fruit is 
then put into a vat or vessel, with a guard or strainer 
placed over the tap hole, to keep back the husks and 
seeds of the fruit when the must or juice is drawn off. 
Wafer is then added, and the whole macerated 
(steeped) for 30 or 40 hours, more or less, during which 
time it is frequently stirred up with a wooden stirrer. 
The liquid portion is next drawn off, and the residuary 
pulp is placed in hair bags, and undergoes the opera¬ 
tion of pressing to expel the fluid it contains. The 
sugar, tartar, etc. (in very fine powder, or in solution), 
are now added to the mixed liquor, and the whole is 
well stirred. The temperature being suitable (gener¬ 
ally from 75 to 85 degrees), the vinous fermentation 
soon begins, when the liquor is frequently skimmed 
and well stirred. After three or four days of this 
treatment, it is run into casks, which should be well 
filled, and left open at the bung-hole. In about a week 
the flavoring ingredients, in the state of a coarse 
powder, are commonly added, well stirred, and in 
another week the brandy or spirit is added (if used), 
the cask filled up, and bunged down close. In four 
or five weeks more the cask is again filled up; and 
after some weeks, the longer the better, it is “ pegged ” 
or “ piled” to ascertain if it be fine or transparent. If 
so, it undergoes the operation of racking, but if, on 









WINE. 


the contrary, it still continues muddy, it must pre¬ 
viously pass through the process of fining. Its after 
treatment is similar to that of foreign wines. The 
must of the strong-flavored fruits, such as black cur¬ 
rants, is improved by being boiled before it is made 
into wine, but the flavor and bouquet of the more 
delicate fruits are diminished by boiling. 

Wine from Sweet, Ripe Fruits. The following 
is a general recipe for making wine of ripe saccharine 
fruits. Ripe fruit, 4 pounds; clear, soft water, i 
gallon; sugar, 3 pounds ; cream of tartar dissolved in 
boiling water, one and one-fourth ounces; brandy, 
two to three per cent. Flavoring as required. This 
makes a good family wine. A superior article can be 
made by using one more pound each of fruit and sugar. 
If it is desired to make a still stronger wine, add two 
pounds each of fruit and sugar. This last is good 
without brandy, but better with it. One and a half 
pounds of raisins may be substituted for each pound 
of sugar, as above. Wines according to the preceding 
directions may be made of gooseberries, currants, 
mixed fruit (currants and gooseberries, black, red and 
white currants, ripe, black-heart cherries, and rasp¬ 
berries, equal parts), cherries, Calpress’ wine (from 
apples and mulberries, equal parts), elder-berries, 
strawberries, raspberries, mulberries (when flavored 
makes port) whortleberries, blackberries, apricots, 
apples and grapes. 

Wine from Dry Fruit. Dry fruit, four and a half 
pounds; soft water, one gallon; cream of tartar (dis¬ 
solved), one pound; brandy, one and a half to two per 
cent. For a superior article use five and a half pounds 
dried fruit. A strong wine is made by using seven and 
a half pounds of dried fruit. 

The following recipes for making special wines are 
added to the above general directions; 

Cider Wine. Let the new cider from sour applfs 
fermer^ from one to three weeks, as the weather is 
warm or cool. When it has attained to a lively fer- 
me;ntation, add to each gallon, according to its acid¬ 
ity, from one-half to two pounds white, crushed sugar, 
and let the whole ferment until it possesses precisely 
the taste which is desired to be permanent. In this 
condition pour out a quart of the cider, and add for 
each gallon one-fourth ounceof sulphite (not sulphate) 
of lime. Stir the powder and cider until intimately 
mixed, and return the emulsion to the fermenting 
liquid. Agitate briskly and thoroughly for a few mo¬ 
ments, and then let the cider settle. Fermentation 
will cease at once. When, after a few days, the cider 
has become clear, draw off carefully to avoid the sedi¬ 
ment, and bottle. 

Honey or Mead Wine. Honey, 20 pounds; ci¬ 
der, 12 gallons; ferment, then add rum, Yz gallon; 
brandy, Y gallon; red or white tartar (dissolved), 6 
ounces; bitter almonds, each ounce. The process 
of clearing, fermenting and bottling is similar to the 
last recipe. 

Another: Four pounds of honey and i ounce of 
hops to each gallon of water; boil three hours and 

82 


129s 


skim till clear; when lukewarm add yeast on toast, and 
when worked, barrel off. Should not be bottled for 
twelve months; if left in barrel for two years all the 
better. 

Honey Mead. Take a quantity of spring water, 
fully below blood-heat temperature, and dissolve with 
honey until the compound will bear an egg up to a 
shilling breadth. Boil for an hour; add the requisite 
quantity of mace, cloves, nutmegs, cinnamon, and a 
root of ginger; mix the whole together with a lemon, 
a sprig of sweet briar and one of rosemary (the latter 
two being tied together); after a short boil, let the 
liquor stand on the spices till next day, then strain 
carefully through a fine sieve into a clean earthenware 
vessel; let it remain six weeks and then bottle, when 
it is fit to drink. 

Wine from Unripe Fruits and Rhubarb. Here 
is a specimen process for making wine of unripe grapes, 
currants, gooseberries and rhubarb; Gather the fruit 
when it is nearly full grown, but before it shows the 
least sign of ripening. Any kind will do, but it is de¬ 
sirable to avoid selecting those that will be high-fla¬ 
vored when ripe. All unsound and bruised fruit should 
be discarded, and the stalks and remains of blossoms 
removed by picking or rubbing. Take 40 pounds of 
fruit, and bruise, in small quantities, in a tub which 
will hold 15 or 20 gallons, sufficient pressure only be¬ 
ing used to burst the berries without breaking the 
seeds or much compressing the skins. Four gallons 
of water should then be poured on the fruit, which is 
to be carefully stirred and squeezed with the hands 
until the whole of the juice and pulp are separated 
from the solid matter. Let it rest for a few hours, 
then press and strain through a coarse canvass bag, 
with considerable force. One gallon of water may be 
passed through the residue to remove any soluble 
matter that may be left, and the washing added to the 
juice. Dissolve 30 pounds of loaf sugar in the juice, 
and have the total quantity of liquid raised to 10 Y 
gallons by the addition of water. Put the liquor in a 
tub, spread on a blanket, and cover with aboard, plac¬ 
ing in a temperature of 55 to 60 degrees, for from 24 
to 48 hours, according to the signs it may show of fer¬ 
mentation ; then put in a cask to ferment. The cask 
must be of such size that the liquor will nearly reach 
the bung-hole, so that the scum may runout as itrises. 
As the fermentation goes on the liquor will decrease, 
and the cask may be kept filled nearly to the bung- 
hole with a portion of the “ must ” which has been re¬ 
served for that purpose. When the fermentation has 
become a little weaker, which may be known by the 
hissing noise decreasing, drive in the bung, put in a 
spile, made of tough wood, in a hole bored in the top 
of the barrel. After a few days loosen this peg to let 
out the carbonic-acid gas that may have been gener¬ 
ated. This must be done frequently, till there is no 
more sign of the gas. During the winter keep the 
wine in a cool cellar, and bottle on a clear day at the 
end of February or on the first of March. But to in¬ 
sure its fineness it is preferable to draw it offattheend 
of December into a fresh cask, so as to clear it from 







1296 


WORMS— WOLF rEETH. 


the lees. When it is transferred to the fresh cask it 
should be fined with isinglass. (See next paragraph 
but one.) Sometimes it is desirable to rack it off a 
second time, into a fresh cask, again fining it. 

Ginger Wine. Boil 20 pounds of sugar in 7 gallons 
of water for half an hour, skimming it well; then put 
9 ounces bruised ginger in a portion of the liquor, and 
mix all together. When nearly cold put 9 pounds of 
raisins,chopped very small, into a 9-gallon cask; four 
lemons sliced, after taking out the seeds, and pour 
the liquor over all, with a half pint of yeast. Leave 
the cask open for three weeks, keeping it filled up 
with some of the reserved liquor and bottle it from 
six to nine months. 

To Fine Wine. Take one pound finely shredded 
isinglass, macerate 
it in wine, sour 
beer, cider or vin¬ 
egar ; add more of 
the liquor as the 
isinglass swells, 
until about a gal¬ 
lon has been used; 
agitate occasion¬ 
ally for the pur- 
jxDse of promoting 
the solution. As 
soon as the whole 
of the isinglass is 
dissolved, the mix¬ 
ture is reduced to 
the consistence of 
thin syrup with 
wine or the liquids 
that the finings are 
intended for. The 
whole is next 
strained through 
a cloth or hair 
sieve, and at once 
reduced to a prop¬ 
er state of dilution, 
by the addition of 
more liquor. A 
pound of good 
isinglass will make 10 or 12 gallons of finings. 
The same process can be employed in fining cider, ale 
or porter, using i to i ^ pints to a barrel of ale or por¬ 
ter, and I quart for a hogshead of wine or cider. 

To Remedy Ropiness in Wine. Use one pound of 
bruised berries of the mountain ash, somewhat unripe, 
stir well in each barrel of wine, agitate, leave to re¬ 
pose a day, and then rack off. Wines after having 
been cured of ropiness should be immediately fined 
and bottled. 

To Remedy Sour Wine. The only safe remedy 
for the souring of wine is the cautious addition ofalit- 
tle neutral tartrate of potash. It may also be mixed 
with a larger quantity of mixed wine of its kind, at the 



same time adding a little good brandy. Wine treated 
in this way should be fined after having stood two or 
three weeks, and then immediately bottled, and con¬ 
sumed as soon as possible; for it will never prove a 
good keeping wine. 

'I'o Remove Mustiness. The disagreeable taste 
in wine, generally known as mustiness, is occasioned 
by the presence of an essential oil. This may gener¬ 
ally be removed by adding a little sweet or almond 
oil, and afterwards violently agitating the wine. The 
fixed oil attracts and seizes the essential oil, and rises 
with it to the surface, when it is.easily skimmed off, or 
the liquid under it drawn off. A few slices of toasted 
bread, or a little bruised mustard seed, or coarsely 
powdered charcoal, will often have the same effect. 

Wire-Worms, 
the larvae of spring 
beetles. See page 
872, and the re¬ 
spective plants 
most infested with 
them. 

Witch Grass, 
called also “quick,” 
“couch,” and 
“quack” grass, 
etc., is the most 
troublesome grass 
known. Although 
it is excellent 
forage, it is often 
desirable to kill it, 
which is very diffi¬ 
cult to do. Con¬ 
stant stirring o f 
the soil will gener¬ 
ally be successful, 
but plowmg late in 


IV oodcock s 


the fall aud har¬ 
rowing early in the 
spring will do more 
than any other 
single plowing and 
harrowing. Seed¬ 
ing to clover has 
been known to run it out, and thorough pasturing by 
sheep has also accomplished the same result. Going 
over the ground frequently, during a summer fallow, 
and picking up every root and spear visible will 
hasten the work of destruction. 

Withe, a tough, slender switch, generally hickory 
or willow, used as a cord in binding. Hickory withes 
are better for being heated. 

Withers, the ridge between the shoulder-bones of 
a horse. 

Wolf Teeth. This is a term used to designate 
those permanent teeth of the horse which make their 
appearance by the side of the milk teeth, instead of 
forcing them out. 







































WOOD— WOOL. 


1297 


Wood. See Forestry, Fuel and Timber. In set¬ 
ting rails in a fence, in “cording up” wood, etc., 
where it is exposed to the weather, if you desire so to 
leave it that the bark will remain on tight, place the 
pieces with the bark side up; if you desire it to work 
off soon, place that side down. On all fire-wood the 
bark should be preserved, as it is of more value than 
the sap-wood. 

Woodcock. This bird, which is ii inches long, is 
mainly nocturnal in its habits, seldom taking wing in 
the full light of day unless disturbed. It walks about 
by day, however, and feeds by day as well as by 
night. Its food is mainly earth-worms, of which it 
swallows as many in a day as would equal its own 
weight: hence its favorite resort is where these worms 
are obtained in abundance. The moist ground which 
these birds frequent are perfectly filled with bill-holes 
which they have made in probing for worms. These 
holes become a guide to the hunter, who looks at their 
frequency and freshness when he would find good 
shooting. When flushed by the hunter or the dog, the 
woodcock ordinarily flies but a short distance, plung¬ 
ing into a clump of bushes or thicket near by, or a 
thicker part of the swamp. It spends the winter in 
warm climates, but feeds from the Carolinas to Nova 
Scotia. ‘ 

Among the several curious habits of the woodcock, 
its practice of carrying its young is perhaps the most 
interesting. The nests of the woodcock are laid on 
dry ground and often at a distance from moisture; in 
the latter case, as soon as the young are hatched, the 
old bird will sometimes carry them in her claws to 
the nearest spring or green strip. In the same man¬ 
ner when in danger she will rescue those which she 
can lift. 

Wool. In the articles Mutton and Sheep, we have 
spoken of the best breeds of sheep for wool-growing 
purposes; and in the article Sheep-shearing, referred 
to the time the wool should be sheared, etc. In this 
article we will give directions for the mode of wash¬ 
ing and shearing. In general wool-growing is a profit¬ 
able business. Although the price of wool in the 
markets is quite variable, yet there is always a cer¬ 
tainty that it can be sold for something near its real 
value. Wool is a standard article of commerce, and 
has a certain instrinsic value. 

Washing Sheep. The custom of washing sheep a 
few days previous to shearing, which was formerly the 
universal practice, is of late years growing into dis¬ 
use. It is considered cruel and unhealthful to the 
sheep, and indeed useless, as the manufacturer cleans 
the wool before he uses it. Yet, as at the return of 
each spring season comes to the sheep-grower the 
consideration of putting wool upon the market ‘^in the 
grease” or in fleece-washed condition, this question 
is not always to be answered separately from that other 
one, the best time for shearing; for, if the wool is to 
be washed, or the sheep, the washing must necessarily 
be done a week or more in advance of the shearing. 
For such washing there must be found not only suit¬ 


able water, but favorable weather for drying the wool, 
and for insuring the workmen and stock from the 
damage resulting from exposure, as “sheep washing” 
in a cold stream, in the early spring season, cannot 
properly be deemed conducive to the health and 
comfort ol laborers or animals. 

The question is, then. Can enough be realized for 
the fleece-washed wool, over and above what it would 
sell for in an unwashed condition, to repay the ex¬ 
pense of washing, the damage to the animals, and the 
risk of health involved in the exposure of the labor¬ 
ers.? It is difficult to determine how this can be done 
without presupposing that one party to the transaction 
is getting the better of the bargain. An intelligent 
buyer bases his estimate of value of the fleece upon 
the percentage of wool such fleece will yield when 
cleansed in readiness for manufacture. If he knows 
his business, and is as honest as he insists that the 
wool-grower should be, he will pay as much for the 
cleansed percentage before the fleece is washed as he 
will afterwards. In either case the process of scour¬ 
ing by the manufacturer is the same. The policy of 
washing before shearing is thus left to be determined 
largely by the convenience to the [Xjint of manufac¬ 
ture, as the expense of transporting the dirt and 
grease is properly chargeable to the wool, whether 
sold at home or in a distapt market, and cannot be 
accurately determined except as each locality is con¬ 
sidered separately. In such estimate, then, are to be 
taken into account the expenses above enumerated, 
while against them is to be set the cost of transporting 
to market the difference in weight between the 
washed and unwashed wool. Under this rule most 
of the wool would be sold without washing. But the 
fact is, that quite a percentage is still washed before 
shearing—a fact for the solution of which the inquirer 
must look to the ignorance of buyers who pay arbitrary 
prices, trusting that the average will save them from 
loss. Hence it is that the grower is left as his own 
judge of the profitableness of washing. If he has a 
rule, let it be not to wash his sheep, varying from 
this rule only when he has good prospect of getting 
well paid for so doing. 

Some large sheep-raisers have tanks and other con¬ 
veniences on their farms for washing their sheep. The 
usual custom is, however, to wash the sheep in ponds 
or streams. It should be done on a warm day, dur¬ 
ing the latter part of May. The sheep should be led 
into the water and their fleece thoroughly saturated, 
after which they are led ashore. As soon as they 
commence steaming from the heat of the body and 
the sun, they are again taken into the water and 
washed clean. When they are brought out the last 
time the fleeces should be squeezed as nearly dry as 
possible by hand. As the object of washing is sim¬ 
ply to get the wool as clean as possible before shear¬ 
ing, the farmer can devise any manner of doing it to 
suit his own convenience. 

Shearing. Shearing is a process which can be 
well performed only by an experienced hand. The 
fleece should be taken off not too close to the skin. 










1298 


^VOOL. 


care being taken not to cut the skin, nor the wool 
twice. _ Machines for shearing, which perform the 
operation rapidly, have been invented, and may 
eventually supersede hand-shearing on large farms. 
After shearing, the sheep should have protection from 
storms, and shelter at night for a week or ten days. 

The time which should elapse between washing 
and shearing depends altogether on circumstances. 
From four to six days of bright, warm weather is suf¬ 
ficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must 
intervene. Sometimes the wool remains in a condi¬ 
tion unfit for shearing for a fortnight after washing. 
“The rule to be observed” says Jennings, “is, that the 
water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural 
oil of the wool should so far exude as to give tlie wool 
an unctuous feeling, and a lively, glittering look. If 
it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and before the oil 
has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears 
through, the inner is checked, and the wool will not 
keep so well for long periods. If it is left until it gets 
too oily, either the manufacturer is cheated, or, what 
more frequently happens, the owner loses on the 
price. 

“ The manner of shearing varies with almost every 
district; and it is difficult, if not impossible, to give 
intelligible practical instructions, which would guide 
an entire novice in skilfully shearing a sheep. Prac¬ 
tice is requisite. The following directions are as plain, 
perhaps, as can he made: 

“ The shearer may place the sheep on that part of 
the floor assigned to him, resting on its rump, and 
himself in a posture with his right knee on a cushion, 
and the back of the animal resting against his left 
thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the 
point to the bow, resting his thumb along the blades, 
which gives him better command of the points. He 
may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, 
and, proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the 
belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of 
both sides to the edges of the flanks; then back to 
the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool 
from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but 
not yet the back of it, and also the poll, or fore part, 
and top of the head. Then ‘ the jacket is opened ’ 
of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the 
shearer, is changed by the animal’s being turned flat 
upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the 
cushion, and the other gently pressingthe fore-quarter 
of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then 
resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence 
onward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The 
sheep is then turned on the other side—in doing 
which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces be¬ 
ing torn and the shearer proceeds as upon the other, 
which finishes. He must then take the sheen near 
to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly 
trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as 
a lodging-place for ticks. It is absolutely necessary' 
for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise 
the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled 
with the fleece-wool. In the use of shears, the blades 


should be held as flat to the skin as possible, the 
points not lowered too much, nor should more than 
from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and frequent¬ 
ly not so much, depending on the part, and the com¬ 
pactness of the wool. 

“ The wool should be cut off as close as conven¬ 
iently practicable, and even. It may, indeed, be cut 
too close, so that the sheep can scarcely avoid sun- 
scald; but this is very unusual. If the wool is left in 
ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship 
very distasteful to the really good farmer. Great care 
should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, as in¬ 
experienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a great 
damage to the wool. This results from cutting too 
far from the points of the shears, and suffering them 
to get too elevated. In such cases, every time the 
shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut off by 
the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch 
from the hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece 
entire, which is of great importance to its good ap¬ 
pearance when done up, and therefore to its salable¬ 
ness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily 
for itself, so that it will not struggle violently. No 
man can hold it still by main strength, and shear it 
well. The posture of the shearer should be such that 
the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that 
it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; 
but it should not be confined there by severe pressure 
or force, or it will be continually kicking and strug¬ 
gling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always com¬ 
plain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The 
neck, for example, may be confined to the floor by 
placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on 
which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shear¬ 
er who suffers his leg to rest directly on the neck, 
soon provokes that struggle which the animal is 
obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and 
even, perhaps, to draw its breath. 

Good shearers will shear, on the average, 25 Me¬ 
rinos per day; but a new beginner should not attempt 
to exceed from one-third to one-half of that number. 
It is the last process in the world which should be 
hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave 
more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his 
days wages. Wool ought not to be sheared, and must 
not be done up with any water in it. If wounds are 
made, as sometimes happens with unskillful operators, 
a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied.” 

The grow’er is justified in making his wool clip as 
presentable as possible, without deceiving the intelli¬ 
gent buyer. That is, he may roll it in the most pre¬ 
sentable manner, and otherwise display it to the best 
advantage, so long as he avoids deceiving the exam¬ 
iner, who is presumed to know what is the general 
rule for preparing wool for market. Where the clip is 
to be retained for sale at home, it should be nicely 
piled, so as to preserve, as far as possible, the most 
presentable form of the fleece, and be ke])t covered 
from the action of wind and dust, with a fair average 
of the whole within ready access of those who may 
wish to inspect it. When it is to be sent to market 













WORMING— WORMS. 


1299 


for sale, so far as possible the packing should be done 
so as to admit of the best possible presentation of 
fleeces when the sale loft is reached—fleeces of differ¬ 
ent grades and conditions being kept together so far 
as can be. The manner of doing it up is explained 
in the article Fleece. 

For his own satisfaction, and as a check upon his 
broker, the grower should carefully weigh each bail of 
wool before it is shipped, and mark the weight upon 
such bail, keeping a memorandum of both weights 
and numbers. A comparison of these with the re¬ 
turns of the broker often afford material for profitable 
study and calculations in the future. 

Different Qualities of Wool upon the Same 
Sheep. The classification of the “ stapler” or sorter 
of wool is founded to a certain extent upon the dif¬ 
ference in the quality of wool according to the part of 
the sheep’s body upon which it has grown. In divid- 



Fig. 1.— fP'aa/ Regions on a Sheep, 

ing the fleece it is spread upon the table with the 
sheared side down, and the various parts removed, 
and thrown into their appropriate places. The finest 
wool is obtained from the back—the portion marked 

df, d!, in Fig. I. The next best 
quality extends from the thighs 
to the shoulders and covers the 
flanks, marked b, b. The neck 
and rump give the third grade, 
c, c, and the fourth is produced 
upon the lower part of the neck 
and the breast and extremities. 
The principal differences 
that are kept in mind in grading 
the wool are : strength of fiber, 
fineness, and the curl. The last 
point is a more important one 
than might seem at first sight. 
A long straight waive, as shown 
at «, in Fig. 22, is not desirable; neither is the curl 
shown in b, where the fiber folds back abruptly upon 
itself. The greatest elasticity and strength is found 
in the regular and fine crimping shown at c. 

When examined with the microscope the wool 
fibers are found to be traversed with fine oblique lines, 
which gives them a rough or scaly surface; it is this 


which renders woolen fabrics so strong and durable. 

To Restore the Color to Flannel. When 
flannels become yellow from neglect in washing, they 
can be restored by this process ; Mix i pound of flour 
in 2 gallons of water, and stir it over the fire till it 
boils ; then put the flannels into a tub and pour half 
the mixture over them; after standing half an hour, 
wash them without using soap; rinse twice through 
clean cold water; do not wring, but hang them up 20 
minutes to drain. Then pour over them the remain¬ 
der of the flour and water, which must be kept boil¬ 
ing, and repeat the process ; after which hang out to 
dry without wringing. 

Woolen Fabrics. To distinguish wool from cot¬ 
ton in a piece of cloth, boil a small fragment in a 
strong solution of caustic soda, and this will dissolve 
away the wool, without affecting the cotton ; the pro¬ 
portions can then be calculated. A magnifying lens, 
costing only a dollar or two, is useful not only for ex¬ 
amining fabrics, but also for many other purposes. 

See Cloth, Dyeing, Stains, Bleaching, Carpet, Laun¬ 
dry and Hygiene. 

Worming, an operation performed on dogs, con¬ 
sisting of the removal of a vermiform ligament from 
under the tongue. See page 340. 

Worms. All animal bodies are supposed to afford 
habitations for other animals. There are three kinds 
that infest the intestinal canal of man. These are the 
Lutnbricus or the round worm, the Oxyuris or the pin 
or thread worm and the Tcenta or tape-worm. The 
round wonn is from 12 to 15 inches in length, the pin 
worm is never more than an inch long, while the tape¬ 
worm is from 3 to 20 feet long, and often 30 to 40 feet 
in length. The round worm exists sometimes in 
great numbers, and is commonly found in the small 
intestines, and occasionally in the stomach. Hence, 
sometimes it is vomited up, or even discharged through 
the nose by its entering the |X)sterior nares. Its pres¬ 
ence is indicated by uneasiness in the stomach or 
bowels, irritation, and itching of the nostrils; a pale¬ 
ness and puffed state of the lips; foul breath; chok¬ 
ing sensation in the throat; bloated abdomen ; periodic 
or occasional paroxysms of fever, etc. But the only 
sure sign is their appearance in some of the evacua¬ 
tions. 

The tape-worm is flat, half an inch or an inch wide, 
and is full of joints. This worm infests the upper 
part of the bowels, and feeds on the chyle. It pro¬ 
duces a voracious appetite and great emaciation of 
the flesh; and this enormous desire for food, which is 
never satisfied, is, no doubt, occasioned by the imme¬ 
diate consumption of the chyle, or the worm feeds 
upon the extracted nourishment of the food. 

The pin-worms infest the lower end of the bowels, 
are of a yellowish white color, and frequently creep out 
at the fundament. These worms produce an intoler¬ 
able itching, and in children are often the cause of 
convulsions or fits, and frequently produce fever, irri¬ 
tation, and many other serious disorders of chidlhood. 



a I 0 


Fig. 2 .—Curl in IVool, 





















1300 


WORM WOOD— WOUNDS. 


The round worm and pin worm mostly infest chil¬ 
dren between the timeof weaning and that of puberty. 
The tape-worm is more common to grown persons, 
but it has been known to affect children likewise. 

Treat?ncnt. To get rid of worms, two important 
remedies are necessary—purgatives and tonics. The 
first, which is purgatives, is to clear away the animals 
which infest the human body; the second, which is 
tonics, is to correct the debility which usually favors 
their existence. The principal indication is the re¬ 
moval of worms and to excite a healthy action of the 
digestive organs. It is owing to a derangement of 
these that they exist. All bitter substances are the 
best medicines to expel worms in children. Worm- 
seed, mixed with molasses, may be given in the dose 
of a tea-spoonful twice a day. The dose for an adult 
is a tea-spoonful and a half of the seed. Wormwood 
tea destroys worms ; thoroughwort tea, or tansy tea, 
is also a good physic; and pink-root and senna is a 
sure remedy. An ounce of each should be steeped in 
water, and a quarter of the liquor given at a time, 
once a day, for four days in succession. The best 
plan of giving the pink-root, medically called Spigelia, 
is first, for a day or two before administering it, to 
give a dose of castor oil or aloes, rhubarb, or sweet 
oil, increasing or diminishing the dose according to 
the age of the patient. Wormwood is an excellent 
domestic bitter, and will destroy worms. Children 
may take from lo grains to 54 dram of the leaves, or 
as a weak tea. 

For the tape-worm, and also the round-worm, the 
most powerful medicine is the spirits of turpentine; 
half a table-six)onful, mixed with milk, may be given 
to a child between two and seven years of age, for a 
number of days in succession. Adults, or grown per¬ 
sons, may take one table-spoonful at a time, mixed 
with an equal portion of castor oil. 

The pin worm, which infests the rectum or lower 
bowels, may be destroyed by a dose or two of the 
Elixir Proprietatis, which can be bought at a drug 
store, with directions; or by giving a dose or two of 
aloes. An injection of aloes, dissolved in warm 
water, will dislodge them. Aloes is a sure and cer¬ 
tain remedy for this kind of worm ; or an injection 
of common salt and water will frequently have the 
effect to remove them. 

A specific for tape-worm is pumpkin seed, taken as 
follows: Pulverize the seed (the fresh seed of the 
common pumpkin) and after fasting for a day, take 
large doses (2 ounces each) of the seed every four 
hours for three or four days; then take a brisk purga¬ 
tive. This is claimed to expel the entire worm. 

To Drive Earth-Worms from Lawns, etc., give 
a dressing of fresh lime. 

Wormseed, Jerusalem oak, goosefoot. This is an 
indigenous perennial plant, with an herbaceous, 
erect, branching, furrowed stem, which grows from 
two to three feet high. It is found in every part of 
the country, growing plentifully around door-yards, in 1 
old fields and by the roadsides. It flowers in June I 


and July, The whole plant has a strong peculiar 
smell, very offensive to some. 

The wormseed, as it is commonly called, is an ex¬ 
cellent vermifuge. The oil, which is the usual form 
in which the medicine is used, may be given in doses 
of from three to eight drops to a child two or three 
years old. The dose should be repeated two or three 
times day, for two days, when it should be followed 
by an active cathartic. For this purpose, castor oil 
is commonly used. Wormseed oil is often combined, 
by physicians, with castor oil, and put up in ounce 
phials, and sold as a popular vermifuge. 

Wormwood, a well known bitter herb, found in 
some gardens, deriving its name from its supposed 
virtue in exf^elling worms from the alimentary canal. 
For this purpose, however, it is comparatively ineffi¬ 
cient. It is more effective as a tonic. The oil of 
wormwood possesses narcotic properties. 

Wounds. A wound is called incised when made 
by a cutting instrument; when by a jxiinted instru¬ 
ment, punctured; when the parts are torn or broken 
down by the wounding body, the injury is called lacer¬ 
ation ; when, in addition to the wound, there is some 
venomous or poisonous substance introduced, as by 
the bite of a serpent, the injur}^ is called a ^xiisoned 
wound; when the injury is inflicted by an obtuse or 
blunt body, it is called a contusion ; and when caused 
by a bullet or other body projected from fire-arms,-it 
receives the name of gunshot wound. 

In the treatment of a wound the first thing to do, 
especially where blood-vessels are severed, is to stop 
the bleeding. If the bleeding is but slight, or there 
is no artery severed, a free application of cold water 
may be sufficient to check it; or salt and water, or a 
solution of alum in water. If these fail, and the wound 
is open or lacerated, sprinkle on a portion of jxiwdered 
burnt copperas; to make which,burn upon a hot shov¬ 
el a portion of copperas, until it decomposes and be¬ 
comes dry and of a red^color; then pulverize it, and it 
is ready for use. It forms an excellent styptic for such 
purposes. After sprinkling on a quantity of this, 
enough to thinly cover the surface of the wound, or the 
parts of it from which the hemorrhage proceeds, place 
over it a bunch of lint or cotton, or a bit of old 
muslin folded, and apply a bandage. 

If an artery has been severed, which you will know 
by the blood being of a bright red color, and coming 
out in jets or spurts, caused by the pulsations of the 
heart, the only certain way to stop it is to tie the ar¬ 
tery. If it can not be done and the bleeding is very 
profuse, you must send for a physician. If the wound 
is upon either of the extremities, you can stop the flow 
of arterial blood for the time being, and until a physi¬ 
cian can be brought, by tying a cord tightly around the 
leg or the arm, as the case may be, so that it be above 
the knee or the elbow, as well as above the wound. 
There being but a single bone in the thigh and in the 
upper arm, you can, if you make the ligature tight 
enough, stop the flow of arterial blood entirely, in the 
parts below it. But if the w’ound is in some other 










WRENCH— WRO UGHT. 


1301 


part of the body, as on the trunk, the head or neck, 
and the patient is likely to bleed to death, if the hem¬ 
orrhage is not soon stopped, you must look for the 
artery, get hold of it, and tie it. This you can 
do if you will but try sufficiently. Wash out the 
wound with cold water, and then watch for the place 
where the light red blood spurts out; get hold of the 
artery either with a pair of forceps,or tweezers, or with 
your fingers; if you do not succeed the first time, keep 
trying till you do; draw it out a little,and have some 
one to tie it with a silk or flax thread. This you will 
leave long enough for the ends to hangout of the wound, 
by which the thread can be drawnout when the artery 
sloughs off and the wound is sufficiently healed. If 
a large vein is severed, instead of an artery, the blood 
will be of a dark purple color, and will flow out in a 
steady stream. If you can not stop it by other means, 
it must be tied, the same as an artery. 

After having stopped the hemorrhage, and removed 
any foreign substances that may have been in the 
wound, if the wound be large send for a surgeon. 
Should you have adhesive plaster, bring the edges of 
the wound together, and hold it by putting the plaster 
over it in strips of about %, inch in width. Cold wa¬ 
ter is about all that is needed to be applied to a flesh 
wound. Tincture of arnica might be added to the 
water to advantage. A deep punctured wound should 
not be allowed to heal at the surface first, and there¬ 
fore must not be closed vvith adhesive plaster. 

Lacerative wounds seldom bleed very much. After 
having stopped bleeding bring the part and edges 
together as well as you can and retain them by means 
of adhesive plaster, and if necessary with stitches or 
with needle and thread. Then to prevent inflammation 
wash the whole with a solution of ten grains of nitrate 
of silver to one ounce of water. Continue to apply a 
little of this once a day by pouring it into the wound, 
and once a day the tinctures of aloes and opium, one 
in the morning, the other at night. 

Bruises should be treated with the tincture of 
arnica, or cold water, or both, mixing 30 to 40 drops 


of arnica to a pint of water. Keep the wound wet 
by wetting the compress several times a day. 

In the case of gunshot wounds, if at all severe, 
a surgeon must be immediately sent for. 

Wrench, a violent twist, or a pull with twisting ; a 
sprain, or injury by twisting, as in a joint; an instru¬ 
ment, often a simple bar or lever with jaws or angular 
orifice either at the end or middle, for exerting a 
twisting strain, as in turning bolts, nuts, screw-taps, 
etc. A “ monkey-wrench” is one with adjustable 
jaws. 

Writing. To restore faded writing, to make it 
legible, cover the letters with prussiate of potash, 
with the addition of a diluted mineral acid , upon the 
application of which the letters change very speedily 
to a deep blue color of great beauty and intensity. 
To prevent the spreading of the color, which by blot¬ 
ting the parchment detracts greatly from the legibil¬ 
ity, the alkali should be put on first, and the diluted 
acid added upon it. The method found to answer 
best has been to spread the alkali thin with a feather 
or a bit of stick cut to a blunt jx)int. If then the cor¬ 
ner of a bit of blotting paper be carefully applied near 
the letters, so as to imbibe the superfluous liquor, the 
staining of the parchment may be in a great degree 
avoided. Care must be taken not to bring the blot¬ 
ting paper in contact with the letters, because the col¬ 
oring matter is soft while wet, and may be easily rub¬ 
bed off. The acid chiefly employed is muriatic, but 
both the sulphuric and nitric succeed very well; they 
should be so diluted as not to be in danger of corrod¬ 
ing the parchment. See also Letter-Writing. 

Wrought (rawt), old past tense of “work:” preserv¬ 
ed chiefly in the phrase “ wrought iron,” denoting iron 
that has been wrought, or worked. This is the purest 
form of iron known, and is soft, tenacious, malleable, 
ductile and can be welded. When beaten into bars 
it is known as bar iron or merchant bars. It has a 
bluish-gray color, and always contains some carbon. 













X 


toward a yellow 

'KMiQ or to one of those, green being ex- 

^!^p^cepted, in which yellow is a constituent, as 
scarlet, orange,and the like. Xanthic flow¬ 
ers are those which have yellow for their type, 
but can pass into red or white, though not into 
blue. Xanthic oxide is an insoluble white pow- 
* der obtained from a rare variety of urinary calcu¬ 
lus. Xanthic acid is a heavy, oily, fluid substance. 
Xanthium (zan'thi-um), the scientific name of the 


cockle-bur, sometimes called also clot-bur and small¬ 
er burdock. 

Xanthoxylum (zan-thox y-lum; sometimes spelled 
as pronounced), the scientific name of the prickly 
ash, a shrub growing in the woods of the United 
States, and bearing aromatic berries. The bark is 
used as an arterial stimulant and diaphoretic; is good 
in toothache and chronic rheumatism. Dose, for the 
latter, lo to 30 grains of the pulverized bark. 




AM, the tuber pf a climbing, liliaceous vine 
which resembles a sweet potato in appearano 
and taste, and for which it is a substitute. 


Yarn, spun wool or woolen thread; also, 
large, loosely spun thread of cotton, flax, hemp’ 
silk, etc, called “ cotton yarn,” “ flax yarn,” etc. 

Xarrow, a tansy-like plant, common along road¬ 
sides and in old pastures, meadows and waste 
grounds. The leaves are finely divided, and has 
hence been called milfoil, that is, thousand-leaf.. 


Yawn, to open the mouth wide, involuntarily, and 
accompanied with a stretching of the muscles gener¬ 
ally. Among laborers generally denotes a need of a 
little exercise; sometimes it proceeds from the incom¬ 
ing of a fever. 

Yeast: see Bread. 

Yellows, a disease of the peach-tree; see page 
1008: also a disease of the horse; see page 803. 

Yoke, To Make: see page 1000. 





naught; also a point in thermometers 
• which the scales of heat and cold are 

graduated. In Fahrenheit’s (pronounced in 
Fnglish, fair'en-hite) thermometer, the one in 
common use in this country, the zero point is 
T^32° below freezing point, and is the degree of 
I coldness produced by mixing snow and salt. 


Zinc, a silver-white metal, devoted to many im¬ 
portant uses. An alloy of zinc and copper constitutes 
brass. Sulphate of zinc is “ white vitriol; ” see 


Vitriol. Oxide of zinc is “ zinc white,” a beautiful 
white paint, not so poisonous as white lead. 

The best way to polish zincs under stoves is by the 
use of dry paper, rather than by washing with soap¬ 
suds. Whiting or French chalk will be a good aid. 

Zymotic (zi-mot'ic), of, pertaining to or caused by 
fermentation. Zymotic diseases are, therefore, such 
as small-ix)x, scarlet fever, measles, mumps, hooping- 

cough, diphtheria, influenza, all the general fevers and 
Asiatic cholera. 
















































































